Foundation Engineering
SPEAKERS:
SAJJAD AHMAD
REG. NO. 2011-MS-CES-26
ABDUL WAHEED
REG. NO. 2012-MS-CEG-12
Course Instructor :
Dr. Aziz Akbar
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology
Lahore, Pakistan
Contents
Introduction
Principles of Freezing
How Ground Freezing Works
Refrigeration systems
Ground Freezing for Shoring
Applications
Ground freezing is a process of making water-bearing
strata temporarily impermeable and to increase their
compressive and shear strength by transforming joint water
into ice.
Figure: Ground Freezing
It is the most effective and consistently reliable method of
providing temporary support and preventing groundwater
from flowing into deep excavations.
No extraneous materials need to be injected and apart from
the contingency of frost heave, the ground normally reverts
to its normal state.
It is applicable to a wide range of soils but it takes
considerable time to establish a substantial ice wall and the
freeze must be maintained by continued refrigeration as
long as required.
Figure: Ground Freezing
The effectiveness of freezing depends on the presence of water to
create ice, cementing the particles and increasing the strength of
the ground to the equivalent of soft or medium rock.
If the ground is saturated or nearly so it will be rendered
impermeable.
If moisture does not fill the pores, it may be necessary to add
water.
The strength achieved depends on freeze temperature, moisture
content and the nature of the soil.
In rock and clay ice lenses may build up and enlarge fine fissures
so causing increase in permeability after thaw.
Freezing can be particularly effective in stabilizing silts, which
are too fine for injection of any ordinary grouts.
On freezing, water expands in volume by about 9% which does
not itself impose any serious stresses and strains on the soil
unless the water is confined within a restricted volume. With
water content up to about 30% the direct soil expansion may
be about 3%. Frost heave which may occur in fine silts and
clays, is a slightly different phenomenon.
If there is a flow of water through
the ground to be frozen the
freezing time will be increased by
reason of the continuing supply
of heat energy and, if the flow is
large and the water temperature
high, freezing may be completely
inhibited.
After the initial freezing has been completed and the frozen
barrier is in place, the required refrigeration capacity is
significantly reduced to maintain the frozen barrier.
Excavation of a large coffer dam to provide access for mining of a crown pillar left above formerly
mined and backfilled slopes. The coffer dam was created using ground freezing techniques.
There are many ways to freeze the ground, including liquid
nitrogen, brine, carbon dioxide.
Chilled calcium chloride brine circulating through a series of
closed-ended steel pipe in the ground.
The -10F to -20F brine circulates down along the outside pipe
and up through an inside pipe thus freezing the soil around
the pipes
It is a completely closed and tested system so that no brine
goes into the ground.
The methods of ground freezing are reliable and
environmentally safe (calcium chloride is non-toxic and
sprayed on icy roads in many states).
Through numerous equipment improvements, we can
make ground freezing more efficient than ever and very
cost-effective.
Frozen soil can be nearly as strong as concrete and is
impermeable, making it ideal for shoring and groundwater
cutoff.
There are two widely used methods of providing refrigeration
energy to freeze the ground.
Conventional system
Cryogenic systems
The conventional system consists of a primary refrigerate gas,
usually ammonia, being compressed and conducting its cold
energy on evaporation to a secondary coolant, usually
calcium chloride brine which is circulated through the freeze
tube system to cool the strata.
The refrigeration plants used for this operation are mounted
on skid units for easy transportation.
In operation the ammonia does not leave the confines of the
skid unit and is protected by a series of safety systems to
protect against failure.
This type self contained of system can operate at
temperatures as low as -40 degrees Celsius and are suitable
for the larger projects where freezing will be carried on for
several weeks.
Where the construction period is of short duration the
cryogenic system is generally used.
This system uses an expendable refrigerant usually liquid
nitrogen that is applied directly to the freeze tubes where it
evaporates at -196 degrees Celsius and the resultant gas is
exhausted to atmosphere.
Cryogenic systems
The liquid nitrogen is delivered to site by road tankers
and stored in vacuum insulated vessels of up to 100 tones
capacity.
The system has been successfully used for example at a
tunnel face beneath a river and over 1000 meters from an
access shaft.
Shallow Excavations (Small Site)
Shallow Excavations (Large Site)
Deep Excavations
Tunneling
Groundwater Cutoff Wall
Cuts
off groundwater
along sides and bottom to
eliminate dewatering.
Provides
stable shoring
with no internal bracing
or struts.
Batter freeze pipe can be
used to allow heavy
construction traffic along
the top of the wall.
Ground Freezing Shallow Excavations
Bottom concrete seal can
usually be eliminated.
Appropriate for excavations
up to about 40 feet deep.
Cost-competitive compared
to conventional shoring
(sheet piles, soldier pile
walls).
Ground Freezing Shallow Excavations
Allows large, shallow
excavations to be
accomplished in the "dry"
with no dewatering.
Freeze pipes are installed
nearly horizontal using
directional drilling
methods.
Completely seals the site
from groundwater.
Ground Freezing Shallow Excavations
Uplift is controlled by
freezing deeper than the
planned excavation.
Adapts to sites of variable
size and shape with
lengths up to 1,000 feet.
Can also be used to cut off
groundwater beneath
existing structures.
Cost effective to depths of
60 feet or more.
Ground Freezing Shallow Excavations
Can
be designed to
completely
cut
off
groundwater into the
excavation without a
natural aquitard.
Batter freeze pipe can be
installed at any angle to
accommodate site space
constraints.
Can be modified: vertical
pipes on one side and
batter pipes on the other
side.
Ground Freezing Shallow Excavations
Uplift is controlled by
freezing deeper than the
excavation depth.
Very cost-effective shoring
method when contaminated
groundwater is present.
Can be effectively used to
depths of 40 feet or more
Ground Freezing Shallow Excavations
Circular-shape frozen soil wall
provides very strong shoring
without internal bracing.
Has been used on hundreds of
shafts worldwide to depths of
800 feet.
Completely cuts off ground
water to eliminate dewatering.
Generally costs less than other
deep shaft methods (concrete
piles, jet grouting, etc.).
Deep Excavations
A frozen soil seal can be
created at sites where no
natural groundwater cutoff
is present.
May be used in nearly all
soil and groundwater
conditions.
Deep Excavations
Designed to resist uplift
without expensive tiedowns.
Because frozen soil has
very low permeability (less
than 10cm/sec) it is very
effective as a groundwater
cutoff.
A frozen soil cutoff can be
used
to
prevent
groundwater from entering
open pit mines, gravel pits,
landfills and other similar
facilities that are below
groundwater.
Groundwater Cutoff Wall
Eliminates or greatly
reduces the need for
dewatering.
Can also be used to stop the
migration of contaminated
groundwater near streams
or lakes.
Maintenance of a buried
frozen soil cutoff is
relatively inexpensive
making it competitive for
long-term cutoffs.
Groundwater Cutoff Wall
Provides stable shoring to
allow tunneling in wet,
loose soils or fractured
bedrock.
Effective for cutting
off
ground water into tunnel
excavation.
Frozen soil/rock can be
used as shoring around
unfrozen soil or the entire
soil/rock mass can be
frozen.
Ground Freezing in Tunneling
Frozen soil shoring for an access shaft at Bryn Mawr utility improvement project in Renton
o Frozen soil shoring wall around a 20-foot-deep
excavation along Interstate 405 for retaining a vertical
cut during construction of a large storm water
detention vault.
The second was a frozen
soil shoring wall around a
10-foot deep basement
excavation for a condo
located in Madison Park
just 8 feet from Lake
Washington.
Both
involved a 4-footthick vertical wall of frozen
soil to provide shoring and
to cut off inflow of
groundwater
into
the
excavation.
Books:
GROUND FREEZING IN PRACTICE by J.R. Harris
Sites:
http://groundfreezing.net
http://lscryogenics.com
http://refrigeration-engineer.com
http://djc.com (Applications)
http://google.com (Pictures and Figures)
