26‐03‐2019

ELECTRODYNAMICS
DR. D. GHOSH,
SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL SCIENCES,
IIT BHUBANESWAR

WAVES IN PERFECT DIELECTRICS

• Let 𝐸 have only an x-component independent of x and y, i.e., 𝐸 is

perpendicular to z

• 𝑘 𝐸 0

• Solutions to this are linear combinations of𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒

•𝐸 𝐸 𝑒 𝐸 𝑒

DR. D. GHOSH, ELECTROMAGNETIC ENGINEERING 2

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WAVES IN PERFECT DIELECTRICS

• Let 𝐸 𝐸 𝑒 As 𝛻 𝐸 𝑎 𝑎 𝑗𝑘 𝐸

• As 𝛻 𝐸 𝑗𝜔𝜇𝐻, 𝑗𝜔𝜇𝐻 𝑎 𝑗𝑘𝐸

•𝐻 𝜀 ⁄𝜇 𝐸 or 𝐸 𝜇 ⁄𝜀 𝐻 𝜂𝐻

• where 𝜂 𝜇 ⁄𝜀 is the intrinsic impedance of the medium

• For vacuum, 𝜂 𝜇 ⁄𝜀 377 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠

DR. D. GHOSH, ELECTROMAGNETIC ENGINEERING 3

WAVES IN PERFECT DIELECTRICS

•ℰ 𝑅𝑒 𝐸 𝑒 where 𝐸 𝐸 𝑒
•ℰ 𝑅𝑒 𝐸 𝑒 𝐸 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑘𝑧

•ℋ 𝑅𝑒 𝐻 𝑒 𝑅𝑒 𝑒 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑘𝑧
• ℰ and ℋ are perpendicular to each other and normal to the direction of
propagation
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DR. D. GHOSH, ELECTROMAGNETIC ENGINEERING

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WAVES IN PERFECT DIELECTRICS

• Phase Velocity (𝑢 ): velocity at which the equiphase surface travels
Equiphase plane (𝑧 𝑧 ) defined as: 𝜔𝑡 𝑘𝑧 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑑𝑧 𝜔 1
𝑢
𝑑𝑡 𝑘 𝜇𝜖

• Wavenumber (k): number of wavelengths in a complete cycle

2𝜋
𝑘
𝜆
DR. D. GHOSH, ELECTROMAGNETIC ENGINEERING 5

WAVES IN PERFECT DIELECTRICS

ℰ 𝐸 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑘𝑧 and ℋ cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑘𝑧

• This is plane wave (phase of 𝐸 and 𝐻 are constant over a set of planes defined by
z=constant)
• This is uniform wave (amplitudes of 𝐸 and 𝐻 are constant over the equiphase planes
• This is a travelling wave (at successive times the cosine curve travels or gets shifted in the +z
direction)
DR. D. GHOSH, ELECTROMAGNETIC ENGINEERING 6

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WAVES IN PERFECT DIELECTRICS

DR. D. GHOSH, ELECTROMAGNETIC ENGINEERING 7

WAVES IN PERFECT DIELECTRICS

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POWER IN WAVES
• 𝑤 𝐸 𝐸 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑘𝑧

• 𝑤 𝐻 𝐸 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑘𝑧

• Poynting vector (energy flux density): Energy per unit area per unit time
1
𝑆⃗ ℰ⃗ ℋ 𝑎 𝐸 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑘𝑧
𝜂
• Complex Poynting vector (for time harmonic fields):

𝐸 1
𝑆⃗ 𝐸 𝐻∗ 𝑎 𝐸 𝑒 𝑎 𝑒 𝑎 𝐸
𝜂 𝜂
DR. D. GHOSH, ELECTROMAGNETIC ENGINEERING 9

POWER IN WAVES (EXAMPLE)

• Assuming that the medium around the antenna is lossless, the energy transmitted
by the source at any given location from the source must be given by

𝑃 𝑆⃗ . 𝑑𝑆⃗

• where 𝑆 is a surface covering the source of radiation.

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GENERALIZED WAVE EQUATION

• We have found the expression for an x-polarized, +z travelling wave
• Restricting the waves in the +z and –z directions, we have four sets of waves.
•𝐸 𝐴𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻 𝑒

•𝐸 𝐵𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻 𝑒

•𝐸 𝐶𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻 𝑒

•𝐸 𝐷𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻 𝑒
DR. D. GHOSH, ELECTROMAGNETIC ENGINEERING 11

STANDING WAVES

• Combining the first and third set of plane waves with

𝑗𝐸
𝐴 𝐶 2

•𝐸 𝐸 sin 𝑘𝑧 and 𝐻 𝑗 cos 𝑘𝑧

• Using Phasors, 𝐸 𝐸 sin 𝑘𝑧 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 and 𝐻 cos 𝑘𝑧 sin 𝜔𝑡

• The phase is independent of z (no travelling motion)

DR. D. GHOSH, ELECTROMAGNETIC ENGINEERING 12

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STANDING WAVES

DR. D. GHOSH, ELECTROMAGNETIC ENGINEERING 13

STANDING WAVES

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POWER IN WAVES

• Poynting vector:
𝐸 1
𝑆⃗ 𝐸 𝐻 𝑎 𝐸 sin 𝑘𝑧 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 𝑎 cos 𝑘𝑧 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑎 𝐸 sin 2𝑘𝑧 sin 2𝜔𝑡
𝜂 4𝜂
• Complex Poynting vector: 𝑆⃗ 𝐸 𝐻∗
𝐸 𝑗
𝑎 𝐸 sin 𝑘𝑧 𝑒 𝑎 𝑗 cos 𝑘𝑧 𝑒 𝑎 𝐸 sin 2𝑘𝑧
𝜂 2𝜂

• Note: Time-average Poynting Vector [Re(𝑆⃗)] is zero, i.e. energy is oscillating between the electric and
magnetic forms.
DR. D. GHOSH, ELECTROMAGNETIC ENGINEERING 15

TRAVELLING AND STANDING WAVES

• Case 1: A=0 or C=0
• Pure travelling wave
• 𝐸 is constant, i.e. standing wave pattern is constant
• SWR is unity

• Case 2: 𝐴 𝐶
• Pure standing wave
• 𝐸 ∝ cos 𝑘𝑧 , i.e. standing wave pattern is a rectified sine wave
• SWR is infinite
• Results from reflection of uniform plane wave normally incident on a conductor
DR. D. GHOSH, ELECTROMAGNETIC ENGINEERING 16

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TRAVELLING AND STANDING WAVES

• Case 3: All other values of A or C

• Partial standing wave
• SWR is between one and infinity
• Results from reflection of uniform plane wave incident on a dielectric or imperfect conductor

DR. D. GHOSH, ELECTROMAGNETIC ENGINEERING 17

STANDING WAVE PATTERN

• If only x-polarized waves exist:
𝐸 𝐴𝑒 𝐶𝑒 and 𝐻 𝐴𝑒 𝐶𝑒

• Let A and C are real, 𝐸 𝐴 𝐶 2𝐴𝐶 cos 2𝑘𝑧 𝑒

• Thus, 𝐸 𝐴 𝐶 2𝐴𝐶 cos 2𝑘𝑧 is called the standing wave pattern of the
field

DR. D. GHOSH, ELECTROMAGNETIC ENGINEERING 18

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STANDING WAVE PATTERN

• Standing wave ratio (SWR) is the ratio of the maximum to the minimum of the
standing wave pattern
𝐴 𝐶
SWR
𝐴 𝐶
• The travelling wave components add in phase at some points and add 180˚ out of
phase at other points.
• The distance between the successive minima is ⁄

DR. D. GHOSH, ELECTROMAGNETIC ENGINEERING 19

POLARIZATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

• Polarization is a property of waves that describes the orientation of their oscillations

• Interference only occurs when EM waves have the same frequency and polarization
(i.e., they are coherent)

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ELLIPTICALLY POLARIZED WAVE

•𝐸 𝑎 𝐴 𝑎 𝐵 𝑒 and
𝐻 𝑎 𝐵 𝑎 𝐴 𝑒

• At any fixed point z, the vector E(z, t) may be

along a fixed linear direction or it may be
rotating as a function of t, tracing a circle or an
ellipse

DR. D. GHOSH, ELECTROMAGNETIC ENGINEERING 21

ELLIPTICALLY POLARIZED WAVE – SPECIAL CASES:

LINEAR POLARIZATION
• Case 1: A = 0
• Wave is linearly polarized in the y-direction

• Case 2: B = 0
• Wave is linearly polarized in the x-direction

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/phyopt/polclas.html

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LINEARLY POLARIZED WAVE

• Let y-components are zero:

•𝐸 𝐴𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻 𝑒

https://userscontent2.emaze.com/images/cac94365-b9dc-4762-9121- http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/phyopt/polclas.html
96c69882485b/458fc46b-b8bd-43e1-b3db-f7ae1667d4e0image20.gif

ELLIPTICALLY POLARIZED WAVE – SPECIAL CASES:

LINEAR POLARIZATION
• Case 3: A and B are both real (or complex with equal phase)
• Linearly polarized wave with the axis of polarization at an angle of tan ⁄ with respect to
the x-axis

http://bestanimations.com/Science/Physics/45degree-polarized-
light-wave.gif
DR. D. GHOSH, ELECTROMAGNETIC ENGINEERING 24

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LINEARLY POLARIZED WAVE – EQUAL AMPLITUDES

https://www.semrock.com/Data/Sites/1/semrockpdfs/whitepaper_understandingpolarization.pdf

LINEARLY POLARIZED WAVE – UNEQUAL

AMPLITUDES

https://www.semrock.com/Data/Sites/1/semrockpdfs/whitepaper_understandingpolarization.pdf

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ELLIPTICALLY POLARIZED WAVE

• Case 4: Both A and B are complex with different phase angles
• Let 𝐴 𝐴 𝑒 and B 𝐵 𝑒
•𝐸 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 𝑘𝑧 𝑎 and 𝐸 𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 𝑘𝑧 𝑏
• 𝐸 will change in both amplitude and direction at various instants of time, the tip of the arrow
tracing out an ellipse
• Field is an elliptically polarized wave
• Special case: If 𝐴 = 𝐵 and 𝑎 𝑏 90°, the field is circularly polarized

DR. D. GHOSH, ELECTROMAGNETIC ENGINEERING 27

ELLIPTICALLY POLARIZED WAVE

• Case 4: Both A and B are complex with different phase angles
• Right-hand polarization: If 𝐸 rotates in the direction of the fingers of the right hand when the
thumb is pointing in the direction of propagation
• Left-hand polarization: If 𝐸 rotates in opposite direction

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DR. D. GHOSH, ELECTROMAGNETIC ENGINEERING

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ELLIPTICALLY POLARIZED WAVE

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DR. D. GHOSH, ELECTROMAGNETIC ENGINEERING

ELLIPTICALLY POLARIZED WAVE – SPECIAL CASE:

CIRCULAR POLARIZATION
• Special case of elliptically polarized wave:
• If 𝐴 = 𝐵 and 𝑎 𝑏 90°

•𝐸 𝐴 𝑎 𝑒 𝑎 𝑒 𝑒

•𝐻 𝐴 𝑎 𝑒 𝑎 𝑒 𝑒

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/phyopt/polclas.html

http://i.imgur.com/3bjXjMd.gif

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CIRCULARLY POLARIZED WAVE

https://www.semrock.com/Data/Sites/1/semrockpdfs/whitepaper_understandingpolarization.pdf

EXAMPLE: CIRCULARLY POLARIZED STANDING

WAVE
• Let 𝐴 𝐶 and 𝐷 𝐵

•𝐸 𝑎 𝑗𝑎 𝐸 sin 𝑘𝑧 and 𝐻 𝑎 𝑗𝑎 𝐸 cos 𝑘𝑧

• Using Phasors: 𝐸 𝑎 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑎 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝐸 sin 𝑘𝑧

and 𝐻 𝑎 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑎 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝐸 cos 𝑘𝑧

• 𝐸 and 𝐻 are parallel to each other, they are rotating about the z axis as time
progresses with no change in amplitude

DR. D. GHOSH, ELECTROMAGNETIC ENGINEERING 32

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APPLICATION: POLARIZER
• A polarizer transmits only a single orientation of linear polarization, and blocks the rest of the
light

• Examples: Polarized Sunglasses, Polarization Photography Filters

APPLICATION : CROSSED POLARIZER

• If two polarizers are placed one after another (the second polarizer is generally called an analyzer), the mutual
angle between their polarizing axes gives the intensity of light transmitted.
• If the two axes are orthogonal, the polarizers are crossed and in theory no light is transmitted

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SUMMARY
WAVES IN PERFECT DIELECTRICS
• For a time-varying E field in the x-direction with variation in z-direction
• 𝐸 𝑅𝑒 𝐸 𝑒 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 𝑘𝑧 where 𝐸 𝐴𝑒

• ℋ 𝑅𝑒 𝐻 𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 𝑘𝑧 where 𝐻 𝑒

• For a time-varying E field in the – x direction

• 𝐸 𝐶𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻 𝑒

• For a time-varying E field in y direction

• 𝐸 𝐵𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻 𝑒

• 𝐸 𝐷𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻 𝑒

Each of the above is a TEM wave. 35

DR. D. GHOSH, ELECTROMAGNETIC ENGINEERING

SUMMARY
WAVES IN PERFECT DIELECTRICS

• Case 1: 𝐴 𝐶 ,𝐸 𝐸 sin 𝑘𝑧 and 𝐻 𝑗 cos 𝑘𝑧

• Linearly x polarized Standing wave
• Case 2: B 𝐷 ,𝐸 𝐸 sin 𝑘𝑧 and 𝐻 𝑗 cos 𝑘𝑧
• Linearly y polarized Standing wave
• Case 3: A B, 𝐸 𝑎 𝑎 𝑒
• Linearly 45 degree polarized travelling wave
• Case 4: C D, 𝐸 𝑎 𝑎 𝑒
• Linearly 45 degree polarized travelling wave 36

DR. D. GHOSH, ELECTROMAGNETIC ENGINEERING

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SUMMARY
WAVES IN PERFECT DIELECTRICS
• Case 5: Let 𝐴 𝐴𝑒 and B 𝐵 𝑒 ,𝐸 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 𝑘𝑧 𝑎 and 𝐸
𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 𝑘𝑧 𝑏
• Elliptically polarized travelling wave
• Case 6: Let 𝐴 𝐴𝑒 and B 𝐴𝑒
• Circularly polarized travelling wave

• Case 7: Let 𝐴 𝐶 and 𝐷 𝐵 ,𝐸 𝑎 𝑗𝑎 𝐸 sin 𝑘𝑧 and

𝐻 𝑎 𝑗𝑎 𝐸 cos 𝑘𝑧
• Circularly polarized standing wave
• 𝐸 and 𝐻 are parallel to each other, they are rotating about the z axis as time progresses
with no change in amplitude
DR. D. GHOSH, ELECTROMAGNETIC ENGINEERING 37

APPLICATION
NORMAL INCIDENCE AT PLANE DIELECTRIC BOUNDARY
• Let there be an obstruction in the path of the wave
• The wave will be reflected and transmitted depending on the medium
• If only x-polarized waves normal to the boundary exist,
𝐸 𝐸 𝑒 𝐸 𝑒 and 𝐻 𝐸 𝑒 𝐸 𝑒

with SWR

𝐸 𝐸 𝑒 and 𝐻 𝐸 𝑒 )

where each constant represents the magnitude of E at z=0

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DR. D. GHOSH, ELECTROMAGNETIC ENGINEERING

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APPLICATION
NORMAL INCIDENCE AT PLANE DIELECTRIC BOUNDARY
• Using boundary conditions at z=0,
• 𝐸 0 𝐸 0 and 𝐻 0 𝐻 0

• 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 and 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸

• 𝐸 𝐸 𝜏𝐸 and 𝐸 𝐸 Γ𝐸

where Γ is called the reflection coefficient where ( 1 Γ 1

and 𝜏 is called the transmission coefficient where(0 𝜏 2

• The coefficients are related as: 1 Γ 𝜏

• SWR where 1 𝑆𝑊𝑅 ∞

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DR. D. GHOSH, ELECTROMAGNETIC ENGINEERING

APPLICATION
NORMAL INCIDENCE AT PLANE DIELECTRIC BOUNDARY

• Case 1: Let the medium 2 be a perfect conductor, 𝜂 0

•Γ 1 and 𝜏 0
•𝐸 𝐸 and 𝐸 0
• SWR ∞
• The incident wave will be totally reflected and a standing wave will be
produced

DR. D. GHOSH, ELECTROMAGNETIC ENGINEERING 40

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APPLICATION
NORMAL INCIDENCE AT PLANE DIELECTRIC BOUNDARY

• Case 2: Let the medium 2 be not a perfect conductor

• Partial reflection will result
• 𝐸 𝐸 𝑒 Γ𝑒 𝐸 1 Γ 𝑒 Γ 𝑒 𝑒
𝐸 𝜏𝑒 Γ 𝑗2 sin 𝑘 𝑧
• The final wave is composed of two parts:
• A travelling wave with amplitude of 𝜏𝐸
• A standing wave with amplitude of 2Γ𝐸

DR. D. GHOSH, ELECTROMAGNETIC ENGINEERING 41

WAVES IN GENERAL MEDIA

• The propagation constant is a complex
• 𝐸 𝐸 𝑒 𝐸 𝑒 𝐸 𝑒 𝑒 number that can be written as

• Instantaneous fields: • 𝛾 𝑗 𝑘 [where 𝑘 represents the wave number or

the spatial frequency of the wave]

• ℰ 𝑅𝑒 𝐸 𝑒 𝐸 𝑒 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑘𝑧 • 𝛾 𝑗𝜔 𝜇𝜀 𝛼 𝑗𝛽
• Where 𝛼 is the attenuation constant
(Np/m)
• ℋ 𝑅𝑒 𝑒 𝑒 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑘𝑧 𝜉 • And 𝛽 is the phase constant (rad/m)
• Note: wave number and phase constant are not
where 𝜂 𝜂𝑒 equivalent, except for perfect dielectric media

• Travelling wave is attenuated in the direction of travel by 𝑒

• ℰ and ℋ are still perpendicular to each other and normal to the direction of propagation but they
are not in phase to each other

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WAVES IN VARIOUS MEDIA

 m
•      j   j

and      j   j 

•𝑘 𝜔 𝜇𝜀 and 𝜂 𝜇 ⁄𝜀
Type of Criteria Wave number Intrinsic Impedance
Medium
Free Space 𝜎 0; 𝜀 𝜀 ;𝜇 𝜇 𝑘 𝜔 𝜇 𝜀 𝜇
𝜂 𝜀
Perfect 𝜎 0; 𝜀 𝜀;𝜇 𝜇 𝑘 𝜔 𝜇𝜀 𝜇
Dielectric 𝜂 𝜀
Good Dielectric 𝜎 0; 𝜇
𝜂 1 𝑗 𝜀 2𝜀
𝜀 𝜀 𝑗𝜀 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜀 ≫ 𝜀 ; 𝑘 𝜔 𝜇𝜀 1 𝑗 𝜀 2𝜀 𝜀
𝜇 𝜇

Good 𝜀 𝜀 𝑗 𝜎⁄𝜔 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜎⁄𝜔 ≫ 𝜀 ;

𝜔𝜇 𝜎 𝜔𝜇 𝜎 𝜔𝜇 𝜔𝜇
Conductor 𝜇 𝜇 𝑘 𝑗 𝜂 𝑗
2 2 2𝜎 2𝜎

WAVES IN GOOD CONDUCTOR

• 𝑘 𝑗 𝑜𝑟 𝛾 𝑗 𝛼 𝑗𝛽

• ℋ 𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑠 ℰ by 45
• Attenuation is very high; waves do not travel far inside media
• Skin depth () is the distance in which wave is attenuated to ⁄ (or 36.8%) of its initial value

• 𝑒 ⁄ ; 𝛼𝛿 1; 𝛿 ⁄

• But, ⁄

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WAVES IN GOOD CONDUCTOR

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