Basic Electricity and Motor Controls Chapter 7

What Is In This Chapter?

1. The basic components of an atom
2. Basic electrical units and symbols
3. The difference between a conductor and an insulator
4. The difference between open and closed circuits
5. The difference between AC and DC power
6. All explanation of single and three phase power
7. How electromagnets work
8. The function of common electrical components found in small water systems
9. Common pump electrical control components

Key Words

• AC • Electromagnetism • Insulator • Sine Wave

• Amperage • Electron • Magnetic Breaker • Single Phase Power
• Atom • EMF • Magnetic Starter • Three Phase Power
• Brake Horsepower • Heater • Neutron • Voltage
• Conductor • Hertz • Proton
• DC • Horsepower • Resistance
224 Chapter 7 Basic Electricity and Motor Controls

Electrical Basics
In order to develop a basic understanding of how electrical equipment and motor
controls work, we need to review basic electrical theory. And since electrical theory
is based on atomic theory, we need to begin with a review of how atoms work.

Atomic Theory
The Atom – Nucleus
1
Atom – The smallest part of an ele- If we break matter into its smallest component, the base unit is the atom1. An atom
ment that still retains the properties
of that element. is composed of three components: the center is called the nucleus and contains two
2
Neutron – A neutrally charged types of particles, protons and neutrons. The protons have a positive charge and the
particle in the nucleus of an atom. neutrons2 have a neutral or zero charge.
This particle has the same weight as a
proton, an atomic weight of 1.
3
Electron – A negatively charged par-
The Electron
ticle that travels around the nucleus Orbiting around the nucleus are one or more electrons. The electron3 is extremely
of an atom. small. It travels at nearly the speed of light and has an electrical charge that is nega-
Proton – A positively charged tive. This charge is equal in value to the positive charge of the proton4.
4

particle in the nucleus of an atom. This

particle has an atomic weight of 1 and
an atomic charge of plus 1. Stability of the Atom
The electrons remain a constant distance from the
nucleus of the atom. There are two forces that hold e
them in this position. One is the electrical attrac-
tion between the negative electrons and the elec- N
tron positive protons. This has the tendency to pull P P
the electrons into the nucleus. The second force is N
centrifugal force. Centrifugal force tries to make the
electrons fly away from the nucleus. The two forces
counteract each other and hold the electrons stable in e
electron
their orbits.

Electron Shells
The electrons in an atom form shells (or orbits) around the nucleus. Each shell has a
precise number of electrons. Each element has a different number of electrons. The
atoms of the heavier elements have multiple shells. Regardless of the element, atoms
are most stable when they have eight electrons in their outermost shell.

Fewer than Eight

When an atom has five or more, but fewer than eight, electrons in its outer shell, the
atom prefers to gather more electrons to be satisfied. This type of material is called an
5
Insulator – A substance, body, or acceptor. Electrically, materials that are acceptors are called insulators5. They do not
device that prevents the flow of elec-
trical current.
allow the flow of electrons easily. Examples of insulators include glass, plastic, and
rubber.

Fewer than Five

When an atom contains fewer than five electrons in its outer shell, it is easier for it to
give up the excess than to gain more electrons. Atoms with fewer than five electrons
are called donors. Electrically, materials that have fewer than five electrons are called
6
Conductor – A substance, body, conductors6. These atoms allow electrical current to flow easily. Examples of con-
device, or wire that readily conducts
or carries electrical current. ductors include copper, gold, aluminum, and iron.
 Chapter 7 Basic Electricity and Motor Controls 225

e e
ACCEPTOR

e e

e e

e e DONOR
e

Making Electrons Move

In order to cause the electrons of a donor material to leave the atom, sufficient energy
must be applied to cause the electron to speed up enough to overcome the attraction
of the proton. Energy can be applied mechanically by a generator, by light, by pres-
sure, by chemical reactions, and by heat.

Battery
The simplest way to look at electrical energy is with a - +
battery. A dry cell battery is made from a chemical paste
and two electrodes. The chemical reaction between the
chemical paste and the electrodes causes an excess of CHEMICAL
PASTE
electrons to accumulate on one post, which creates an
electrical charge difference between the two posts. If a CARBON
ROD
conductor is connected between the two posts, electrons
will flow from one post to another. ZINC
CASE

Measurements of Electricity
Pressure
The battery can be viewed as an electrical pump. There is an electrical force differ-
ence between the two poles. This electrical difference is called electromotive force or
EMF7 for short. If the battery were visualized as a water pump, this difference would 7
EMF (Electromotive Force) – The
electrical pressure (voltage) that
be the difference in pressure between the suction and discharge of the pump. forces an electric current through a
conductor.
Pressure –Volts
Electrical pressure is called voltage8. The units of measurement are volts. The symbol 8
Voltage – The measurement of EMF
between two points.
for volts can be “E” (for EMF) or “V” (for volts). Voltage is measured with a volt
meter. A common volt meter used by operators is a VOM (Volt, Ohm, Milliamp Me-
ter).

Flow
The flow of electrons from one point to another is called current. Current is measured
as amperage (amps for short). Current or amps is similar to flow in gallons per minute
in a water line. The electrical symbol for amps is “I” or “A.” Amperage is measured
using an amp meter.

Resistance
The resistance9 to the flow of electrons is called resistance. This is similar to head- 9
Resistance – The opposition offered
to the flow of electrical current. Usu-
loss in a water line. Resistance is measured as ohms. Electrically, the symbol for ally measured as Ohms.
resistance is “Ω” (the Greek letter omega) or “R.”
226 Chapter 7 Basic Electricity and Motor Controls

Electrical Measure- Water

Units Symbols Water Equivalent
ment Units
Pressure (EMF) Volts E or V Pressure psi
Current Amps I or A Flow gpm
Resistance Ohms Ω or R Headloss feet

Review

1. The item that rotates around the nucleus of an atom is the ______________.

2. The ______________ and the ______________ can be found in the nucleus of an

atom.

3. Examples of good electrical conductors include:

4. ______________ is the electrical unit that is related to pressure; ______________ is

the electrical unit that is related to flow; and ______________ is the electrical unit that
is related to headloss.

5. The symbol for voltage is ______________ or ______________; the symbol for

amperage is ______________ or ______________; and the symbol for resistance is
______________ or ______________.

6. EMF stands for ______________ force and is the same as ______________.

Types of Circuits
There are two types of electrical circuits that we need to be concerned with:
• Open Circuit – An open circuit is similar to having the light switch in the
“off” position. There is no electrical current flow. There is no connection
between the light and the power system; thus there is no flow of electrons.
• Closed Circuit – A closed circuit is similar to having the light switch in the
“on” position. Electrons can flow from the power sources to the light, and the
light comes on.

I I

Light + - Light + -
Dry Dry
Cell Cell

Closed Circuit Open Circuit

 Chapter 7 Basic Electricity and Motor Controls 227

Types of Power
There are two basic types of power—direct current (DC10) and alternating current 10
DC (Direct Current) – A flow of
electrons in a single direction at a con-
(AC11): stant rate so that the value remains
stable.
• Direct Current – With direct current, the electrons are always flowing in a
AC (Alternating Current) – An
11
single direction. This is the type of current available from a battery. Most electric current of constantly changing
electronic equipment, such as computers, the TV, and stereos, use direct cur- value that reverses direction of flow at
rent internally. This is because it is much easier to control. regular intervals.

• Alternating Current – The current we are most familiar with is alternating

current (AC). This is what is available at the electrical outlets in the room and
what is used to operate the pumping control system and electrical motor. With
AC current, the electrons flow back and forth in the line because the potential
on the circuit is constantly switched from positive to negative and negative to
positive.

Sine Wave
If we could see the pattern produced by DC, it would be a straight line. AC, on the
other hand, produces a pattern called a sine wave12. A sine wave shows the oscillation 12
Sine Wave – The wave traced by the
sine of an angle as the angle is rotated
from positive to negative and back to positive. A “complete” sine wave is the repre- through 360°. Alternating current
sentation of one cycle resulting from switching from positive to negative and back to values follow a sine wave with respect
positive. to time.
90

180

360
o

270

Frequency
Frequency is the number of complete sine wave cycles that are produced in one
second. The units of frequency are Hertz13. Normal household current alternates at 60 13
Hertz – The frequency at which a
cycle repeats within one second. For
hertz or 60 times per second. instance, a repeat of a cycle at a rate
of 60 times per second is called 60
Sine Wave and Time Hertz.

The distance from one end of a sine wave to the other is a measure of time and is
marked off in degrees. When the frequency is 60 hertz, the distance in time from one
end of a sine wave to the other is l/60th of a second. This 1/60 of a second is then
divided into 360 equal parts called degrees.

Converters
It is possible to convert DC to AC and AC to DC. This is accomplished using an elec-
trical circuit called an inverter. The most common conversion is from AC to DC. We
convert AC to DC for electronic equipment, such as computers, the TV, and stereo.
228 Chapter 7 Basic Electricity and Motor Controls

Single and Three Phase Power

14
Single Phase Power – A circuit or When we talk about pumping stations, we often ask, “is it single14 or three phase15?”
generator in which only one alternat-
ing current is produced.
Without some background, these terms can have very little meaning. Electricians
15
Three Phase Power – A circuit
use the terms as though we all have this understanding. This is not really true. The
or generator in which three power following is a brief introduction into the difference between single phase and three
sources 120° out of phase with each phase power.
other are produced.

Single Phase
Phases can be equated to sources. With single phase power, there is a single source
of power. There would be two wires leading to the building, one that is called the hot
lead and one that is called the neutral. Most homes have three lines leading to the
weather head. There are two hot leads and one neutral. While this is really two phase
power, it is called single phase.

Phase B
HOT
Phase A
HOT
Phase C
HOT

FUSE

FUSE
HOT FUSE

HOT

NEUTRAL TRANSFORMER
FUSE
TRANSFORMER
TRANSFORMER

TRANSFORMER NEUTRAL

GROUND

GROUND

Single phase Three phase

Three Phase
Three phase power can be equated to three power sources. Each source is a different
phase. At a pump station or treatment plant, three phase power would have four wires
coming from the pole transformer to the weather head. There would be three hot
leads and one neutral.

What is Phase?
Phase is a common term in electricity used to describe timing. With three phase
power, each phase is energized a fraction of a second later in time. That is, the volt-
age applied to each phase starts later in time. The common description is that each
phase starts 120° later in time. This is easier to see if we think about degrees as time.
Remember, 360° is 1/60th of a second.

Advantage of Three Phase

Because each phase is a predictable amount of time out of phase with the others, we
can use these phenomena to easily start an electrical motor without the use of switch-
es or capacitors. This reduces motor manufacturing and maintenance cost.
 Chapter 7 Basic Electricity and Motor Controls 229

Horsepower16 16
Horsepower – When 33,000 foot-
pounds of work is performed in one
Doing Work minute.
Moving water from one location to another is defined as work and requires energy.
One of the ways to measure the amount of energy required to do work is in foot-
pounds. One foot pound of work is the amount of energy required to lift one pound
of water one foot in elevation. In pumping situations, the amount of work done will
be in the thousands of foot-pounds. Because we do not like to use large numbers, we
have defined another term for work.

1 HORSEPOWER

746 WATTS 33 ,000

33 ,000
lb s lb s

1 ft/min 1 ft/min

Electric Motors
Electric motors are rated in horsepower. The output of the motor is the name plate
horsepower and is called brake horsepower17. Brake Horsepower – The output
17

horsepower of an electric motor. The

representation of the amount of work
Horsepower to Electricity that the motor can perform. Providing
work of 33,000 foot pounds per min-
In order to provide the horsepower required, electricity is needed. The amount of ute is equivalent to one horsepower.
electricity used is a combination of the voltage and the amperage and is the amount
of work or power performed by electricity. It is given in units called watts. There is a
relationship between horsepower and watts.

1 HP = 746 watts 1 HP = 0.746 kilowatts

Electromagnetism18 18
Electromagnetism – (1) The magnetic
Electromagnetic Field force produced by an electric cur-
When current is passed through a conduc- rent or (2) the science that studies
the interrelation of electricity and
tor, an electromagnetic field is developed magnetism.
around the conductor. This field is very
much like the field that exists between the
north and south poles of a permanent mag-
net. It makes no difference if the current
passed through the wire is AC or DC; the
same electromagnetic field is produced.

Making a Magnet
If we wind a wire around a piece of metal
and pass a current through the wire, the
piece of metal will become a magnet with a
north and south pole.
230 Chapter 7 Basic Electricity and Motor Controls

Turning the Magnet into a Switch

Let’s now use the electromagnet to operate a switch. A simple switch can be made
by placing a bar close to the end of the magnet. If we connect the bar to one side of
an electrical supply, connect a second bar and light to the other side of an electrical
source, and close the switch, the light will come on. When power is applied to the
electromagnet, the bar is pulled down by the electromagnetic field, and the light is
energized.

120V

120V

Contactors
There are numerous electromagnetic devices in an electrical panel. These are called
relays, contractors, or contact relays. These simple electromagnets are used to close
a switch. These same devices are also available to open a switch. There are contrac-
tors available with multiple contacts that can turn equipment and lights on and at the
same instant turn other equipment and lights off. All of this can be done with a single
contractor.

Magnetic Starters
A magnetic starter is nothing more than a large contactor. The switch that provides
power to the electric motor is closed by applying power to an electromagnet (the
coil). In most instances, the power to the motor is much higher voltage (240, 460,
480, etc.) than the power applied to the electromagnet (the coil), which is typically
120 volts.

MOVABLE
CONTACT

STATIONARY
COIL

MAGNET

THERMAL UNIT

RESET
 Chapter 7 Basic Electricity and Motor Controls 231

Major Electrical Components

Transformers
Transformers are found on the electrical pole and in some control panels. Transform-
ers are electrical devices that change voltage. They can be used to step voltage up
or step voltage down. The transformer on the pole outside of the pumping station or
treatment plant is most likely a step down transformer. In most instances, there is a
second step down transformer in the control panel to step the voltage down from that
needed for the motors to 120 volts for the control system.
Contacts
Contactors, coils, relays, contact relays, and magnetic starters are electromagnetic
switches.

Switches
There is a wide variety of switches in use in treatment plants and pumping stations.
Some of the most common in the small system are float switches, probes, flow
switches, and pressure switches.

Float Switches
The most common float switch is the mercury float. The float contains a glass vial
with two electrodes and a puddle of mercury. When the float is tripped, the mercury
runs across the electrodes, and the circuit is closed. This may be used to start or stop
a pump.

WEIGHT
OFF
LEAD

LAG

MERCURY SWITCH

ALARM

PVC CASING

Probes
Electrical probes are often used to determine the level of water in a tank and turn
pumps on or off. For probes to work, there must be at least two probes. When both
probes are in the water, the circuit is closed. When the water level reaches the lower
probe, the pump turns on and pumps until the water level reaches the upper (pump
off) probe.

PUMP OFF

PUMP ON

REFERENCE
232 Chapter 7 Basic Electricity and Motor Controls

Flow Switch
A typical switch in a fluoride system is a flow switch. This switch has a reed or
paddle that is in the path of the flow. The forward flow of the water bends the reed
and closes a pair of contacts, completing the circuit.

Pressure Switch
Tank systems often use pressure switches. These switches are made of a diaphragm
and a series of levers and springs. Increases in pressure causes the diaphragm to flex,
opening a contact, opening the circuit, and stopping the pump.
When the pressure falls, the diaphragm flexes to allow a contact to close, completing
the circuit and starting the pump.

CONTACT
POINTS
DIFFERENTIAL
ADJUSTING
NUT
CAM
WHEEL

RANGE OPERATING
SPRING CAM

CONTACT
RUBBER POINTS
DIAPHRAGM

OPERATING
LEVER
ASSEMBLY
PRESSURE FROM PUMP

Flow switch Pressure switch

Pumping Electrical Systems

The electrical system associated with pumping systems is composed of two indepen-
dent but associated systems: the power system and the control system.

Power System
Transformers and Drop
The power system starts at the power company’s transformer. The primary side
(inlet) of the transformer is fused to prevent a short in the pump station from caus-
ing excessive damage to the power system. The lines leading from the transformer to
the pumping building are called the drop. The drop connects to the weather head and
mast at the pump house.

Disconnect and Breaker

The wires lead down the mast to the disconnect. The disconnect is used to disconnect
19
Magnetic Breaker – An electrically the power from the entire system. From the disconnect, power goes to the magnetic
operated mechanical device used for breaker19 or fuses. In some cases, the disconnect and the magnetic breaker may be
over current protection.
the same. The magnetic breaker and fuses both serve the same purpose: over current
protection. They prevent a fire in the building or wiring as a result of a short circuit in
the wiring system.
 Chapter 7 Basic Electricity and Motor Controls 233

Magnetic Starter
From the breaker, power is wired to the magnetic starter20. The magnetic starter 20
Magnetic Starter – An electrically
is an electrically operated switch. The switch is closed when an electromagnet is operated mechanical switch used to
energized. When the electromagnet is de-energized, a spring disconnects the switch. connect power to an electric motor.
Power to operate the electromagnet is supplied through the control circuit.

Heaters – Thermal Overload

At the bottom of the magnetic starter is the thermal overload or heater21 assembly. 21
Heater – A device designed for
overload protection of electric mo-
The heaters sense the amount of amperage flowing through the starter by sensing the tors. The device is heat-sensitive and
heat created by this amperage. The electrical controls of the heaters are in the con- placed in the power circuit with an
trol circuit. Heaters provide overload protection. If the motor draws high current, the electrical connection to the control
circuit.
heaters will heat up and disconnect the control circuit stopping the motor before it
burns up.

Review

1. The frequency of alternating current is measured in what units?

2. Three phase power is like having:

3. Work in water is measured as horsepower. In electricity, this same work is measured a:

4. The device used to operate a magnetic starter is the:

5. What is the name used to identify magnetic starters, contact relays, motor starters, and
relays?

6. The _______________ is used to protect the motor from current draw, and the
_______________ is used to protect the building and wiring from a short circuit.

Control Circuit
Power Source
The power for the control circuit comes from one leg of the power circuit. This con-
trol voltage is usually tapped into the circuit above the magnetic starter. The voltage
above the station is usually greater than the 120 volts desired for the control circuit. A
step-down transformer is used to obtain the 120 volts.

Switches
From the transformer in the panel, the power leads to a switch or switches. Most
pumping stations have a Hand-Off-Auto (H-O-A) switch. In the hand position, all of
the remote sensing system is disconnected. From the H-O-A switch, power goes to
the control switch in the heater assembly.

Control
The control circuit includes all of the control system: pressure-sensing switches, flow
switches, level sensing switches, and float switches. These switches are primarily
used to turn pumps on and off.
234 Chapter 7 Basic Electricity and Motor Controls

Control Panel
The control panel may also contain lights that indicate the status of the pumps, vari-
ous alarm conditions, and hour meters.

Maintenance Considerations
Basic Routines
The maintenance requirements associated with each pumping installation are unique
to the installation. However, there are general considerations that can be applied to
most pumping installations. These include performing the following activities and
gathering the following data at the specified intervals:
• Suction and discharge pressure - Daily
• Number of hours operated from the hour meter - Daily
• Inspect stuffing box for leakage - Daily
• Flow - Monthly
• Replace packing - Annually
• Amperage and voltage measurements - Quarterly
 Chapter 7 Basic Electricity and Motor Controls 235

Basic Electricity and Motor Controls Quiz

1. What is the name for the flow of electrons in an electric circuit?

A. Voltage
B. Resistance
C. Capacitance
D. Current

2. What is the basic unit of electric current?

A. The volt
B. The watt
C. The ampere
D. The ohm

3. Which instrument is used to measure electric current?

A. An ohmmeter
B. A wavemeter
C. A voltmeter
D. An ammeter

4. What is the name of the pressure that forces electrons to flow through a circuit?
A. Magnetomotive force, or inductance
B. Electromotive force, or voltage
C. Farad force, or capacitance
D. Thermal force, or heat

5. What is the basic unit of electromotive force (EMF)?

A. The volt
B. The watt
C. The ampere
D. The ohm

6. How much voltage does an automobile battery usually supply?

A. About 12 volts
B. About 30 volts
C. About 120 volts
D. About 240 volts

7. How much voltage does a wall outlet usually supply in the U.S.?
A. About 12 volts
B. About 30 volts
C. About 120 volts
D. About 480 volts
236 Chapter 7 Basic Electricity and Motor Controls

8. Which instrument is used to measure electric potential or electromotive force?

A. An ammeter
B. A voltmeter
C. A wavemeter
D. An ohmmeter

9. What limits the current that flows through a circuit for a particular applied DC
voltage?
A. Reliance
B. Reactance
C. Saturation
D. Resistance

10. What is the basic unit of resistance?

A. The volt
B. The watt
C. The ampere
D. The ohm

11. Which instrument is used to measure resistance?

A. An ammeter
B. A voltmeter
C. An ohmmeter
D. A wavemeter

12. What are three good electrical conductors?

A. Copper, gold, mica
B. Gold, silver, wood
C. Gold, silver, aluminum
D. Copper, aluminum, paper

13. What are four good electrical insulators?

A. Glass, air, plastic, porcelain
B. Glass, wood, copper, porcelain
C. Paper, glass, air, aluminum
D. Plastic, rubber, wood, carbon

14. What does an electrical insulator do?

A. It lets electricity flow through it in one direction.
B. It does not let electricity flow through it.
C. It lets electricity flow through it when light shines on it.
D. It lets electricity flow through it.
 Chapter 7 Basic Electricity and Motor Controls 237

15. Before attempting to work on any electrical appliance you should?

A. Have proper training
B. Observe all state and local safety codes
C. Check for improper shorts or grounds
D. All of the above