a | name of an ‘Adrian Moke’ characte, a boy called Maxwell Howse (with all that that name implies for a British English reader: trendiness, pretension, amusing association with a well-known brand of coffee). In the Italian version he becomes Teo Lipton, thereby maintaining al the ingredients of pretension, humour, and even the astocstion with an English drink product, but tie time well-known in Tay. ‘Another work that ilustrates the kind of difficulties involved in translating fictional names is Alan Bennett's stage version of Kenneth Grabame’s ‘The Wind in the Willows’. The character Mole cals one of the rabbits Flaps, immediately conjuring up e series of images forthe British teader. The name reflects the ‘lop-sided’ movement of the animals themselves and also the way the eats ‘Bop’. The translator of this work (Zampone 1994), provides the solution Orecchiclunghe, remaining within the same semantic field, and maintaining the image. The buxom washer woman Bouncing Betty becomes Bety la Prospero in a fairly effortless transfer of imagery, though again entailing the sacrifice ofthe alliteration Betty, in her everyday work, uses @ product called Rinse, calqued on the verb (0 rine: ‘She gos him his ub, washoard and a packet of Rinso soaplakes. ‘The translators strategy in thie cate is to work back from the obvious connotation, producing a name that is consonant with the target language culture. Hence: i daa tinozza, fasseperavare © un paccheto ci saponein cage Solacqua Buta more subtle problem arose inthe translation ofthis work regarding the names of the main characters, who are all animals personified. Toad is tunarguably Rospo and Badger i Tasso. Rat is Tope but this isnot 30 clear- cut; the Italian topo tends to bring to mind a smaller creature (mouse), but other considerations rule against the use of the more ugly sounding Ratt. Firstly, Rat may be a ‘ra’, but only in the zoological sense, as he is quite & sympathetic character in the play. Secondly, the characters often call each other by their nicknames, which are deviations of thee actual names, and easily dealt with in Italian with ‘vecueggatii: Toady/Rospetto, Mole! ‘Talpetta. Ratto would not fit the patter as well as Topo/Tepino. Mole created problems initially, as the translator veished to use the definite article and call the characters If Topo, I Tas, etc. inline with Ialian usage. Talpa is feminine and would require the misleading feminine article; hence the j | j | Lexis ond terminology 38 decision to ue articldess nouns for al of them. And soit can be seen how a ‘whole series of parameters must be considered when dealing with mean- ingfl, fictitious names, but also how cewarding it can be to the translator, and ultimately to the reader, to effect this particular kind of componental and semantic analysia 1.2.2 Terminology Interest in terminology, initially a5 a separate field, and now as a fly: edged discipline in its own right, bas gone hand in hand with the information explosion ofthe post-war years. The constant development of science and technology has led to the creation of a multiplicity of subject eas, a8 disciplines expand, split and create their own autonomies. The ‘expansion of interest in ever wider (and narrower) aspects of established fields of study is dependent on the constant formulation of new concept 36 new ideas take hold, new discoveries are made and new pathways are ‘explored, Such new concepts need to be labelled, and as unequivocably a8 ‘possible, within the confines of inte language st Languages for special purposes ‘The emergence of ditnct linguistic eategorsations based on the idea of languages for special purposes (LSP) has introduced a degree of order into the labelling process, and will be discussed in more detail in Chapter Three. All major languages (English isthe prime example as it has become the international vehicle or the transfer of scientific and technological informa- tion) accommodate a dynamic, ever-growing series of subsets of inter- linking technica’ disciplines, Texts of special purpose languages consist of ppositely labelled tems bound together by appropriate words from the general vocabulary stock So, as concepts ace formulated, terms are crested to represent those ‘concepts in the lexicon ofthe language. The adoption ofa particular term to represent a concept does not, however, occur haphazardly. Hlements of ‘componental analyss and the semantic environment of the subject area, allied to pre-ordained rules of term formation based on pre-existing items, provide a considerate level of consistency in the naming process. None- theless, in theory, ore term represents one concept and should be fice of, any ambiguity. Sometimes the lexical item representing the term also exists in the general language, but is considered to be a separate lexical unit. Atopical example would be window in its traditional and computer-con- nected senses, In other cases the technical term may be mote common than, fits non-technical double; this is the ease with a medical term such as abortion, The same lexical item may appear in diferent subject feds, but it will be falling a different terminological job in each case, and will be translated correspondingly differently. The term enlargement, which in the general language has the basic meaning of ampliamento, translates as ingrosamento in medical terminology and ingrandimvento in the field of photography, ef flap in brain surgery, in aeronautics, in construction Science, and also in the general vocabulary of the language. In fact, the number of analysible components of the item flap will be much more restricted where the item ie used terminologically. Whereas cles ae often required to comprehend a textual message in general language inthe form fof contextual and co-textul items, clues should be superfluous in special language texts. Dictionary definitions of ‘words ae often given in the form ‘of synonyms special language glossaries or technical dictionaries should hot need to follow this practice beeause terms should have no synonym. Ielly, terms should be defined analytically, fixing their meaning in 2 hermetic way in relation to all other asociated terms, though it must be said that very offen this ideal is mere wishfl thinking. Before examining the importance of these distinctions in terms of translation, it is time (0 provide an interim definition of terminology. Juan Sager, who has writen extensively on the subject, and whose ideas hhave contributed greally to this section, formally defines terminology inthe following way: “Terminology isthe study of and the fed of activity concerned with the collection, description, processing and presentation of terms, ice lexical items belonging to specialised areas of usage of one ot ‘move languages. He adds that: In ite objectives it is akin to lexicography which combines the double aim of generally collecting data about the lexicon of language with providing an information, and sometimes even an advisory, service to language users (19902) ‘Transators are, of course, among the principal users of this srvie, both fom lexicographers and terminologsts. AS regards the presentation of terms, dictionaries in the traditional sense are losing ground to modern | | | | subject Geld glossaties which are able to respond to the way terms are classified and categorised, and thereby introduce some order into term accessibility, The generfe and partitive cations subsisting between terms lead to cubcategoriing onthe following model. "Generic refers to the class ‘of objects or concep while ‘parttve’ refers tothe various types within the general ast: pre chesitry spplcd chemistry agricalgyal chemiiry cle chemistry fers poctcides ‘This is of grestassitance in the organisation of data and, in the case of multilingual glossaries, the Elsevier collection of highly specialised technical dictionaries isa prime example of term categorisation coming some way towards helping the translator, by presenting associated and related terms together in easily-accessibe frm, Terms and translators The specialised langaage planning carried out by terminologists is designed tosis the wters of terminology, who in the first instance are the specialists themselves. Iti they who have needed, over the years, the terminological iscipline provided by dictionaries, specialised glossaries, and now ever ‘more eophisicated data banks. In the early days of international informa- tion exchange, the specialists themselves often found they had to function as rudimentary trandlators, They would have provided the snalyical defini- tions mentioned earler which todays translator can look to whea checking ‘whether a bilingual equivalence isto be trusted or not. Their knowledge of the subject compeniated for many Hnguistic shortcomings, but as science and technology devsloped rapidly and efficient international communica- tion was called for, the inevitable process of the division of labour brought professional translators (of varying competence) onto the scene. The ‘monolingual data cilections were followed by bilingual equivalent, initi- ally of limited relsblty, but gradual improvements and ever greater specialisation have now led to the availabilty of a vast range of valid ‘materials But before looking 2 the lates tat information technology andtopical example would be window in its traditional and computer-con- nected senses. In other cases the technical term may be more common than its non-technical double; this is the case with a medical term such as abortion. The same lexical item may appear in diferent subject fields, but it ‘wll be filling a diferent terminological job in each case, and vill be translated correspondingly differently. The term enlargement, which in the general language has the basic meaning of ampliamento, translates as ingrosamento in medical terminology and ingrandimento in the field of photography, cf flap in brain surgery, in seronautics, in construction science, and algo in the general vocabulary of the language. Infact, the ‘number of analysable components of the item flap will be much more restricted where the item is used terminologically. Whereas clues are often, required to comprehend a textual message in general language in the form of contextual and co-textual items, clues should be supertluous in special, language texts, Dictionary definitions of words are often given inthe form cof synonyms; special language glossaries or technical dictionaries should pot need to follow this practice because tems should have no synonyms. Ideally, terms should be defined analytically, fixing their meaning in 2 hermetic way in relation to all other associated terms, though it must be said that very often ¢his deal is mere wishful thinking. Before examining the importance of these distinctions in terms of translation, itis time to provide an interim definition of terminology. Jan Sager, who has written extensively on the subject, and whose ideas have contributed greatly to this section, formally defines terminology in the following way: ‘Terminology is the study of and the fel of activity concerned with the collection, description, processing and presentation of terms, ice, lexical items belonging to specialised areas of usage of one oF ‘more languages. He adds that In its objectives itis akin to lexicography which combines the double aim of generally collecting data about the lexicon of a language with providing an information, and some advisory, service to language users, ‘Trandators are, of course, among the principal users of this service, both from lexicogeaphers and terminologists. As vegatds the presentation of terms, dictionaries in the taditionsl sense are losing ground to modern subject field glosaries which are able to respond to the way terms are lsssied and categorised, end thereby introduce some order into term accesibilty, The gemerle and partitive relations subsisting between terms leads to subcategerising on the following model. ‘Generic’ refers to the class of objects or concepts, while ‘partitive” refers to the various types within the general las fers pence pure chesisry 7 chemistry ‘This is of great asistance in the organisation of data and, in the case of ‘multilingual glossries, the Elevier collection of highly specialised technical dictionaries isa prime example of term categorisation coming some way towards helping the translator, by presenting associated and related terms together in easiy-scessible frm, Terms and translators ‘The specialised language planning caried out by terminologists is designed ‘assist the users af terminology, who in the frst instance are the specialists themselves, Iti they who have needed, over the years the terminological iscipline provided by dictionaries, specialised glossaries, and now ever sore sophisticated data banks. In the early days of international informa- tion exchange, the specialists themselves often found they had to function as rudimentary translators. They would have provided the analytical defini- tions mentioned aalier which todays translators can look to when checking ‘whether a bilingual equivalence isto be trusted or not. Their knowledge of the subject compensated for many linguistic shortcomings, but as science and technology developed rapidly and eficient international communica- tion was called fr, the inevitable process of the division of labour brought professional trandatore (of varying competence) onto the scene. The ‘monolingual data collections were followed by bilingual equivalents, init- ally of limited reliability, but gradual improvements and ever greater specialisation have now led to the availabilty of a vast range of valid materials. But before looking atthe latest that information technology and‘computational Hingulsties can offer, let us examine just bow terms are dealt with in collected form, and how the translator should use ther, ‘The formulation ofa concept leads tothe coining of term ina particular Fanguage, let's say English. For the term to have an equivalent in another Tanguage, let’ say Italian, whichis to have the same terminological satus, the respective conceptual fields must be the same. As Sager (1990:47) explains Coincidence of conceptual field is lkely to exist n the taxonomic sciences, and in other sciences in which there has been a considerable amount of knowledge transfer and linguistic ‘borrowing so that the two conceptual felds show a great similarity. In fact, what normally happens between two closely-related languages such a5 English and Italian, is that terms are either translated satisfactorily, ‘alqued, or borrowed intact. Often a time lag operates between these three ‘options. That is, sometimes a new term is translated immediately and the ‘randlation sticks and becomes an accepted part of that language's termi: nology stock. In other cases, the texm is either not translated because the forcign term is preferred, or the translation does not take hold and loses ground over time to the loan or to a crude ealque. Different users in the same field, eg banking (Financial experts, bankers, clerks, customers), may shove diverse preferences for a translated, calqued or borrowed term, and thus prolong the confusion as to how to translate individual items. For example, the results of a questionnaire given to various operators in the field of factoring (Guotra 1987) showed that English terms were used even Where a translation existed (acceptance/tata accettata) or where a neolo> ism had been devised (advising banktbanca corispondente di avviso det crodizo), but that in time Halian usage can prevail (approved debt/dcbito approvato, aged balanced reprtdistnta dei debii sau). Other terms were found tobe ina state of fx: for example, che term merchant bank is used 8096 of the time and the corresponding Italian term banca daffri 20% of the time. Demurrage enjoys 50% popularity together with spese di contro= stalia. Deposit a vista is wed 80% ofthe time atthe expense of the now & noun) ~ cammsinare,camminata Certainly, the powers of semantic association have made polysemy a ‘ery useful instrument in the hands ofthe language user and itis difficult ‘or the lfless printed page to capture all posible uses ofa word, and even, ‘more difficult to provide a list of all posible translation options. Very