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Inmune System
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03/11/2009
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Francisca Rivera
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Inmune System

Immune System,is a group of cells, molecules, and organs that act together to defend the
body against invaders that may cause disease, such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi. The health
of the body is dependent on the immune systems ability to recognize and then repel or
destroy these invaders.

Lymphatic system

The lymphatic system consists of organs, ducts, and nodes. It transports a watery clear
fluid called lymph. This fluid distributes immune cells and other factors throughout
the body. It also interacts with the blood circulatory system to drain fluid from cells
and tissues. The lymphatic system contains immune cells called lymphocytes, which
protect the body against antigens (viruses, bacteria, etc.) that invade the body.

Lymphocytes are specialized white blood cells

whose function is to identify and destroy
invading antigens. All lymphocytes begin as
stem cells in the bone marrow, the soft tissue
that fills most bone cavities, but they mature in
two different places. Some lymphocytes mature
in the bone marrow and are called B
lymphocytes. B lymphocytes, or B cells, make
antibodies, which circulate through the blood
and other body fluids, binding to antigens and
helping to destroy them in humoral immune
responses.

Other lymphocytes, called T lymphocytes, or T cells, mature in the thymus, a small glandular
organ located behind the breastbone. Some T lymphocytes, or killer T lymphocytes, generate
cell-mediated immune responses, directly destroying cells that have specific antigens on their
surface that are recognized by the killer T cells. Helper T lymphocytes, a second kind of T
lymphocyte, regulate the immune system by controlling the strength and quality of all immune
responses.

Most contact between antigens and lymphocytes occurs in the lymphoid organs the lymph
nodes, spleen, and tonsils, as well as specialized areas of the intestine and lungs .Mature
lymphocytes constantly travel through the blood to the lymphoid organs and then back to the
blood again.
 Antibodies and antigens

An antigen is a substance that prompts the generation of antibodies and can cause an
immune response

One of the characteristics of adaptive immunity is that it is specific: Each response is a specific
type of invading antigen. Each lymphocyte, as it matures, makes an antigen receptor that is, a
specific structure on its surface that can bind with a matching structure on the antigen like a
lock and key. Although lymphocytes can make billions of different kinds of antigen receptors,
each individual lymphocyte makes only one kind. When an antigen enters the body, it activates
only the lymphocytes whose receptors match up with it.

When an antigen enters a body cell, certain transport molecules within the cell attach
themselves to the antigen and transport it to the surface of the cell, where they present the
antigen to T lymphocytes. These transport molecules are made by a group of genes called
complex (MHC) and are therefore known as MHC molecules.

Antibodies are proteins called immunoglobulins and are made only by lymphocytes. The
antibody binds to the antigen at the ends of the arms of the protein. The area at the base of
the protein determines how the antibody will destroy the antigen.

Antibodies can sometimes stop an antigens disease causing activities simply by neutralization
that is, by binding the antigen and preventing it from interfering with the cells normal
activities. For example, the toxin made by tetanus bacteria binds to nerve cells and interferes
with their control of muscles. Antibodies against tetanus toxin stick to the toxin and cover the
part of it that binds to nerve cells, there by preventing serious disease. All classes of antibodies
can neutralize antigens.

Antibodies also help destroy antigens by preparing them for ingestion by macrophages in a
process called opsonization. In opsonization, antibodies coat the surface of antigens. Since
macrophages have receptors that stick to the base of the antibodys protein structure,
antigens coated with antibodies are more likely to stick to the macrophages and be ingested.
Opsonization is especially important in helping the body resist bacterial diseases.
 How antibodies are formed

Equilibrium phase:

The first phase is called the equilibrium or equilibration phase. During this time the antigen
equilibrates between the vascular and extravascular compartments by diffusion. This is
normally a rapid process. Since particulate antigens don't diffuse, they do not show this phase.

Catabolic decay phase:

In this phase the host's cells and enzymes metabolize the antigen. Most of the antigen is taken
up by macrophages and other phagocytic cells. The duration will depend upon the immunogen
and the host.

Immune elimination phase:

In this phase newly synthesized antibody combines with the antigen producing
antigen/antibody complexes which are phagocytosed and degraded. Antibody appears in the
serum only after the immune elimination phase is over.
 Artificial immunity: passive and active forms

Active Immunization

Active immunization occurs when a persons own

immune system is activated and generates a
primary immune response. Active immunization
can be triggered in two ways, either by natural
immunization or by vaccination.

Vaccination is intentional immunization against a

particular disease by the use of vaccines,
substances that are structurally similar to the
actual disease-producing agents but that do not
produce disease themselves. Most vaccines take
one of two forms. The first type of vaccine, such as
the vaccines for tetanus and whooping cough,
contains chemically killed bacteria or other
pathogenic organisms. The other type, such as the
oral polio vaccine, contains weakened forms of
living organisms that have been genetically
selected so they do not produce disease.

Passive Immunization

Another way to provide immunity is by means of

passive immunization. Passive immunization does
not engage the persons own immune system.
Instead, the individual receives antibodies that
were created in another person or animal. Such
antibodies can be lifesaving when a disease progresses too rapidly for natural immunization to
occur. For example, if a person who has not been immunized against tetanus bacteria is
exposed to tetanus, the toxin produced by these bacteria would reach a deadly level before a
primary immune response could begin. Administering antibodies against tetanus toxin quickly
neutralizes the toxin and prevents death.

Passive immunization has two drawbacks: First, the person does not mount an active immune
response, so the immunizing effect is temporary and the person is not immune after recovery.
Second, if passive immunization is used repeatedly, it occasionally produces side effects.
Barriers:

Several barriers protect organisms from infection, including mechanical, chemical and
biological barriers. The waxy cuticle of many leaves, the exoskeleton of insects, the shells and
membranes of externally deposited eggs, and skin are examples of the mechanical barriers
that are the first line of defense against infection. However, as organisms cannot be
completely sealed against their environments, other systems act to protect body openings
such as the lungs, intestines, and the genitourinary tract. In the lungs, coughing and sneezing
mechanically eject pathogens and other irritants from the respiratory tract. The flushing action
of tears and urine also mechanically expels pathogens, while mucus secreted by the
respiratory and gastrointestinal tract serves to trap and entangle microorganisms.

Chemical barriers also protect against infection. The skin and respiratory tract secrete
antimicrobial peptides. Enzymes such as lysozyme and phospolipase in saliva, tears, and breast
milk are also antibacterials. Vaginal secretions serve as a chemical barrier following menarche,
when they become slightly acidic, while semen contains defensins and zinc to kill pathogens. In
the stomach, gastric acid and proteases serve as powerful chemical defenses against ingested
pathogens.

Within the genitourinary and gastrointestinal tracts, commensal flora serve as biological
barriers by competing with pathogenic bacteria for food and space and, in some cases, by
changing the conditions in their environment, such as pH or available iron. This reduces the
probability that pathogens will be able to reach sufficient numbers to cause illness. However,
since most antibiotics nonspecifically target bacteria and do not affect fungi, oral antibiotics
can lead to an overgrowth of fungi and cause conditions such as a vaginal (a yeast infection).
 Diseases: caused by bacteria, virus and fungus (two from each)

Bacteria:

Bacterial meningitis
Diarrhea, urinary tract infections, and skin disorders.

Virus:

Aids
Viral Gastroenteritis

Fungus:

Athlete's foot
Ringworm.

Bibliography:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_system

http://uhaweb.hartford.edu/BUGL/immune.htm

http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/understandingcancer/immunesystem/Slide1

http://kidshealth.org/parent/general/body_basics/immune.html

http://www.microbiologyprocedure.com/infection-and-diseases/diseases-cuased-by-virus-to-
human.htm