AIM OF THE PROJECT

The aim of the project is pile foundation testing and installation of pile.

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INTRODUCTION

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 INTRODUCTION
Pile foundation have been used for many years, for carrying and transferring the

loads to soil considered to be weak in structure due to the soil conditions. In the

early stages of development, villages and towns were located in the close vicinity

of lakes and rivers due to the availability of water , and, also, to ensure proper

protection of the area. Therefore, the weak bearing ground was reinforced by the

use of timber piles that were manually forced into the ground, or fixed into the

holes that were filled with stones and sand. The primitive methods of pile

installation were modified after the industrial revolution, and the techniques of

installation by steam or diesel driven machines were introduced. With the

advancement in the technologies of soil mechanics and other related disciplines,

superior piles and pile installation system have been developed.

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 NECESSITY OF PILE FOUNDATION

When the strata at or just below the ground surface is highly compressible
and very weak to support the load transmitted by the structure.
When the plan of the structure is irregular relative to its outline and load
distribution. It would cause non-uniform settlement if a shallow foundation
is constructed. A pile foundation is required to reduce differential
settlement.
Pile foundations are required for the transmission of structure loads through
deep water to a firm stratum.
Pile foundations are used to resist horizontal forces in addition to support
the vertical loads in earth-retaining structures and tall structures that are
subjected to horizontal forces due to wind and earthquake.
Piles are required when the soil conditions are such that a washout, erosion
or scour of soil may occur from underneath a shallow foundation.
In case of expansive soil, such as black cotton soil, which swell or shrink as
the water content changes, piles are used to transfer the load below the
active zone.
Collapsible soils, such as loess, have a breakdown of structure accompanied
by a sudden decrease in void ratio, when there is increase in water content.
Piles are used to transfer the load beyond the zone of possible moisture
changes in such soils.

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 SURVEY OF SITE FOR PILE FOUNDATION

Incepted in the year 2005, Rao Engineering Enterprises is a leading

organization affianced in the area of Manufacturing and Service Providing a

broad plethora of Automatic Soil Compactor, Front Loading Oedometer,

Rock Testing Equipment, Soil Drilling Equipment, Soil Investigation

Service, Testing Services and many more. In their development process, we

assure that only top notch basic material is used by our professionals along

with ultra-modern tools and machinery. Besides this, we check these on a

variety of grounds before finally shipping them at the destination of our

customers. Together with this, our offered facility of customization in order

to attain high level of customer satisfaction has earned us huge number of

satisfied customers.

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 TYPES OF PILE FOUNDATION

End Bearing Piles

In end bearing piles, the bottom end of the pile rests on a layer of especially

strong soil or rock. The load of the building is transferred through the pile

onto the strong layer. In a sense, this pile acts like a column. The key

principle is that the bottom end rests on the surface which is the intersection

of a weak and strong layer. The load therefore bypasses the weak layer and

is safely transferred to the strong layer.

Friction Piles

Friction piles work on a different principle. The pile transfers the load of the

building to the soil across the full height of the pile, by friction. In other

words, the entire surface of the pile, which is cylindrical in shape, works to

transfer the forces to the soil.

To visualise how this works, imagine you are pushing a solid metal rod of

say 4mm diameter into a tub of frozen ice cream. Once you have pushed it

in, it is strong enough to support some load. The greater the embedment

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depth in the ice cream, the more load it can support. This is very similar to

how a friction pile works. In a friction pile, the amount of load a pile can

support is directly proportionate to its len

Fig. 1

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 1 General

1. Overview

2. Overview

3. Pile foundations are adopted generally in the following situations:

4. Low Bearing Capacity of soil .

5. Non availability of proper bearing stratum at shallow depths.

6. Heavy loads from the super structure for which shallow foundation

may not be economical or feasible

1.2 Classification of pile with respect to load

transmission and functional behaviour

Bearing piles:-

Fig. 2

These piles are driven in to the ground until a hard stratum is reached. Such

piles act as pillars supporting the super structure .These bearing piles act as

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 a medium to transmit the load from the foundation to the resisting sub-

stratum.

Friction piles:-

Fig. 3

These piles also transfer their load to the ground through skin

friction. Friction piles are driven in the type of soil whose rate of

increase in strength with depth is very low.

Sheet piles:-

Fig. 4
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 These piles are rarely used to furnish vertical support but are used to

function as retaining wall.

Sheet piles are used for retaining soil that is liable to escape laterally when

subjected to pressure or to enclose the area required for some foundation and

protect it from the action of running water or leakage.

Anchor piles :-

When piles are used to provide anchorage against horizontal pull from sheet

piling walls or other pulling forces, they are termed as anchor piles

Fig. 5

Batter pile:-
When piles are driven at an inclination to resist large horizontal or
inclined forces, the piles termed as batter piles
Fender piles:-
When the piles are used to protect concrete deck they are called fender
piles.
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 The fender piles are ordinarily made up of timber.
Compaction piles:-
When piles are driven in granular soil with the aim of increasing the
bearing capacity of soil, he piles are termed as compaction piles.

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 CAPACITY OF PILE FOUNDATION

Axial capacity

Lateral capacity

Pullout capacity or Tension capacity

The two approaches for obtaining capacity of the pile are

In this approach the pile is loaded to the desired level

In this approach the pile capacity is calculated using some formulae

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 Axial Capacity
The fundamental equation for axial capacity of pile is
QU= Qb+ Qs
Where QU= Ultimate Load carrying capacity of pile
Qb=End bearing resistance= qbAb
Qs= Skin friction resistance= fsAs
Where
qb= Ultimate unit bearing capacity at base
Ab= Bearing area of the pile base fs= Unit skin friction As= Surface area of
the portion of pile embedded in soil.
Qb= qbAb
Where
qb= unit point bearing capacity ( similar to bearing capacity of shallow
foundation) = cNc*+ qNq*+ D N*
c= effective cohesion of the soil supporting pile tip
q= effective vertical stress at the level of pile tip
D= width of the pile
= unit weight of the soil
Nc* Nq*N*are bearing capacity factors that include shape and depth
factors
In the bearing capacity equation the term D N*can be neglected with very
small error as D is relatively small compared to length of the pile.
Researchers Meyerhoff, Vesic, etc have suggested various methods for the
estimation of Qb
The methods proposed by various researchers primarily focused on
determination of the parameters Nc* Nq*N*

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 LATERAL LOAD TEST

Just like axial capacity, lateral capacity of pile can also be obtained by conducting

lateral load tests in the field Steel

Piles Typical lateral load test setup for steel piles See pile

Fig. 6

Lateral Loading is applied through the rod on to the pile by means of a

Hydraulic jack Loading

Laterally loaded pile: theory

The stresses/forces mobilized immediately after the lateral loadis applied, are

depicted below (For piles of other shapes also the same forcesare mobilized)

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 Fig. 7

: Forces mobilized around circular pile subjected to lateral loading( Plan view

The plane x-zis assumed to be the principal plane of the pile cross section.

Due to the moment Moand shear Voapplied at the pile head, each point on the

pile undergoes a translation uin the x-direction and rotation about y-axis.

The surrounding soil develops pressures pat each point to resist the lateral

displacement uof the pile.

The principles of continuum mechanics and correlations with the results of

tests on instrumented laterally loaded piles were used to relate uat each point with

corresponding p. The relationship between pand uis presented as non-linear

curve famously known as p-ucurve (in some literature referred as p-ycurve).

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 All p-ucurves are developed for monotonically increasing static loads and

the static curve is then altered by various techniques to account for degradation

effects due to cyclic loading

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 LATERAL CAPACITY OF PILES

Piles are subjected to lateral loads in addition to axial loads

However for simplicity a pile subjected to only lateral load is usually studied

for analytical convenience.

Unlike axial capacity, the determination of lateral capacity of the pile is a

complex problem.

The lateral capacity of piles tested in the field is dictated by the lateral

deflection criteria of local codes

A vertical pile resists lateral load by mobilizing passive pressure in the soil

surrounding it.

The degree of distribution of the reaction of surrounding soil depends on the

following.

Pullout or Tension Capacity Field test

Just like axial pile load test, pullout load test is done by applying load in the

opposite direction

The load test setup is similar to the axial compressive load test with little

modifications.

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Data required

Soil parameters like cohesion c, angle of internal friction , adhesion factor

between soil and pile material, etc.

SPT Values ( N values).

Average cone resistance in case of CPT, etc.

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 PILE GROUPS

Most pile foundations contain group of piles instead of single pileThe supporting

capacity of a group of nsimilar piles in many cases (not in all cases)is ntimes

the capacity of a single pile-reason being the zone of soil or rock stressed by the

entire group extends to much greater width and depth than that by a single pile as

shown in the figure

Fig.8

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 ANALYSIS OF PILE GROUPS

There are three methods commonly used to analyze pile group:

Simple static analysis: This method ignores the presence of soil and

assumes pile group as an isolated structural system. It also assumes zero

moment at the head of each pile.

Equivalent bent analysis: This method considers the soil sub grade

reaction on the equivalent free standing length of the piles. The pile cap

is assumed to be rigid and piles are assumed to behave elastically.

Elastic continuum analysis: The soil is considered as elastic material that

is consistent through out its mass.

In comparing various methods of analysis, the vertical loads aresimilar,

but elastic continuum method predicts higher maximum load.

The equivalent bent method which ignores presence of soil predicts

higher pile rotations/moments than elastic continuum method.

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 Settlement Analysis

Piles are subjected to the settlement due to the vertical loads coming on to

them from the structure supported by them.

The total settlement of a single pile has the following components

Elastic settlement of the pile (se1)

Settlement of the pile caused by the load at the pile tip(se2)

Settlement of the pile caused by load transfer along the pile shaft (se3).

The formulae for calculating the above mentioned settlements are given in

the next slide

Where,
Qwp= load carried at the pile tip resting on the soil, under working load
condition
Qws= load carried by skin friction under working load condition
L= Length of the pile
Ep= Modulus of elasticity of pile material
Ap= Area of cross section of pile material
qwp= load at pile tip per unit area
s= poisons ratio of the soil
IwpIws= influence factors

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 DESIGN STEPS
Design of pile foundation involves the following steps

1) Calculating the ultimate and then safe carrying capacity of pile of given

material for a given soil data using the theoretical methods or obtaining the

above-mentioned capacity from field test.

2) Arriving at the number of piles required for a given loading from the

structure by considering the group effects on piles.

3) Designing the pile cap, which is usually considered as rigid member in a pile

group.

4) Calculating the distribution of forces , from the superstructure, in the piles

and ensuring that the force on any pile in a group doesnt exceed its safe

carrying capacity.

5) Finally carrying out settlement analysis to ensure that the settlements are

within the limits

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3. SPECIAL TOPICS

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 NEGATIVE SKIN FRICTION

Negative skin friction is a downward shear drag acting on the pile

surface due to relative downward movement of soil strata surrounding the

pile.

The following are some of the causes of negative skin friction

Due to pile or pile segment passing through compressible soil stratum which

consolidates

Due to placement of a fill on compressible soil layer causing the layer to

consolidate

Lowering of ground water table causing the shrinkage of expansive soils.

Under consolidated natural or compacted soils.

If the pile tip is on a stiff or hard stratum, there will be a relative downward

movement of upper compressible layer of soil w.r.t. pile , due to above

causes, causing a downward drag force.

Downward drog (negative skin friction) Fig. 9

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 Vesicstated that downward movement as little as 0.6 inch may be sufficient

to mobilize full negative skin friction.

The down drag will not affect the geotechnical capacity of end-bearing piles

but will increase stresses on the pile and pile cap.

The negative skin friction of a single pile is given by

Negative skin friction load = Unit frictional resistance (downward)* Length

of the pile above bottom of the compressible layer * Perimeter of the pile cross

section

And total downward load= negative skin friction load + live load+ dead

load

For a pile group it can be assumed that there is no relative movement

between the piles and the soil between the piles. Therefore the total force acting

down is equal to the weight of the block of soil held between the piles, the weight

of the piles and the pile cap and the downward drag along the pile group perimeter

due to negative skin friction.

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 DYNAMIC TESTING OF PILES

Dynamic pile testing is fast and effective method for assessing bearing

capacity of the foundation that requires instrumenting deep foundations with

accelerometers and strain transducers and analyzing the data collected by these

transducers.

The Procedure is standardized by ASTM D 4945 ( Standard test method for

high strain dynamic testing of piles.

The testing in addition to bearing capacity gives shaft resistance and point

bearing resistance distribution and also evaluates the shape and integrity (please

refer pile integrity in this presentation for more details) of the foundation.

Dynamic pile testing is a supplement to static testing for evaluating pile

capacity.

The Dynamic pile testing is categorized as

----High strain dynamic testing

------Low strain dynamic testing

High strain dynamic testing is used to provide data on force andacceleration

of pile subjected to impact force. The data is usedto evaluate the bearing

capacity/capacity and structural integrity of the pile as well as hammer

performance, pile stresses and soil characteristics like soil damping

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 coefficients. Pile integrity which is accurately evaluated on site will allow

the engineer to immediately reject or accept the pile.

Low strain pile testing is exclusively used for testing integrity ( continuity of

pile). It also gives information on physical dimension and consistency of the

pile material.

Dynamic Pile Testing

Fig. 10

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 The data obtained from dynamic pile testing i.e. force and velocity

measurements of pile are fed to a software program called Case Pile Wave

Analysis Program( CAPWAP) which is used to simulate static pile load test .

A typical CAPWAP procedure uses the following steps.

1. Retrieve data from pile driving analyzer (collects force and velocity data)

2. Setup pile model

3. Assume soil resistance parameters

4. Perform analysis using one of the measured quantities ( force or velocity) as

input and calculate the other.

5. Compare measured with computed quantity

6. If match is not satisfactory, adjust soil resistance parameters and go to step

7. Out put soil model when satisfactory match is obtained and simulate static

test.

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 PILE INTEGRITY TESTING

A pile integrity test also known as low strain dynamic testing is used to check

Potentially dangerous defects such non uniform cross section, voids,

cracks, etc in the casted pile foundation.

Integrity of pile in its total length.

To determine unknown length of pile in existing structures

When cast in-situ piles are constructed, the following defects may occur, hence the

main objectives in the pile integrity testing is to provide the client/consultants

information about :

a) honeycombing due to inadequate vibration.

b) segregation due to over vibration and improper concrete placement methods.

c) washouts of cement due to groundwater flow.

d) cracks in pile shaft due to shrinkage.

e) inclusion of foreign material causing contamination of the concrete.

f) necking of the pile due to collapse of side walls during withdrawal of the

temporary casings

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 DYNAMIC LOADING ON PILES

The following are the most common situations in which piles are subjected

to dynamic loading

Pile driving Piles supporting dynamic equipment Earthquake

Pile driving

Usually Drivenpiles are driven into the ground by impact force which

causes considerable stresses in the piles.

The forces and accelerations induced in the pile during driving are recorded

using a data logger called Pile Driving Analyzer( PDA).

The data obtained by PDA will be used to study the pile integrity and

potentially dangerous defects like honey combing, cracks, presence of

foreign matter, etc.

The PDA works on the principles of wave propagation.

Piles supporting dynamic equipment.

Piles supporting dynamic equipment are usually subjected to impact and

periodic forces which act continuously for a long time. Thisresults in a complex

soil-structure problem which calls for a rigorous analysis. Foundation for dynamic

equipment is its self a research area. To give a preliminary idea some figures are

presented below.

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Earthquake loading on piles.

Earthquake loading is catastrophic for the pile foundation due to the fact that

it induces very high lateral loading from the surrounding soil and the

superstructure it carries causing a flexural failure of the pile due to its slenderness.

Hence, this calls for a rigorous study of pile response to earthquake loading using

complex mathematical/computational methods

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3.PILE INSTALLATION

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 Pile installation is as important as design. In this section, two types of

methods:

a) Installation by Driving

b) Installation by Boring

Are presented in the subsequent slides

Before going through pile installation methods understand the following

terminology.

Driven pre-cast pile: The pile is casted in a yard brought to the site and driven by

some mechanism into the soil

Driven Cast-in-situ pile: A casing plugged at bottom is driven into the ground and

then the pile is casted by removing or retaining the casing retaining the casing

Bored Pre-cast pile: A bore is made and the soil inside is removed and then a pile

casted in some yard is put into the bore

Bored Cast -in-situ pile: A bore is made the soil is removed and the pile is caste

dat site in the bore.

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 INSTALLATION BY DRIVING

If the driving has to be carried out by hammer, the following factors should

be take into consideration.

The size and weight of the pile

The driving resistance which has to be overcome to achieve the desired

penetration

The available space and head room in the site ( because the hammer has to

be dropped from certain height and also the initial height is approximately

height of the pile + height of fall of the hammer)

The availability of cranes

The noise restrictions which may be in force in the locality

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 Methods of pile driving

Dropping weight

Explosion

Vibration

Jacking ( only for micro piles)

Jetting

Fig. 11

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Installation by Boring

Fig. 12

Fig. 13

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 Fig. 14

HR-180(SOIL MACHINE)

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4.MISCELLANEOUS

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 PILE DRIVING FORMULAE
To develop the desired load carrying capacity, a point bearing driven pile must

penetrate sufficiently into a dense soil layer or havesufficient contact with a layer

of rock. This requirement cannot always be satisfied by driving a pile to a pre-

determined depth, because soil profiles vary. For that reason several formulae have

been developed to calculate the ultimate capacity of the pile during driving. They

are based on Energy Approach and are independent of the soil into which pile is

driven. Some of the formulae are given below. The reader is requested to go

through literature suggested in references at the end. The famous of these formulae

is Engineers news ( EN) record formula. The modified form of this formula is

presented below

Qu= (E WR h)*(WR+ n2WP) / ( S+C)*(WR+WP)

Where,

Qu= Ultimate capacity of the pile

WR= Weight of the ram

h= height of fall of the ram

Wp= Weight of the pile

C= a constant

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S=Penetration of pile per hammer blow

n= Coefficient of restitution between ram and pile cap

E= Efficiency of the hammer

Fig. 15-16
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 STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF PILE AND PILE CAP

Structurally the pile section is designed as column for

Compression plus Bending

Tension plus bending

The pile cap is designed as rigid or flexible.

A rigid ( very high flexural strength between two adjacent piles) pile cap is

designed for one way shear and punching shear.

A flexible ( average flexural strength between piles) pile cap is analyzed by FEM

by considering the piles as vertical springs and then designed for the stresses

obtained from the analysis

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 4.3 REAL TIME PICTURES OF PILES

latral load test Fig. 17

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Vertical load test Fig. 18

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Fig. 19

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Fig. 20

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Fig.21

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 CONCLUSION

Bored Cast in situ piling is favourable than other piling processes. Because

there is no waste of time and materials so it is economical and can be cast

into exact length. It can bear heavier load and transfer it to the ground soil.

Also the transportation cost is not high.

It is not necessary to reinforce the pile in normal cases or in places where the

pile is completely submerged in the soil. But for more stability and

durability of structure we use reinforcement. Over all, Bored cast in situ is

preferable for bearing huge amount of load as it can be cast deep inside the

ground.

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