Unit-2 DC Drives

DC Motors and Their Performance

Electric motors are broadly classified into two different categories: DC (Direct

Current) and AC (Alternating Current). Within these categories are numerous types,

each offering unique abilities that suit them well for specific applications. In most

cases, regardless of type, electric motors consist of a stator (stationary field) and a rotor

(the rotating field or armature) and operate through the interaction of magnetic flux and

electric current to produce rotational speed and torque. DC motors are distinguished by

their ability to operate from direct current.

2 DC Motors

Electromechanical Energy Conversion

An electromechanical energy conversion device is essentially a medium of transfer between an input
side and an output side. Three electrical machines (DC, induction and synchronous) are used extensively for
electromechanical energy conversion. Electromechanical energy conversion occurs when there is a change in
magnetic flux linking a coil, associated with mechanical motion.

Electric Motor

The input is electrical energy (from the supply source), and the output is mechanical energy (to the load).

Electrical Electromechanical Mechanical

energy energy conversion device energy

Source Motor Load

Figure. 1

Electric Generator
The Input is mechanical energy (from the prime mover), and the output is electrical energy.

Mechanical Electromechanical Electrical

energy energy conversion device energy

Source Generator Load

Figure. 2

Construction

DC motors consist of one set of coils, called armature winding, inside another set of coils or a set of
permanent magnets, called the stator. Applying a voltage to the coils produces a torque in the armature,
resulting in motion.

Stator
The stator is the stationary outside part of a motor.
The stator of a permanent magnet dc motor is composed of two or more permanent magnet pole pieces. The
magnetic field can alternatively be created by an electromagnet. In this case, a DC coil (field
winding) is wound around a magnetic material that forms part of the stator.

Rotor

The rotor is the inner part which rotates.

The rotor is composed of windings (called armature windings) which are connected to the
external circuit through a mechanical commutator.
Both stator and rotor are made of ferromagnetic materials. The two are separated by air-gap.

Winding

A winding is made up of series or parallel connection of coils.

Armature winding - The winding through which the voltage is applied or induced.
Field winding - The winding through which a current is passed to produce flux (for the
electromagnet) Windings are usually made of copper.
DC Motors 3

DC Motor Basic Principles

Energy Conversion

If electrical energy is supplied to a conductor lying perpendicular to a magnetic field, the interaction
of current flowing in the conductor and the magnetic field will produce mechanical force (and therefore,
mechanical energy).

Value of Mechanical Force

There are two conditions which are necessary to produce a force on the conductor. The conductor
must be carrying current, and must be within a magnetic field. When these two conditions exist, a force will be
applied to the conductor, which will attempt to move the conductor in a direction perpendicular to the magnetic
field. This is the basic theory by which all DC motors operate.

The force exerted upon the conductor can be expressed as follows.

F = B i l Newton (1)

where B is the density of the magnetic field, l is the length of conductor, and i the value of current flowing in
the conductor. The direction of motion can be found using Fleming’s Left Hand Rule.

Figure 3: Fleming’s Left Hand Rule

The first finger points in the direction of the magnetic field (first - field), which goes from the North pole to the
South pole. The second finger points in the direction of the current in the wire (second - current) . The thumb then
points in the direction the wire is thrust or pushed while in the magnetic field (thumb - torque or thrust).
4 DC Motors

Principle of operation

Consider a coil in a magnetic field of flux density B (figure 4). When the two ends of the coil are
connected across a DC voltage source, current I flows through it. A force is exerted on the coil as a result of the
interaction of magnetic field and electric current. The force on the two sides of the coil is such that the coil
starts to move in the direction of force.

Figure 4: Torque production in a DC motor

In an actual DC motor, several such coils are wound on the rotor, all of which experience force,
resulting in rotation. The greater the current in the wire, or the greater the magnetic field, the faster the
wire moves because of the greater force created.

At the same time this torque is being produced, the conductors are moving in a magnetic field. At
different positions, the flux linked with it changes, which causes an emf to be induced (e = d /dt) as shown
in figure 5. This voltage is in opposition to the voltage that causes current flow through the conductor and is
referred to as a counter-voltage or back emf.

Induced emf

Flux

Figure 5: Induced voltage in the armature winding of DC motor

The value of current flowing through the armature is dependent upon the difference between the applied
voltage and this counter-voltage. The current due to this counter-voltage tends to oppose the very cause for its
production according to Lenz’s law. It results in the rotor slowing down. Eventually, the rotor slows just
DC Motors 5

enough so that the force created by the magnetic field (F = Bil) equals the load force applied on the shaft.
Then the system moves at constant velocity.

Torque Developed

The equation for torque developed in a DC motor can be derived as follows.

The force on one coil of wire F =i l x B Newton

Note that l and B are vector quantities

Since B = /A where A is the area of the coil,

Therefore the torque for a multi turn coil with an armature current of Ia:

T = K Ia (2)
Where is the flux/pole in weber, K is a constant depending on coil geometry, and Ia is the current flowing in
the armature winding.

Note: Torque T is a function of force and the distance, equation (2) lumps all the constant parameters (eg.
length, area and distance) in constant K.
The mechanical power generated is the product of the machine torque and the mechanical speed of rotation, m
Or, Pm = m T

= m K Ia (3)

It is interesting to note that the same DC machine can be used either as a motor or as a generator, by
reversing the terminal connections.

Electrical Electrical
Power T T Power
input mT Mechanical Mechanical T m output
output
(a) Motor action input (b) Generator action
Figure 6: Reversability of a DC machine

Induced Counter-voltage (Back emf):

Due to the rotation of this coil in the magnetic field, the flux linked with it changes at different
positions, which causes an emf to be induced (refer to figure 5).
The induced emf in a single coil, e = d c /dt

Since the flux linking the coil, c = Sin t

Induced voltage : e = Cos t (4)

6 DC Motors

Note that equation (4) gives the emf induced in one coil. As there are several coils wound all around
the rotor, each with a different emf depending on the amount of flux change through it, the total emf can be
obtained by summing up the individual emfs.

The total emf induced in the motor by several such coils wound on the rotor can be obtained by
integrating equation (4), and expressed as:

Eb = Km (5)
where K is an armature constant, and is related to the geometry and magnetic properties of the motor, and m is
the speed of rotation.

The electrical power generated by the machine is given by:

Pdev = Eb Ia = Km Ia (6)

DC Motor Equivalent circuit

The schematic diagram for a DC motor is shown below. A DC motor has two distinct circuits: Field circuit and
armature circuit. The input is electrical power and the output is mechanical power. In this equivalent circuit, the
field winding is supplied from a separate DC voltage source of voltage Vf. Rf and Lf represent the resistance
and inductance of the field winding. The current If produced in the winding establishes the magnetic field
necessary for motor operation. In the armature (rotor) circuit, VT is the voltage applied across the motor
terminals, Ia is the current flowing in the armature circuit, Ra is the resistance of the armature winding, and Eb
is the total voltage induced in the armature.
Ia

If + Ra
+ Lf
+
Vf VT ωm, T
Eb
Rf
_ _
_
Field circuit Armature (rotor) circuit
Figure 7: DC Motor representation

Voltage Equation

Applying KVL in the armature circuit of Figure 7:

VT = Eb + IaRa (7)

wherewinding.VT is voltage applied to the armature terminals of the motor and Ra is the resistance of the armature

Note: The induced voltage is typically represented by symbol e (or E) and the terminal voltage by v (or V).
At standstill, the motor speed is zero, therefore back emf is also zero. The armature current at
starting is thus very large.

Applying KVL in the field circuit of Figure 7:

Vf = Rf If (8)
DC Motors 7

Where Vf is voltage applied to the field winding (to produce the magnetic field), Rf is the resistance of the
field winding, and If is the current through the field winding.

Power Transfer Equation

We have earlier obtained the following relationship for torque developed in the motor (from equation 2):

Tdev = K Ia

The developed power is the power converted to mechanical form, and is given by (from equation 3):

Pdev = m Tdev

This is the power delivered to the induced armature voltage (counter-voltage) and given by:

EbIa (electrical power) = m Tdev (mechanical power developed) (9)

Note: The speed in revolutions per minute, N, is related to the angular speed (in radians per second) by
=2N
60

N can be written as r/min or rpm, both mean the same thing.

Noting that the flux in the machine is proportional to the current flowing in the field winding (i.e. If), we can
compare induced voltages at two different speeds.
If the induced voltage at the first operating speed N1, and field winding current If1 is given by:
E 2 N1
b1
K (K f I f 1 )
60
and the induced voltage at the first operating speed N2 , and field winding current If2 is given by:
E 2 N2
b2
K (K f I f 2 )
60
Then the induced voltages at these operating points can be compared as:
I N
E b1
f1 1

E I N
b2 f2 2

This equation is useful in determining the speed of the DC motor at different operating conditions.
8 DC Motors

DC Machine Classification
DC Machines can be classified according to the electrical connections of the armature winding and
the field windings. The different ways in which these windings are connected lead to machines operating with
different characteristics. The field winding can be either self-excited or separately-excited, that is, the
terminals of the winding can be connected across the input voltage terminals or fed from a separate voltage
source (as in the previous section). Further, in self-excited motors, the field winding can be connected either
in series or in parallel with the armature winding. These different types of connections give rise to very
different types of machines, as we will study in this section.

Separately excited machines

The armature and field winding are electrically separate from each
other. The field winding is excited by a separate DC source.

Ia

If + Ra
+ Lf +
VT
Vf ωm, T
Eb
Rf
_ _
_
Figure 8: Separately excited DC Motor

The voltage and power equations for this machine are same as those derived in the previous section.

Note that the total input power = Vf If + VT Ia

Self excited machines

In these machines, instead of a separate voltage source, the field winding is connected across the main
voltage terminals.

Shunt machine

The armature and field winding are connected in parallel.

The armature voltage and field voltage are the same.

IL Ia

If Ra

Lf ωmTdev
VT
Eb
Rf
DC Motors 9

Total current drawn from the supply, IL = If + Ia

Total input power = VT IL

Voltage, current and power equations are given in equations (7), (8) and (9).

Series DC machine

The field winding and armature winding are connected in series.

The field winding carries the same current as the armature winding.

A series wound motor is also called a universal motor. It is universal in the sense that it will run equally
well using either an ac or a dc voltage source.

Reversing the polarity of both the stator and the rotor cancel out. Thus the motor will always rotate the
same direction irregardless of the voltage polarity.
Ia = If

Lf Rf Ra

ωmTdev
VT
Eb

Figure 10: Series DC Motor

Compound DC machine

If both series and shunt field windings are used, the motor is said to be compounded. In a compound
machine, the series field winding is connected in series with the armature, and the shunt field winding is
connected in parallel. Two types of arrangements are possible in compound motors:

Cumulative compounding - If the magnetic fluxes produced by both series and shunt field windings are in
the same direction (i.e., additive), the machine is called cumulative compound.

Differential compounding - If the two fluxes are in opposition, the machine is differential compound.

In both these types, the connection can be either short shunt or long shunt.

Note: Compound motors will not be discussed in this course.

Performance calculations

In most applications, DC motors are used for driving mechanical loads. Some applications require that
the speed remain constant as the load on the motor changes. In some applications the speed is required to be
controlled over a wide range. It is therefore important to study the relationship between torque and speed of the
motor.

Speed Regulation
10 DC Motors

The performance measure of interest is the speed regulation, defined as the change in speed as full load is
applied to the motor. It can be expressed as:
N N
no load full load
Speed regulation ( SR ) 100 % (10)
N
full load

Where Nno-load is the speed at no load, and Nfull-load is the speed when full load is applied.

Torque-Speed Characteristics:

In order to effectively use a D.C. motor for an application, it is necessary to understand its
characteristic curves. For every motor, there is a specific Torque/Speed curve and Power curve. The relation
between torque and speed is important in choosing a DC motor for a particular application.

Separately excited DC motor

A separately excited DC motor equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 8.

From equation (5) and equation (7)), we have two expressions for the induced voltage. Comparing the two:

Eb K m VT I a Ra (11)

The torque developed in the rotor (armature) is given by:

Tdev = K Ia (12)

From equation (12), the current in the armature winding can be found as:
T
Ia dev
(13)
K

Substituting for Ia in equation (11) and rearranging the terms:

VT K R Tdev (14)
m a

K
Therefore, the torque developed in the rotor can be expressed as:
T K
dev (VT K m ) (15)
R
a

This equation shows the relationship between the torque and speed of a separately excited DC motor. If the
terminal voltage VT and flux are kept constant, the torque-speed relationship is a straight drooping line.

Tdev Stall torque

Normal operating range

No-load speed = VT/k

ωm
Figure 11: Torque-speed characteristics of separately excited DC motor
DC Motors 11

The graph above shows a torque/speed curve of a separately excited D.C. motor. Note that torque is
inversely proportional to the speed of the output shaft. In other words, there is a tradeoff between how much
torque a motor delivers, and how fast the output shaft spins. Motor characteristics are frequently given as two
points on this graph:
The stall torque, represents the point on the graph at which the torque is a maximum, but the shaft
is not rotating.

The no load speed, is the maximum output speed of the motor (when no torque is applied to the
output shaft).

The motor load determines the final operating point on the torque curve. As illustrated in the figure
below, when a motor is connected to drive a load, the interaction of torque demanded by the load and the
torque produced by the motor determines the point of operation.

Ia Tload
+ Mechanical
+ Load
VT Eb DC Motor m (Pump,
Compressor)
- - - Tdev

Tdev Normal operating range

Torque demanded by the load

Torque developed by the motor

ωm
Final
operating
point

Figure 12: Interaction of the DC Motor and Mechanical Load

The above graph shows the interaction of DC motor and mechanical load. The starting torque of the motor is
higher than the load torque demanded by the load. The difference between these two torques forces the motor
to rotate. As the motor starts to rotate and picks up speed, the developed torque decreases (why?). The motor
finally comes to a stable operating point when the two torques balance each other.

DC Shunt Motor

The DC shunt motor has the same equations for torque as for the separately excited motor, and has the
same torque-speed characteristics as in Figure 11.

DC Series Motor

The DC series motor characteristics can be analyzed in much the same way as the shunt motor discussed earlier.

In series motors, the series field winding is connected in series with the armature (refer to figure 10).

The torque developed in the rotor is:

Tdev = K Ia

Assuming that the flux is directly proportional to field current (i.e. no magnetic saturation),
12 DC Motors

If

Since in a series motor, If = Ia

= Kf Ia (16)
where Kf is a constant that depends on the number of turns in the field winding, the geometry of the
magnetic circuit and the B-H characteristics of iron.

Therefore, the torque developed in the rotor can be expressed as:

2
Tdev ( K f I a )( K I a ) K ' I a (17)

Ia = If

Lf Rf Ra

ωmTdev
VT
Eb

Figure 10 (redrawn): DC Series motor equivalent circuit

Applying KVL to the equivalent circuit (and ignoring Lf under steady state conditions),

VT = Rf Ia + Ra Ia + Eb (18)

But induced voltage can be expressed as Eb = K m

= K (Kf Ia) m= K’ Ia m

Substituting this in equation (18), we get

VT
Ia (19)
Ra Rf K ' m
The torque developed:
2
K 'V
T
T
2 (20)
dev(R R K' )
a f m
From this equation, if the terminal voltage VT is kept constant, the speed is almost inversely proportional to the
square root of the torque (figure 13). A high torque is obtained at low speed and a low torque is obtained at
high speed.

Tdev
Starting
torque

To
ωm
Figure 13: Torque-speed characteristics of a series motor
DC Motors 13

Efficiency
As power flows from DC motor input terminals to the output (shaft), some losses take place. Figure 14 shows
the flow of power in a separately excited DC Motor.

Efficiency of the motor can be calculated as the ratio of output power to the total input power.

Referring to figure 8, total electrical input power,

Pin = VT Ia + Vf If (21)

where Ia is the armature current drawn from the supply terminals.

Power absorbed by the field winding is in turn converted to heat and is given by:

2
Pfield-loss = I f Rf (22)

2 2
Vf Vf
= R (23)

f
R
f Rf
Some power is lost in the resistance of the armature winding, and can be calculated as:
2
Parm-loss = I R (24)
a a

The total power loss taking place in the two windings (which are made of copper) is the total copper loss.
Total copper loss = Field loss + Armature loss

Power developed and converted into mechanical power,

Power developed = Input power – Total copper loss

Also, Pdev = Ia Eb = ωmTdev (25)

The output power and torque are less than the developed values because of rotational losses, which
include friction, windage, eddy-current and hysteresis losses. Rotational power loss is approximately
proportional to motor speed.

From figure 14, we can find the final output power as:

Power output = Power developed – rotational losses

The efficiency of the DC motor can be calculated as:

P
Efficiency out
100% (26)
P
in
14 DC Motors

Power input Power developed =

VTIa+ Vf If Eb Ia= mTdev
Power
output
= mTout

Rotational
Field Armature loss
copper loss copper loss
Figure 14: Power flow in a DC motor

It is important to mention that the total input and output power can be calculated in many different ways
using the power flow diagram, depending on the information given. Also note that the torque developed
inside the rotor is different from the final (output) torque supplied to the load due to rotational losses.

DC Shunt Motor Power Flow

The losses and efficiency in a DC shunt motor can be calculated in a similar manner to that shown above,
except that in this case Power input = VT IL (where IL = Ia + If).

DC Series Motor Power Flow

The losses and efficiency in a DC series motor can be calculated in a similar manner to that for DC shunt
motor using the equations derived earlier, except that in this case If = Ia = IL

DC Motor Rating
DC Motors are typically rated in terms of :

Rated voltage:
the operating voltage on the input side of the motor

Rated power :
Power (in horsepower – hp or watts) that the motor is designed to deliver to the load (i.e., output power)
for continuous operation.
(Note that 1 hp = 746 W)

Rated speed
Speed (in revolutions per minute, denoted by r/min or rpm) for which the motor is designed to operate
for continuous operation.
Rated load
DC Motors 15

The load which the motor is designed to carry for (theoretically) infinite period of time. “Full load” or
“rated load” operating condition refers to the operation of motor when it is delivering rated power to
the load.
Note: A motor may not always operate at its rated power and/or speed. Operation above these values is
not advisable due to overloading.

Example 1
A 230 V, 10 hp d.c. shunt motor delivers power to a load at 1200 r/min. The armature current drawn by the
motor is 200 A. The armature circuit resistance of the motor is 0.2 and the field resistance is 115 . If the
rotational losses are 500W, what is the value of the load torque?

Solution
The back emf induced in the armature is:

Eb = VT - Ia Ra

= 230 - 0.2 x 200 = 190 V

Power developed (in the rotor), Pdev = Eb Ia = 190 x 200 = 38000 W

Power delivered to the load, Pload = Pdev – Prot = Pout

= 38000 - 500 = 37500 W

Load torque, Tload = Pload/ m

Since speed m = 2 N/60

where N is the speed in revolutions per minute (r/min). The torque supplied to the load can be calculated as:

T 37500
load 2 298 .4 N .m
1200
60
Further investigation: What will be the efficiency of the motor in this example?

Example 2

A series-connected DC motor has an armature resistance of 0.5 and field winding resistance of 1.5 . In driving
a certain load at 1200 rpm, the current drawn by the motor is 20A from a voltage source of VT = 220V. The
rotational loss is 150W. Find the output power and efficiency.

Solution
Total input power : Pin VT I a 220 20 4400 W

Induced voltage, Eb VT Rf Ra I a 180 V

Power developed in the armature can be calculated as:

Pdev Eb I a 180 20 3600 W

Output power delivered to the load:

16 DC Motors

Pout Pdev Prot 3600 150 3450 W

Therefore, efficiency can be calculated as:

Pout
100% 78.41%
P
in

DC Motor Speed Control

Many applications require the speed of a motor to be varied over a wide range. One of the most attractive
features of DC motors in comparison with AC motors is the ease with which their speed can be varied.

We know that the back emf for a separately excited DC motor:

Eb = K ωm = VT - Ia Ra

Rearranging the terms,

Speed ωm = (VT - Ia Ra)/K (28)

From this equation, it is evident that the speed can be varied by using any of the following methods:

Armature voltage control (By varying VT)

Field Control (By Varying )

Armature resistance control (By varying Ra)

Armature voltage control

This method is usually applicable to separately excited DC motors. In this method of speed control, Ra
and are kept constant.
In normal operation, the drop across the armature resistance is small compared to Eb and therefore:

Eb VT

Since, Eb = K m
Angular speed can be expressed as:
VT
m (29)
K
From this equation,
If flux is kept constant, the speed changes linearly with VT.
As the terminal voltage is increased, the speed increases and vice versa.

The relationship between speed and applied voltage is shown in figure 15. This method provides
smooth variation of speed control.
m
DC Motors 17

Field Control ( )
In this method of speed control, Ra and VT remain fixed.

Therefore, from equation (28):

m 1/

Assuming magnetic linearity, If

Or, m 1/ If (30)

i.e., Speed can be controlled by varying field current If.

The field current can be changed by varying an adjustable rheostat in the field circuit (as shown in
figure 16).
By increasing the value of total field resistance, field current can be reduced, and therefore speed can
be increased.
If Ia
+
+ Lf Ra

Vf VT + ωm, T
Rf Eb
_
Rext _ _

Variable resistance for speed control

Figure 16

The relationship between the field winding current and angular speed is shown in figure 17.

If
Figure 17: Variation of speed with field current
18 DC Motors

Armature Resistance Control

The voltage across the armature can be varied by inserting a variable resistance in series with the
armature circuit.
Variable resistance for speed control
If Ia
+
Ra
+ Lf

Vf VT + ωm, T
Rf Eb
_
_ _

Figure 18: Armature resistance method for speed control

From speed-torque characteristics (equation 15), we know that:

K
Tdev (VT K m )
R
a

For a load of constant torque, if VT and are kept constant, as the armature resistance Ra is increased,
speed decreases. As the actual resistance of the armature winding is fixed for a given motor, the overall
resistance in the armature circuit can be increased by inserting an additional variable resistance in series with
the armature. The variation if speed with respect to change in this external resistance is shown in figure 19.
This method provides smooth control of speed.
ωm

Rext
Figure 19: Variation of speed with external armature resistance

DC Shunt Motor speed control

All three methods described above can be used for controlling the speed of DC Shunt Motors.

Series Motor speed control

The speed is usually controlled by changing an external resistance in series with the armature. The other
two methods described above are not applicable to DC series motor speed control.

DC Motor Starting
If connected directly across the supply, the starting current is dangerously high.

Ia = (VT - Eb)/Ra

At standstill, Eb = 0, therefore the starting current

Ia|start = VT/Ra
DC Motors 19

The starting current can be reduced by:

Reducing VT during starting

- requires a variable voltage supply

Increasing resistance in the armature circuit

- an additional resistance Rext can be connected in the armature circuit

________________