General Sc wow wisionias.met Sits | lencewow wisionias.met CONTENTS — 01. Physics Jag 1. Genera Physics (Mechanic. sJayton's Laws of Motion Si jeasurement, , New! sot Mame! Racha ware mas etn) ye Forces or Interactions, Frictional Force enn oF ea eraue ot srces oF Interactions, Frictional ‘ Moment of force Simple ial velocity, Geo-Stationary Sark pewer energy, Cea ty Archimedes's principle, Law of Aotatig Pope be, Ei A a ten Suriace tension, Motion (SHM) = IL. Sound (Acoustics) Sound ‘ives Uttiorte. wit®t Waves or ee on Formula & Laplace's Correction for s deren fueteristies of musical sound, Reflection of sound yee . Tun Ruisaerion of sound, Superposition of waves, Interference sound, Beats, Stationary or Standing waves, Organ pipes, Doppeters sitet in sound, Sonic booms. — . Physics (Heat & Thermo = 6799 oa argon Temperature, Thermometry, Thermal expansion of ‘lids Nauideand gases, Calorimetry, Molar heat capacity of the gases, Tranemission of heat—— Conduction, Convection and Radiation, Black bods, Kirchof'slaw, Stefan’slaw, Newton's law of cooling, Kinetic theory of yowes, Thermodynamics, Entropy, Evaporation ot vapourisation, Joule-Thomson or Joule-Kelvin effect, Relative humidity. /. Light (Optics) . -~- 89-119 be he Thasl nakiliei@k light, Rectilinear propagation of light, Pin hole camera, Eclipses— Solar & Lunar, Reflection of light, Plane mirror, Spherical mirrors— Concave & Convex, Refraction of light, Total Internal Reflection of Light, Critical Velocity, Optical fibers, Refraction of light through a lens, Power of a lens, Dispersion of light, Rainbows, Colour of objects, Interference of light waves, Coherence, Diffraction of light, Polarisation of light waves, Double refraction, Nicol’s prism, Polaroid, Plane, Circularly and Elliptically polarised light, Scattering of light, Human eye, Eye's defects or Defects of vision, Optical Instruments— Camera, Microscopes and Telescopes, Fermat's principle, aberration, Achromatism ot lenses. V. Electricity & Magnetism w 119-156 Flectrostatics—Kinds of charges, Electric field, surface charge density, Coulomb's law, Electric field Intensity, Electric dipole and dipole moment, Electric flux, Gauss's law, Electric potential, Electrical mapa and Capacitor (Condensor), Dielectric, Electric polarization of Giginn, are icity-—Current density, Electric cell, Ohm's law, eons law, Specific resistance or resistivity, Combination of mie tana Lorentz force, Magnetic Flux, Magnetic field, Biot-Savart * Ampere's law, Galvanometer, Potentiometer, Faraday's laws of Scanned by CamScannervirus, Minter Natureliees Tes whet bao Scanned by Camaearinst | — Ww Wi SiOonins.met netic induction, 1 “yhermo electricit 7's law, Self induction and Mutual i ectric Heater, Electric Iron, Alternating nt ir C.), Power. Power factor and watless Current, choke-Coil, Dynamo, Microphone, Loudspeaker, Electric Motor, ” socket, Plugs, Electric Switch. etism—Properties of magnet, Magnetic field intensity, aR Magnetism, Miscellaneous, ¥ Physics (Atomic & Nuclear Physics) + 156-179 vi. Modern ; - | plectron, Proton, Neutron, pi-meson (x-meson), Positron, Cosmic Planck's, Quantum theory, Photo electric effect, Photo electric ay Compton effect, X-rays, Moseley’s law, Bragg's law, de-Broglie ce eee of matter waves, Atomic models, Zeeman Effect, Raman Radioactivity, Mass defect and Binding energy, Nuclear fission hypothe: pitect and fusion pelativity: yul.Electronics ; ; 179-222 ‘Thermionic emission, Diode & Triode valves, Semiconductor, pn- Junction /Semiconductor diode, Tunnel diode, Solar cell, Junction jumistor/Bipolar Transistor, Unipolar Transistor or Field Effect Transistor (FET). MOSFET, Modern electronic devices—CRO, television, RADAR, LASER, Miscellanceous, Objective Questions. 02. Astronomy : w+ 223-240 Development of Astronomy, Universe or Cosmos, Eminent Astronomers— Ptolemy’s Geocentric theory, Copernicus’s Heliocentric theory, Herschl, Hubble's law of recession of glaxies, Doppler's shift, Pulsating or Oscillating theory of Universe, Celestial bodies, Glaxy, Constellation, Stars (Origin & Evolution), Neutron Stars, Solar system, Inner planets or Terrestrial planets, Sun, Photosphere, Chromosphere, Corona, Sun spots, Conventional planets, Prague Summit, Order of plantes— Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars etc, Dwarf planets— Pluto, Cheron, Xena-2003 UB 313, Small Celestial bodies— Asteroids, Comets, Meteor etc, Satellite of the earth— Moon, Objective Questions. 03. Computer 241-264 Development of Computer, Computer Generations, Types of Computer (according to size)— Micro, Mini, mainframe, Super Computer etc, Quantum Computer, Categorization of Computer based upon their working system— Digital, Analogue, Hybrid, Optical Computer etc, Functions of Computer, Computer System— Hardware & Software, Languages of Computer— Machine code Janguage, Assembly language etc, Hight level languages— FORTAN, COBOL, BASIC, PASCAL, PROLOG, FORTH etc, Computer bug/ ato ta Committers _ Michelson-Morley Experiment, Einstein's special theory ofwisionias.nmet Are - 25 ‘ tert hes of repr, (Stanen a = s jquid and Gas, cal comp attee 1. Physio ary, Various old, Ligui e a Mixture, The Com sit i +, Separation eronent = ition oF rment, COM or matter, Sep: mn sit nt, se bar Mole and Avogadro me Sn Pint & Mole or recule, Atomic models— Rutt ™bey init es) tom it ‘eT to, Con a shell or Orbit, Orbital, Eiestonj An Rey Seen oe ee Principle, rete | eon Suoael, Bohr BaP in & Fusion, Electronic thes 7 & QuaNuclear Fis adation-Reduction, Acid, Base”, wait ing, Oxida la & Chemical ken’ and (iene & Chemical BonenBy,rnical formula & Chemical equ se Valeney puffer Soluti ion, Galvanization, Solution, g.)%. pa spite on, Metallic floklal Solution, Gaseous laws, Chemiat | Snd é Chemical mt, Colloid OF am Electro Chemistry, Fuels. hie ° and Solvent, om jill M the ical eq) 318g Kinetics & Chemical tallurgical 6, 371 a eet Sres and these Formulae, Metalo-- Soda ‘sincera - Aluminium, Calcium, Me Thetiam, Urantern, Plutonium ea! whil Pina Mercury, Lead, ili itrogen, Ph lit Matinum, Zinc, } "arbon, Silicon, Nitrogen, ‘osphorus, Pp NowMen Hydrogen, oa Inert Gases, Metalloid, me briet abot bis en, Oxygen, Suphog onan Chemistry, Catalysis, Man made ndamentals a iistanees Cement. Glass Fertilizers etc. - HI, Organi 372414 mis eee ee hstion of Sits compounds— Aliphatic or Open chain h compounds, Cyclic or Close chain compounds, Some ‘important whi incldente of organic chemistry Hydrocarbon, Some basic organ compounds, Organic compounds and their uses, Natural sources of ele: organic acids, Alcoholic beverages, Petroleum, Soaps & Der tot Oils & Fats, Waxes, Plastic, Rubber, Fiberes, Miscellaneous, Objective ‘Questions. OE; 05. Biology 415-586 ee Biology, Classification of Organisms, Binary System of the nomenclature of organism, Cytology (cell, its structure and functions @ cell organelles), Chromosomes, Structure of DNA and RNA, Virus, et Mineo, Bacteria, Viral and bacterial diseases, Protista Ane oe Phology oe Fungal diseases, Lichens, Plant Kingdom, Plant Homans Plant qposperms, Plant tissue, Nutrition in plant, animal kingden, (ett diseases, Ecology, Modern Classification of Human body mal sue, Nutrition of Animals System of ystem, Nervous System, aay ‘piratory System, Excretory si System, Skeleton System, i ™. Genetics, The terms related ogy), iological terms, Specific to the Medical / Biological Scanned by CamScannerwow wisionias.met SCIENCE eee Science : The word science comes from the Latin word Scientia which implies Knowledge. The Science as a subject has come to mean the aystematic, consistent and excellent study of the physical world including, everything that can be seen, observed or detected in nature by the man and society and the knowledge that grows out of such study. Usually the science is characterized by the methodologies and approaches of the hypothesises, postulates, assumptions, theories and laws based upon experimental observations and mathematical conclusions. The science is broadly categorized into two groups— Natural science and Social science. Natural science deals with nature or physical world while social science deals with the subjects like sociology, economics, political science, human geography etc. Here in this book we are concerned about natural science only. Natural science is broadly divided into = 1, Physical science (studies concerned with non-living matter). 2. Life science or Biological science (studies concerned with living matter). On the macro-level physical science consists of Physics.and Chemistry while life science (Biology) consists of Botany and Zoology. The contents of the Astronomy and Computer (especially their elementary and fundamental concepts)are today also assumed (considered) to be the part of the conventional science. At present research and development activities in various branches of natural science like astrophysics, geophysics, biophysics, biochemistry, genetics, virology, evolution and ecology etc. are going on in earnest. Scanned by CamScannerwow wisi -wisiontias.net : During # 01. Physics Length, Mas units of Elect of substance ated with those aspects of nature wh; Unig, - ic rive physica Pmt associ pats is ve umd Ne 3 ay in ters of the clemey can | more funda ee and [AWS ranch o | - ree which matter and nergy mutually interact with each bys, | roan * ne vis usualy studied in the following groups— s Units. 1. General Physics (Mechanics) \ casa »ment eM 1. Quanity and Meas «expressed i ace antity : Anything Wry all P | in number OF Whose of units L representation i totally americal is called quantity. | Seeand ire Example : Population, ABS of men or women, weights of objects ei. | Units. | Physical quantity : Quantities expressed in terms of laws of ete. Gi FI ! ‘ancealled physical quantities. Physics | Length, Fxample:Massof anobject, length, force, speed, distance, di system is momentum electric current etc, These physical quantiti » displacement, Gi J quantities are of tw; (i) scalars (ii) vectors. type, | oe Unie i scalars : Those physical quantities which have magni | Sees hose dion i hot teken into the consideration a ae aie only and | coe, xample : Mas er ‘ ars, re 1 cic p ss, temperature, density, volume, electric current, work | of Unit Gi) Vectors : Those physi _ oe consent i physical quantities whi Sy and direct s which hav stem, ae con which are represented by the directed teen magnitude Th obeying the triangle law of vectors or parallelogram fae segment () | Stsyst Example : Displacement, li of vectors are | Seven magnetic field intensit t, linear momentut i jen eld intensity, electric displace im, angular velocity, t | «) oon P peel quankity wt chhas both ment, current density te: torque, | as— n't obey vector lan 'as both magnitud, Fie A. tT like electric current, ne or etheutienin diedtion but which 1 met ju mere seers which are used both work etc. Also there aie Vector quantity @ salt while normal ares i ont and vector. Sim certain physical as— fame Measurement : nee asa vector, ply areais treated | 1 called uniter hen ot that Measure any : kept rit of the Hat quantity, quantity, ae calle terms ofthis unit, oni? 2nd ity, is assumed to be , a definite and a 'ypes of units— | the process is called 2 Sven quantit standard which is | ! (i led meas; 'y is measured i a ) Fundame: urement. Th din the Fundamental tone, ereareumiallytao | ofa aah, eek ae Units : 1 a phy. Derived Units 919; other, they as stand, sical : r then these unj ards a: quantity j uni ind t] AS ex] “ its are called pee Standards pressed in terms of | C00 ndamnwatds ate independent of dive Scanned by CamScanner“During the early stage of research and development the:units of Mass and Time were assumed to be Fonaaeental, But later the ts of Electric Current, Temperature, Luminous Intensity and the amount of substance were added and thus at Present there are seven Fundamental = Units. Derived Units : If a physical quantity is expressed in terms of two or bes, more fundamental units then these units are called Derived Units. These Atary units have no independent existence like fundamental units. The unit Sieat of Fore Momentum, Work, Potential Energy, Density ete. are Derived ‘ nits. system of Units Usually physical quantities are measured in four systems of units. (i) CGS System (Centimeter/Gram/Second System) : In this system of units Length, Mass and Time are measured in Centimeter, Gram and ose Second respectively. CGS system is also called Metric or French System of Units. (ii) FPS System (Foot/Pound/Second System) : In this system of units © es Length, Mass and Time are measured in Foot, Pound and Second. FPS system is also called British System of Units. t (iii) MKS System (Meter / Kilogram /Second System) : In this system & of units Length, Mass and Time are measured in Meter, Kilogram and S Second. (iv) SI System (International System of Units) : In the International i Conference of Weights and Measures held at Geneva in 1960 the SI System of Units was adopted and accepted on the basis of a comprehensive consensus. In fact SI system is extended and modified form of the MKS System. There are Seven Fundamental Units and two Supplementary Units in Slsystem. Seven Fundamental Units of SI System : (i) Length : In SI System Length is measured in meter and is defined —_ Total distance travelled by light in vacuum in 1/299792458 secis called 1 meter. Gi) Mass : In SI system Mass is measured in Kilogram and is defined as— The amount of the mass of a cylindrical alloy of Platinum-Iridium kept at International Bureau of Weight and Measure at Severis in France is called 1 kilogram. (iii) Time : In SI system Time is measured in second and it is defined as— In the transition of two hyper fine levels of energy in the ground state of an atom of Cesium-133 by means of radiation between an interval of 9192631770 time-periods is called 1 second. Einstein in his special Theory of Relativity used Time as fourth coordinate in Space-Time coordinate system. (iv) Electric current : In SI system Electric current is measured in Ampere and is defined as— Scanned by CamScannerept 1 meter apart th atch a way that it produces q in Sritade of the electric current ig in st system Temperature is measured in ; uid and vapour-coexist at solid (ice) lid temperature is callag 18 Volaned Sr water and a ‘ oth part is called 1 kelvi ical pe a sf system luminous intensity is m felocity in SI sys! eASttre cone light produces a frequ fon and if its intensity is 1 1683 "2, of | Cetmear Mo is of 1 Candela. If 1 Joule ones! ‘mous Intensity 3s of 1 Can ergy i Pressure amin ero a iscaled I wat/acra* | Wate ened 1 a ‘of Substance : In SI system Amount of Substance ig Magnetic (aa is defined as— . nee ar ib, atoms o ons present in any Substance g stementin6.023510%, then the required amount of the substance or elemeny Expone gers e® A £10 is called 1 mole. s or ions in any substance or ¢| - x number of molecules, atoms s element | 10! 6 ie 1021 then it is also called Avogadro's Number. Thus Avogadry, | gs Number = 6.02310". 10" ‘or, Lmole = Avogadro's number ee Supplementary Units of St system Pegeare vo Supplementary Units in SI system. oo (i) Radian : The plane angle made by any arc of a circle of equal radius | ge is called 1 radian, All plane angles are measured in radian. A (ii) Steradian : The solid angle made on the centre of a sphere by the v0 ‘6 area formed asa square on the surface of the sphere where the side ofthe | U"#S sea enulte the ren of the sphere is called 1 steradian. All the solid bane Jes are measured in steradian. Fundamental Units a Physical Quanti i ii] Leak oataliy S.L Units Symbol by ligk Pn it Meter A 4 ass ' Kilogram ee Time kg i Electric current sane a all the Temperatu mpere A Ur ee Kelvin tem Cuminous Intensity Candela @orKk jen ount of Subs mil stance Mole ed : LN . Suppl F me) TAU Physical Quantity Pplementary Units IX Plane Angles S.L Units 6 Solid Angles Radian ymbol | Steradian tad Scanned by CamScannerwow wisionias.met hy Some Important Derived Units Phy sical Quantity Awa Detinition of Quantity Length Squ. Nol Dor Length Cube ty Mass per unit Volume Velocity Displace 1 per unit Time Pores Mass * Acceleration Ainear Momentum Mass » Velocity ressuire Force per unit Area Work or Energy Force displacement Magnetic Field Intensity Force electric current «displacement Various Exponents of 10 S.L. Units m m? kym * ms! kg ms? or Newton kg.ms! Nm? or Pascal N-m or Joule Neamp! m! or Tesla or weber/m? Exponent — Prefix Symbol | Exponent Prefix Symbol of 10 of 10 1" Pra E 10" Deci d 10" Peta P 10> Centi © 10! Tera T 107 Milli m 10" Giga G 10 Micro u we Mega M hho Nano n 1ot Kilo k }1o Pico P 10! Hecto oh 10s Femto/Fermi f 10! Deca da ts Ato a Units for Astronomical distance Astronomical Unit (A.U. between Sun and Earth TAU, = 1.495 * 10" meter. is a unit of distance. It is mean distance (i) Light Year: It is also a unit of distance and it is distance travelled by light in vacuum in one year. Nel Light Year - 9.46 = 10! meters. Gii) Par sec (Parallax Second) : It is the largest unit of distance among, all the astronomical units of distance and 1 Par sec u ts of Length or distance 1h 1000 m Dunce-OZ A mile 1.60934 km 1 pound-lb 1NM 1.852 km TAU 1.495*10! m LY = 9.46108 m The = 48612 A.U. Par sec = 3,08~10'°m 1 Quintal Metric ton Scanned by CamScanner .08*10'* meters. Units of Mass = 28.35 gm. =160Z 52 gm 2.205 Ib 000 gm = 100 kg = 1000 kgi | General Sctence | Units of Area co sce = 45560 99; Font 1 avinute sorain = 4046.94 5q. meter | thour 600 3 5 acre hectare 24 hours ; sq.km = 100 hectare Iday Fdays * mile = 2.6 sq. km , 7d mile = 2.6 sq. See month ass ‘? 256 hectare avele 640 acre th = 30. 0r 31 day? ts of volume U solar month = on 29 days (Fe Uni = 13 lunar month 1 day Hitre = 1000 cubic cm (ec) year 3 solar month 2642 gallon 365 days 0, >@, initial vel >). (i) Velocity-Time Graph : : describe: ta) Constant Velocity or Uniform Motion : Ifa and suct body moves with a constant velocity in a uniform 4 eed | motion, then Velocity-Time graph is a straight line, © P noes | parallel to Time-Axis as shown in the figure. "2 oe Thest cS mat in | Py eatghtline ?Q represents uniform motion. constan niformly Accelerated Motion : = Seu! describes « uniformly aceolorated eet Oey gravity) | straight line, then the Velocity lerated motion in a y body di line as shown in the Sgiure, Time graphis a straight 4 consid Obviously, nl 3 ith co ly, straight line & Time graph of the uniformity oo represents Velocity. 2 ‘Tesmag Two Dimensional Moti celerated motion. 3 oma mae, described in two dimorgg Motion of aS Sorin imen: a ‘elangular Co-ordinate son Co-ordinate © Time (t) ion Motion, projeetite then it is called two dimensi Tt . ate a : 4 Hl examples of two Ginn oto Motion of a cancnial) the gr Motion 1 body descr limensional motion. ie called ci fares its motion on a circular trad Ms ANgential at wae” MOtion. In circular motion, G “very Point of the track, its direct Scanned by CamScannerwow wisionias.met Phyntew 9 ervwhere. This shows. that magnitude of the velocity remains cons 4 velocity doesn't its dirwetion chanyes) vs the tant (speed ain constant (as the motion is accelerated, Thus motion of a body on a circular path with a cunstant speed is called Unitorm circular motion. Let Pand Qare any tweinstantaneous positions WwequiiPles of a body describing, a uniform circular motion with linear velocity », Here tions Os the centre of the circular track and r is its radius. ae It a body describes an angular displacement in t sec and its position on the circular track changes from P to Q then the angular velocity of the body is defined as angular displacement per unit time. Thus angular @Qn 1) velocity «= # (expressed in rad/see.) Ifa body moves on a circular track and completes one revolution, then the time required for it is called Time period. The inverse of this time period is called angular frequency. Thus w= =2an Here, n is called angular frequency and T is time Q period. Thus 4 Also the linear velocity (y) = Circumference of the circular track_ p ” Time elapsed all on, v= 2A. (28, ser ¢- 2 = w = angular velocity) 7 TAT T » —.x Thus, linear velocity (») = angular velocity (w) x radius (r) — (ii) Projectile Motion : If a body is projected upward with a certain initial velocity « making an angle 6 with horizontal direction, then the body describes a two dimensional motion whose path (trajectory) is parabolic and such a body is called projectile. Here a unique physical phenomenon occurs. As the body starts its motion there is no acceleration in its horizontal direction, but the vertical direction there is a constant acceleration (acceleration due to =e gravity). Thus, in the projectile motion the body describes its horizontal motion with constant velocity and its vertical motion with constant acceleration. Terms and Expressions associated with projectile motion. Time of Ascent (!,): Itis the time taken by a body (projectile) to reach the maximum height (H). It is given by ~X t usind > ee nal Time of Descent (/,) : It is the time taken by a body (projectile) to reach cal the ground at P trom the maximum height (H). It is given by t, =! a ck UThus t, = ¢, =H sind 7 (Here air resistance is assumed to be negligible) ——— Scanned by CamScannerwow wisionias.met ~ axobneotiunn the ime of ascent an. tal of the time tis the sum te! distance OP (Horizg . fight vie taken to travel pene) of descent i the Py led Horizontal Ramee rein 2usin® 0 sind, “sin® _ 2uSine tance by the D ly aieh et 8 g Thus y= "s aximum vertical distance travelleg ight (H. : It is the m sn ‘ 1 Dich its velocity by a body (P comes Zero at glance, It jg 12sin’® , i distance (OP) travelle Hite :Itis the total horizontal ce (C . Hedin noe ihe tobl time of flight (f). It is given by R = by a body (proj suf sin20 i 20 be maximum. But § viously range R would be maximum if sin ' max. value of sin 20 =1 sin 26 = 1=sin 90" > 8 = 45 Id have max. range if 8 (angle of projection) Thus any projectile woul 2 sin 90" _ U2 1# = 45° and it would be R juy, ag t=2 s , if jections are 6 and (90° — 6) then horizontal Aigo the angle of preations ar 6 e O ineinial veo projection, max. height attained, time of flight, etc. Equation of the trajectory of the projectile _ The overall equation of the trajectory of any projectile, whatever be the individual parameter, is given by 2 y= (tan 6) x - 5 sec%9, ~ (tan 0) x~ —& 5 2u 2(ucos0) Obviously, itis the equation of a parabola. That's why every projectile traces out a parabolic trajectory (path). sDiewton’s Laws of Motion : Firstly in 1687 Sir Isaac Newton, who was great mathematician of his timé, Bropounded the laws of notion in his book Principia. ‘There are three laws of motion. — First Law (Law of Inertia) : A bod: i w(L Inertia) : ly continues in its state of rest or uniform motion ina straight line in the same direction unless some external ee . applied to it. This is Newton's first law of motion. or agnetendency of Bodies sTee ees te remain in the original initial state Seance ues ia is called inertia, Inertia is of two. types (i) Inertia of to changetthe state of Mee a the external force which is accountable i va Buampler of inertia nt cevides the definition of force. Position of rest then a pas uadent inertia of rest, sta The . stays at rest. Thus, then lereas the upper part, duc to Parts of the body of » Were is a relative diel ween Pare posite direction’ PaS*ePger and consequent ape cement of the two Scafined by CamScanner| ~~ i i i -_visionias.net Physics n (ii) To remove ire fom soe we hit it with a stick, On being hit the jat_comes into motion but the dirt, due to its inerti i co gets detached from the coat and falls off. errors state (iii) Before taking a long jump an athlete runs for a while and then jakes a leap. By running for a while he gains inertia of motion which helps pim take a longer jump. (iv) While alighting from a slowly moving train one must run for a short while in the direction of the moving train and then let off the train. When you set your foot on the ground, the lower part of your body comes to rest instantaneously but the upper part of the body continues to move an the direction of the train. Due to relative displacement you are liable to fall forward and hurt yourself. If you ran for a short while all the parts ‘of the body will be in the same state and hence there will be no relative Gisplacement of the different parts of the body. Second Law (Law of Measurement of Force) : The rate of change of inear momentum (p = mv) of a body is proportional to the force applied and it takes place in the direction of the force. ie] F « dp _ ,d(mv) D on, Fake) — on A rene mass m is 6 nt) Where, k = proportionality constant = ka (as a ~ 4 ~ acceleration) If the proportionality constant k =1 then F = ma. =» Force = mass x acceleration. IfF =ma=m e =0, then no acceleration would be produced. If the acceleration of the body is zero (a = @ = 0) then the body will move either with a constant velocity or be in a position of rest. This implies that in the absence of an external force the body either moves with constant velocity or comes to rest. This also concludes that in the absence of an external force the inertia of a body is conserved. ‘Third Law (Law of Action and Reaction): To every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. Action and reaction act on different bodies. Stace their les of action are different, the resultant force is not zero, This is Newton's Third law of motion. Examples : (i) A rocket whose mass decreases continuously due to ejected mass in the form of gases during its forward motion. Gi) During firing of a bullet the gun recoils back with a great force. (iii) To drive water boat forward the bamboo stick is pressed into the land of water. (iv) During pulling water from the wel the man falls behind the well. Units of Force : The S.1. Unit of force is Newton. Forces are defined by Newton’s first law of motion and measured by ‘Newton’s second law of motion. 11 sometimes the rope breaks and Scanned by CamScannervisionias-nect — rare if m=1kg anda =1 By Newton's second law F = ma. Here if m = 1 kg mae secontl, then F = 1 N. Thus 1 Newton is the force required to Produce ¥ acceleration of 1 ms” ina bay of mo a ke O ayne CGS unit of force is Dyne and 1N = / aa uunit of force is kg-wt which is also used for Gravitation, kg-wt is the force required resulting from the acceleration of Bravity on the body of 1 kg mass. Thus by Newton's second law, Force due to Bravity — | mass x acceleration due to gravity. The force of gravity acting ona body is the weight of the pelo Thus weight (W) = mg. . } Here the value of g (acceleration due to gravity) = 9.8 ms-2 Thus, 1 kg.weight = 1 kg * 9.8 ms?=9.8 kg.ms?=9.8 NN. Linear Momentum and Impulse: The product of the mass of a movin, object or body with its velocity (constant) is called Linear M. itis a vector quantity. . Thus momentum (p) = mass x velocity = ne. The S.1. unit of the linear momentum is kg.ms* Ifany external force is operative on an object ora body for, a very short span of time, then the product of this external force and the time is called Impulse and the force is called Impulsive Force. Thus Impulse (J) = Force x time interval lomentum and a > IHF Atm Fate ap => J =Ap=change in linear momentum. Thus impulseis also defined as change in the Jinear momentum of the body for a short Span of time. The s. Unit of the impulse is that of linear momentum and given by kg.mst > Examples of the linear momentum and the impulse (i) Cricket players while taking a catch move their hands in the direction of the motion of the ball t avait maximum injuries and for minimum hurt. Gi) In heavy and light vehicles springs and shock observers are installed to avoid exertion and for comfertal (ii) To hit nail in depth, a heavy hammer used, Law of conservation of linear momentum, The linear momentum fonservationis the outcome ot and third Jaw ef motion. Unde: the mutual more bodies, free from external forces, thi € Newton's second action and reaction of two or '¢ algebraic sum of the linear jnomenta of the bodies in any assigned direction remains conserved. Thus, in general, if no external force is cperative ona system of particles or bodies under the mutual action and. feaclion of the particles, the Momentum of the system in any direction remains conserved. This is the aw Of conservation Of linear momentum, ple (i) When a shot is fired, the cannon recoils. ‘This is an example of the law of conservation of momentum, Here the system (Shot + Cannon) is at rest with respect to reference frame fixed to the earth When a shot is Scanned by CamScannerfired with a velocity say v, it gains a certain velocity, say V and by the Matati., conservation law the cannon must also. same velocity i Mey got 1 opposite direction so that the algebraic sums of the rornenta eecenes mare, 5 Bray the If mand M be tin: masses of shot and cannon, then by conservation law of bog?’ = linear momentum: Y is m+MV=0 of Va— M 2 —we sign indicates that V must be n it CM hat V must be necessarily opposite to v. This velocity of the cannon is called the velocity of recoil. ¥ —_ Gi) In the process of collisions, elastic or inelastic the total linear HnOving momentum before collision js equal to the total linear momentum after nang collision. Thus, total linear momentum of the system of colliding particles is conserved. If m, and m, the two masses of colliding particles, u, and u, are the velocities of the respective particles before collision and v, and v, are the velocities of the particles after collision. V sho, ‘Then by the law of conservation of linear momentum Total linear momenta before collision =m, u,+ tty My Total linear momenta after collision = m, v,+ ni, V, Thus m, 0, +m, u. ny Dy +m, Dy Elastic and Inelastic collision : When two particles or bodies directly strike (collide) in such a way that the total kinetic energy and the total near momentum of the colliding particles during the collisions remain mot ‘constant (conserved) then itis called elasticcollision. If the relative velocity oF separation and approach is equal for the two colliding particles, then aby the collision is said to be perfectly elasticand the particles of equal masses. mutually exchange their velocities to each other after the collision. But when two particles or bodies collide in such a way that the total the linear momenta of the colliding particles or bodies remain constant or conserved but the total kinetic energy of the colliding particles system is. for not constant (conserved) then itis called inelastic collision. i Rocket Motion (A system of variable mass) : The basic principle on which Rocket motion occurs or a Rocket is propelled is the Newton’s third Jaw of motion and the law of conservation of linear momentum. A typical example of variable mass system is that of a rocket motion from which hot gases keep on escaping, thereby continuously decreasing 7 its mass. A rocket may use either a liquid or a solid fuel. In the former case the fuel (like liquid H, or liquid paraffin) and a suitable oxidizer (like O,, H,O, or HNO,), stored up in separate chamber are injected into a combustion chamber where the fuel is burnt. In the latter case, the fuel itself carries its own oxidizer and hence a separate chamber is not needed. In both cases large quantity of the heat of combustion is produced, which largely raises the internal pressure and temperature of the chamber and burnt up gases (like CO, steam etc) are pumped out from an orifice at the back or the tail end of the rocket in the form of a high velocity stream called the jet. Consequently the rocket is propelled forward (opposite to the direction of the jet). Here the momentum lost by the jet of the fuel gases must be equal to the momentum gained by the rocket. Scanned by CamScannerwww -visionias.met , eee ono frock ‘ ber of rockets ei ie just a combination of oe with theres ae Amultistage rocket is et ore inside the oe Oe nner i secttne nozzle ofthe other. 1 all tithe last stage is the smallest of one nem dimension and in WEIN 24 nd when its fue is all is the largest in Se stage rocket is ust jad and discarded, with the and the lightest The tne its job, it gets detache further acceleration. This vane Se eng cover the task of procuas varithe third stape-rocker a ens Steached when its fuel is kcal ing at each stage by the same ‘ ity thus goes on inc I consumption and thrust takes over The velo ge stage rocket. The fuel consumption and thrust for the first stage are about 100 times mo! d by the third stage. Be yi 60 times that carrie x fuel stock carried by it eee) can attain the paxil elo of Any rocket (Single Sons of conventional chemical fuels, ooking 3.5 kg/sec due. to ae incapable to put space satellites problems etc. Thus a le stage rocket is inc to putspace retells the earth’s gravitatiol . Th in he orbits or ape te fabricated fo enhance and achieve a m greater velocit) “4 . The yencen weight of a body in a lift or elevator. | Lift or Elevator 4 Lift or Elevator sciigupvenls (Decreasiny (Increasing, a Appatent 5 weight) The lift or elevator is a simple machine installed in various multiplexes through which people are transported in multi storied buildings for the business and other officials purposes. 1fM be the mass of aman elevated on the lift and F be the apparent weight of the man, then for the lift going upwards : F-Mg=Ma = F=Mg+Ma =M(a+g) [larger wt.] Here a = acceleration of the lift by which it goes up or down and 8 = acceleration due to gravity Now for the lift coming downwards F + Mg = Ma => F=M(a~g) (Lesser wt.) __ Thus, the man elevated on the lift ex, own in going up and experiences lesser weight ‘Types of Forces or Interaction, four types of forces— coming downwards Periences larger weight of its in coming down, + Everywhere in our nature there are Feehan islds are contined and responcter ne Of the bodies where The Gravitational foree 1. ‘pondent to each other, its negligible for all lighter gens veaKest among all existing forces and Il lighter and smaller bodies but becomes significant canned by CamScannerrds lexes > the rent its WB www -visionias.nct Physics 18 and considerable in all celestial bodies. Since the value of Gravitational 3) measured in Torsion balance by Cavendish was very smallonly Nov.kg, gravitational force for smaller bodies is negligible and can not be realized Weak Force : The concept of weak force came into existence firstly in Yukawa’s meson theory when explanation of f|—decay was propounded. In the atomic nucleus, electron emission (f — particle decay) takes place spontaneously during the conversion of neutron into a proton by ejecting ammeson. This x meson decays almost instantly into an electron (e-) and an anti neutrino (¥). Thus: n (neutron) + p (proton) + x! (n-meson) -* p (proton) + © (electron) decay + ¥ (anti neutrino) Here neutron is converted into proton by the exchange of x-meson and consequently interaction between electron (f-decay) and antineutrino is due to weak interaction. (iii) Electromagnetic Force : Electromagnetic force operates on all charged particles and provides atomic and molecular binding forces. Thus electromagnetic interactions are charge-dependent (attractive as well as repulsive). The electric and magnetic forces compose the electromagnetic force which acts by means of photon or quanta. If both el. etic forces exist, then it is called Lorentz’s force given by |F = qE + quB sint Where, Charge of the particle Ic = Electric field strength gas denege! Velocity of the charged particle B = Magnetic field intensity 0 = Angle between velocity and magnetic field (iv) Nuclear Force (Strong Force): Among all the forces found in nature, nuclear force is the Strongest force which basically exists within atomic fiaeleus between proton-proton, proton-neutron, and neutron-neutron within the range up to 10-™ meter. Experimental evidences OF the nuclear Phyeies observe that nuclear forces are primarily attractive, non-electrical, non-gravitational (not central forces), extremely strong but spin dependent and the magnitude of the force is same for proton-proton, proton-neutron and neutron-neutron. Explanation of the nuclear forces was given in detail by Yukawa’s Menson’s theory. Some scientists also assume that the nuclear forces originate through the mutual interaction of two quarks. Comparison among four types of Interactions : Interaction Relative Carrier particle Characteristic magnitude Time Nuclear (strong) 1 x —meson 10sec interaction Electromagnetic 10 photon 10"sec interaction Weak interaction 104 Intermediate Bosons 10sec Gravitational 10” Graviton 10sec Scanned by CamScannerwow wisionias.met yal soe ous forces act rces is Zero vari z pe-0 "fi two or more forces operate in g fon a body P towards any force, then the unbalanced xt) stats eee force. st way that te pody is called aati mon experience that when blogg solid-solid m8 00 i 2 It Te floor it eventually comes to rest. This meang whereas it fpiseetin snoton here emmotion and this force is called friction] dvantag A 7 that an opposing ick i aytet force. je neither gravitational NOT elastic in ee one alsa, wheels w “Tis fore = neither Birr aver a body slides over another body, each (iy T ‘occurs in pair, Actua aI force to each other along the surfaces of contac, isaavel body exerts 2 frictional "ort acts ina direction opposite to its motion, aS . e frictional force o% rce of friction actin; i) ! The frictic fa body increases, the for 1B ON it also andivoa) ‘As the motion o increas of trition (Fs direlly proportional fo its normal reaction (R) ogi eye Ror, Fp= wR Wms. . : Sexe s/s constant and called coefficient of friction. ee m= mass of the sliding body Frictional AR 7 patho eceleration due to gravity force — Direction | Pair ac ‘Types of frictional forces is of motion, Seekis (i) Static frictional force I~ accele (ii) Kinetic or sliding frictional force 7 = hasa 8 ; (ii) Rolling frictional force vmg : ive. in (i Static frictional force : If a body Kept on any surface tries to move oa by any force applied on it but doesn’t move, then the force operative within hase the surfaces of both is called static force of friction which is equal to the ' applied force but in opposite direction. Gi) Kinetic or sliding fricti . : sliding or mig a ut eh tens force Eg a body on any surface is bothis called kineicor sliding fictional fens he Surfaces oF | Gii) Rolling Fricti | fur, then oc acting within the oe ols oF another body (or | te al force. in the surfaces of both is called rolling = fatic force of frieti " fore iti tion > Kinetic ii : Kinet rat > HOH, Heresy, pang (O%ce Of friction > Rolling | Yt Charactenet 8 tistion. “MyM. and ut, are called coeff. of static, acteristics of frictional fo 5 () The fricei rces tt not de ‘onal forces acting with; pend on their '6 Within the tw, A ¢ Surfaces, Mact area, rather th ‘© surfaces of the bodies do a ley depend upon the nature of a Scanned by CamScannererrr, isi 7 ’ -visionias.nct Uy sies i) the static force of Friction j 2 eas is the jrction the least or the smallest. he largest and ¢] (iii) To reduce friction between ¢, jeave called lubricant is used whiehae ,e s ich is "7 Ne Polling: force of ini ball-bearings intervenes between i fam coming iia eel contac ard he = pet {fling fiction and that is why force of friction, cian ion, converted (i) It is also observed that force of Hic ory iminishes ton into quid solid is the largest while in liquid-fggey oie Ine Surfaces whereas it is least in solid-gas surtaces, aitid i is tess than the tonmer advantages “ wit the force of friction doesn’t exi: u : sn’t exist wheels will start to slip and would ultimately darroe’ Pete Vehicles run, (ii) Due to the forces of friction man stands and pisadvantages meee (i) Due to the forces of friction, i h , ene! and tools and ultimately the machines mete mmusehin snaehitss (i) Due to the forces of friction the inner com machines generate tremendous amount of heat (th Tistorts the machines. = Centripetal Force (Real Force) : When etal Force (R 5 a body mo: i sie lias ipo pag ee Sa Sa rh acts towards the radius and it is called Centripetal. acceletaticn (Cent S Seeking) or radial acceleration. But by Newton's second law of motion, this acceleration is produced by a corresponding force (every accelerated body has a force) called Centripetal Force directed inwardly towards the radius ie. in the direction of acceleration. Thus a body of mass m moving with a constant speed 2 (uniform circular motion) on a circular path of radius r has a magnitude of the centripetal force. a ? But F = mass * acceleration ponents (parts) of tmal energy) which my? m w? 2» (o* MOT” _ mor (ov =r) eeFf="= where, w = angular velocity of the body. Thus centripetal force is a real force acting on the body ® to maintain a circular motion or to remain on a circular track. Without it circular motion is not possible. The centripetal acceleration always acts ra velocity (linear) acts tangentially outwards. Thus the centripetal — acceleration and linear velocity of the bodydescribing a circular motion are perpendicular to each other throughout the motion. Also at each and every instant the direction centripetal acceleration (radially inward) and its velocity (tangentially outward) change regularly. v dially inwards, whilewow wisionias.met 2 eeenisoo jon the body moves on a jrcular MONON nd variable velocity ( ange direction Diform circular motion Wot aise body descr, of acceleration-one cen, nth two ty simultancousl? 7 experiences ( yand another tangential acceleragig, : erations, th, 7 y ‘i d tangential accel , then fing tangentia’? etal and ti i , ne eed ae te eta ody in uniform circular motion wou, ‘i ation 2 accel cise, = a Resultant accelerat teagan ial = [centripetal ace nt (avi is not different from other ordi i jpetal force is ni ‘ eg Te nature ofthe CTP tional forces, Electrostatical Columbian forces like Grav ie'simply a way of describing the behaviour of a force es etc, bu : ie ible for the maintenance of the circular motion Examples : (i) In the planetary motions of sun and planets and also in i th natural and artificial) orbital motions of planets and satellites (both nz the cae sor Pounterbalanced by Gravitational forces. thus, ME = SMe mo'R (2 v= aR) (ii) The centripetal force is necessarily equal to the force of friction of the wheels of the vehicle acting on the contact surfaces at the overturning of the road. Thus; =uF=ymg where y= coeff. of friction. (iii) An orbiting electron experiences a centripetal for: obi ‘ce abouta massi nucleus which is equal to the electrostatical forces of attraction. masse , mo 1 (Ze) Thus: MP a gel eh not the rea : imagi Why itis also called ay force that a ictiona; “y force of the centripetal nature i ‘ars 3 “rtial force, ¥ the virtue of inertia, That's Scanned by CamScannerwow wisionias.met " “Physics 9 “Example : (i) Ifa man is travelling in a car in a straight line path and the car suddenly turns right, then the man realises a severe shock (push) towards the left. This happens because as the car turns, a centripetal force around the radius of curvature of the path is generated which is counter- batanced by the force of friction of the wheels of the car. But this centripetal force is not balanced by the man, so a shock is felt by the man which comes through the virtue of inertia. This is the required centrifugal force which acts outwardly. Gi) The person sitting in a merry-go-round realises an outer push tangentially due to the appearance of a centrifugal force. In the study of any physical phenomenon, the position of a system or body is made to be fixed and the distances of other bodies are measured called reference frames. It is of two types (i) Inertial (Non-accelerating) and (ii) Non-inertial (accelerating). Inertial frames are those in which inertia of any body remains conserved. Thus this frame is either in rest or in a uniform motion ina straight line i.e. no force, no acceleration concept exists. But if the force or the acceleration exists in a particular frame it is called non-inertial. Newton's laws of motion are applicable only in inertial frame of reference. Application Centrifuge : A device by means of which light particles and heavy particles are separated to each other. () Cream Separator : In a cream separator, a vessel containing milk is rotated fast. Being lighter the cream collects in a cylindrical layer around the axis, whence it is drawn off and the skimmed milk is drained through an outlet fitted on the wall of the vessel. The particles, whose density is less than that of the liquid, are driven towards the axis of rotation and those whose density is greater than that of the liquid are driven away from the axis. Cream is lighter than milk, so it is separated from milk and collected at the axis. (i) The Centrifugal Drier : In laundries wet clothes are dried by packing them in a cylindrical vessel with perforated walls which rotated with a very high speed. Water particles stick to the cloths with a certain force which is called adhesive force. The water particles are not sufficient to keep them moving uniformly in a circle. Torque or Moment of a force : The turning effect of a force about a point or a line is called the moment of force about that point or line which is called the axis of rotation. The turning effect of a force is dependent on the magnitude of the force and the perpendicular F distance of its line of action from the axis of rotation. heen thee Scanned by CamScannerGeneral Selence the body either in clog my of the moment of force is fag oF ‘or tends to turn the body. General dered 99 2 poritve (ive) deel nor larger magnitude Of the force, there ‘ Fer moment of force, Thus turning eqatt ergo tering Oe ger moment of force Petpendicus® bea ible for 2 jon. ig of rotated as the product of the force ang Pi the axis of rotation pendicular distan e- Force * its perpendicular dig, hws moment of fore from the axis of rotation, tance <> The moment of the force oF torque @-7 « F =rFsin6 = Frsind where; @=angle between the force and the position vector. ity and its $.1. unit is Num co eal : (i) For the equal forces as far as [J] Hinge larger distance from the hinges of any door it will be needed to apply some more moment of force and correspondingly the tendency of more turning will be appeared. That's why handles are installed and fixed at a larger distance from the hinges of the door. (ii) The handle of a quern is kept distant from its pivot because through a smaller force (effort) the [E] Hinge handle can be easily turned out (rotated). Bene! (iii) Hand pumps of water have larger handles. Couple: Two equal and opposite forces form as the product of the force and the couple arm, | Thus; couple = force x couple arm | =Fed The couple is also a ve ctor quantit i appears like a torque and its S| nie is Now a effect of applying 3 orgue or couple on a body is WF is @ couple and it is defined F <«—_i—_ | f the vehicle. (iii) To open the water-pump etc. hines operate on the principle of Point a force ig applied and from Scanned by CamScanneri wow wisionias.met Physics en eight is carried a \ another point we Fried out. The Lever, p } Sfrow Jack are the examples of Simple Machin Inelined Planes and Machines are equipments through carried By applying a lesser force." WhICh more heavy objects. are ‘The efticie of machine is given by- of a machine - ze Work done by the machine nput energy provided by the ne 100 jaleniey: ; fed by the e The efficiency of any machine can never be 100 ap etnaching Lever: Lever is a simple machine in which a steaga js made to turn oF rotate at a point Fre jhere are three points namely — Fulen nw hich a straight or an inclined rod ly or independently. In every lever um, Effort and Load. Examples : Tongs, Nut Cracker, Scissors etc Joram : The fixed point a the fed point abi which the rod of the lever moves Effort : To use (operate) lover the Effort. Load : The weight carried by the lever is called Load. Theory of Lever: The basic physical principle on which a lever operates is that the product of cffort and effort-arm is equal to the product of the joad and load-arm Thus; Effort x Effort-arm = Load « Load-arm Mechanical Advantage of Lever: The ratio of the load carried by the lever to the effort applied is called the mechanical advantage of the lever. Load or weight (W) Effort (E) pes of Levers : On the basis of the relative positions of fulcrum, effort and load there are three types of Lever. () First Type of Lever : In this type of lever the Fulcrum (F) is at midway between Effort (£) and Load or Weight (W). Load or weight (W) Mechanical advantage = —_— force applied externally is called ‘Thus mechanical advantage = Effort (E) _ AF _ Effort arm “BF ~ Load arm Example : Scissors, Brakes of a bicycle, balance etc. A F B i Gi) Second Type of Lever : In this type of lever the load (W) i at midway between the fulcrum (F) and the Effort (E). Load(W) _ AF Mechanical advantage Scanned by CamScannerEE wvwisionias_met ree General Science Such levers provide more than one mechanical advantages since AF > BF Example : Nut cracker, Lemon squeezer, movable door on hinges, tobaco cutting machines etc. Gil) Third Type of Lever: In this type of lever the Effort (E) is located at midway between the Ful cram (F) and the Load or Weight (W). Mechanical advantage - Load(W) __ AF — Effortarm eset advange = Fie (E) AF ee ide mechanical advantages of less than 1, ‘ers are used and utilized to enhance the Such type of levers provi since AF < BF. Such lev slow motion. Example: Tongs, plough of the farmers, hands of a man ete, E B, F Ww Centre of mass: Every with a certain point whe ame external s called centre of mass of the system. Thus centre of mass of a body (system of particles) is a point where the whole (entire) mass of the body may be supposed to be concentrated so far the action of a system of parallel forces acting on the elementary masses ig concerned. If a body (system of particles) is composed through a numbe; Of particles, say n of masses my, iy, my m, located at the distance (position veetor) ry, ry 7.07, then the position of the position vector r., is defined as ty _ My Nt my Fy +m Tom = m, + my 4m, Centre of Gravity : The centre of gravity of a body (system - rigidly connected together at a point where the whole mace of the icles) or the system may be supposed to be concentrated so far as gravity (ody of attraction due to the earth) on the constituent particles of the pce or the system is concerned. Also according to the Principle of the lang | gravitation every particle of a body near or upon the surfece Of the ev Ff i is attracted towards the centre of the earth. The vectorial stun, of ath Scanned by CamScannerwow wisionias.met Physics 2B attractive forces on the particles is the total force with which the body is attracted towards the centre of the earth, This force is called the weight of the body and the point of application of this force is called the centre of the gravity of the body or th ora larger body centre of gravity and centre of mass are two different points but tor a smaller body these two are a coincident point. Centre of gra of some rigid bodies Bodies ion of the centre of gravity (C.G.) Unitorm bar (rod) Mid-point of the axis passing through the bar or rod. Tnangular solid body The intersection point of the medians. Rectangular or Square Solid The intersections points of the diagonals. Circular Lamina Centre of the circle. Conical Solid " At Ts height on the axis of the cone from its base. Hollow Cone mney At }* height on the axis of the cone from its base. Solid Spherical body Centre of the sphere Equilibrium of Bodies : When a body under the action of several forces neither moves in a straight line nor rotates around a point then it is said to be in equilibrium. Conditions for equilibrium ; (i) The vector sum of all forces acting on a body along any assigned direction for translational equilibrium must be zero. Thus no linear motion occurs. (ii) The algebraic sum of moments (torques) of all the forces acting on a body about any assigned point or line for rotational equilibrium must vanish (being zero). Thus no angular acceleration must exist. If three forces acting on a particle as shown in the figure are capable of being represented in magnitude and direction by the three sides of a triangle taken in order, they (force) produce an equilibrium. ‘Types of Equilibrium : There are three types of equilibrium (i) Stable equilibrium (ii) Unstable equilibrium (iii) Neutral equilibrium. (i) Stable equilibrium : When a body is in equilibrium in such a way that a slight displacement from this position produces a restoring force tending to return the body to the previous equilibrium, then body is said to be in stable equilibrium. In stable equilibrium the body possesses minimum potential energy. (ii) Unstable equilibrium : When a body is in an equilibrium in such a way that any displacement from this position produces a force tending to push the body farther from the equilibrium position, then it is said to be in unstable equilibrium. In this equilibrium position the body possesses maximum energy. Scanned by CamScannerVvisionias.net wre jean avedy inact tate fen ee; it (body) ces 1 P Hbritsm that position it QO y oT to be in gan Nentrated aryhtly from Moree, then body tial energy of thee shan Ste nr» ee rion the poten es i fibrie arestordng tr phis equ fs constant Neutral Unstable equilibrium Sable equilibrium equilibrium te be in stable equilibri al Geil a BOY Ie a, oaatol of when its centre of gravity (CG. tability of equilibrium — Universal conditions for the sta ko oe (oh a tie conte of gravity (cg,) of the body (b) The vertical line ‘cron a inners ea a aa i extremely inclined for an ee ieee that it may fal! down at any moment, but it never an is factit hast been surviving (existing) since centuries. The reason for its stability is that the vertical line passing through the centre of gravity (c4,) lies within the base of the tower Gi) A double-decker bus is found to be in danger of overturning if mow passengersare seated on the upper deck. If there are more passengers on the upper deck, the cg. of the system (bus+ passenger) will be shifted upwardand the stability of equilibrium will be reduced. (iii) A man carrying a bucket completely filled of water leans forward. The man leans outward to attain an e quilibrium position. When he leans forward the vertical line through the 8. of the system (man + bucket) passes through the base of the system (space between his feet). In the gravitation Work : When a con: Particle takes place in a Straight line in done by the force is detined the and the distance x through which t Thus the work (W)= Fx Howes is she pie monn ic tay not etn the ton in » Here the Product of the component of th one att By the force oe ae e force along the line of motion of the "2 particle and the motion of the the direction of the force, the work Product o} f the magnitude of the force F he particle moves, Scanned by CamScanner- wow wisionias.met Physics. 6 pe the angle made by F with the line of mot 160 De Mieion of work; W= (Fcos0)-x~ F- (ree oe parte then the d (x eos 6) 1" ge, work done by a force = force x displacement along the force, work 18 4 scalar quantity and the SI unit of Work is N-m which is called 20) | tie value of the work will be maximum at 0 =0° and minimum at @ = 90° > Wry =F Wain = power: The power of an agent is defined as the rate at which work is ne. The average power delivered by an agent is the total work done by dm ent divided by the total time interval, thea __work done (W)_ Thus power (P) = Ti terval @ ‘The instantaneous power of an agent is P= the St unit of power is watt; 1 watt = Usule _, N-m sec sec The power of Machines are expressed in Horse Power (H.P.) and 1 HLP. = 746 watt. Watt-second (Ws) - Itis a unit of work. Watt-hour (Wh) ~ It is also another unit of work, = 1Wh = 3600 Joule. Kilo Watt-hour (kWh) - It is also the unit of work (energy) 1kWh = 1000 watt hour = 1000 watt = 1 hr. 1000 watt x 3600 see 3.6 x 10° watt sec 3.6 x 10 Joule Thus, W, kW, MW, and LP. ete. are the units of power; while Ws, Wh, kWh, etc. are the units of work (energy). " If the force applied on a body is not constant, rather varies with distance, then the total work done by the force = work (W) = JF cos 8 ax The work done in stretching a spring through a distance x = where k = a spring constant Energy : Energy of a body is its capacity of doing work. In Mechanics (General Physics) a body is capable of doing work under two circumstances ke, t is in motion and (ii) When itis situated (located) ina field strained. Thus two types of energy usually coexist— one due to the motion and the another due to the field or position. Scanned by CamScannerGeneral Science ping motion acquires a Tinea: descr which is called Kinetic energy. ing wor! velocity % then kinetic energy P(e p=linear momentum a is hen its kineti Heater a is double # i Hest REKD s of the body #8 ae or linear momentum of (2, Gnd ‘Thus if the mins Vaile if either velocity OF ef the rium il become double PT come four times as t eth i ee radoble its KE. ta ody develOps a capacity of doing work 7. oo eat a ial energy . ‘ Pete nat is called the estonia £ an ied acs “Fm ie ma ey rative, then potential energy of thy, dee ation due to gravity is ope! tv, then potential eneng where an by PE-= might. wheres & - a 4 nana bu Het strikes (hits) a target it penetra as wen a bullet s force offered by the target. This is the KB. o¢ ig for . (attra res i being brought to rest corks against the resis! Se ina a the body and is es - Lt jt works due to its postion in the ft New When the body is ke unit of energy is obviously the same as that “8 Thisis obviously PE. Thus the a of work fs 7 ative forces : A force is said to be cerita hasnt gab Keon ary partici iat inoves between nee depandsoniy upon these two points and not on the path followed. A teres nencemsetvative if ihe rworke done ky the force ‘ona particle that moves between two points depends on the path taken between those points. Thus a force is said to be conservative if the work done by the force 6n a particle in a round trip is zero. A force is said to be non-conservative if work done by the Torce a @ particle in a round trip is not zero, Examples: The Gravitational force, Electrostatical force, Adhesive and Cohesive forces ete. are conservative forces, Viscous force, frictional farce, damping force etc. are non-conservative forces, Law of Conservation of Energy: Energy may be transformed from one form to another but it can’t be Created or destroyed and the total energy of any body or system i 0 ® Constant. Also whenever any energy in any form ‘ same amount of energy appears i This iscalled the law of conservation ofenerpy” Spas Re Transformation of Energy eereme ny Snes / Instruments Transformation of Energy ai hoe energy into Electrical energy Hactis inn ne rise energy into Electrical energy Soman Snergy into Mechanical energy s : ound energy into Electrical energy Scanned by CamScannerwow wisionias.met Physics - . a 7 a {Instruments Transformation of Energy oudspeal Electrical energy int er ates ie By into Sound energy . ‘anical energy into Sound energy Bulb/Tul Electrical energy into Light energy Heater Electrical energy into Thermal energy Candle Chemical energy into Light energy al ‘Thermal enemy eh and Coal ; Chemical energy into Thermal energy Electric Cen Chemical energy into Electrical energy Heat Engine Thermal energy (Heat energy) into Mechanical energy 4. Gravitation Gravitation is the weakest interaction or force among all the four types of interactions existing in our Universe. Each and every body interacts (attracts) each other by virtue of its mass. This is called Gravitation. Newton's Law of Gravitation In our universe the force of interaction acting among any two bodies is directly proportional to the masses of the bodies and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the bodies. If m,, m, be the masses of two bodies at r distance then according, to “he Newton's law of gravitation Fam,m, Fat r - Pagal r where G is called Universal Gravitational Constant = 6.67 x 10°" Nm?kg? Gravity : As in Newton’s law of gravitation the forces of interaction exist among any two bodies, but if in these two bodies one body is the Earth, then this gravitation is called gravity and by this force of gravity the Earth attracts everybody towards its centre. If a body is projected upwards freely, then due to the force of gravity it falls back. Acceleration due to gravity (g) : If a body is dropped freely and it executes a free falling motion, then as the body comes near the Earth’s surface then its velocity increases and the acceleration produced is called acceleration due to gravity. If m be the mass of any body describing a free falling motion then due to the presence of force of gravity the weight of the bo . where g = 9.8 ms or 32 ft = acceleration due to gravity (Near the earth’s surface) In SI unit ‘g’ is expressed in ms? or N. kg. Scanned by CamScannervisionias.net re General Seience ravitational Constant (G)_ wait betwé Universal Go : ee a lid sphey x vt neous solid sphere of tion ducto gravity WS pope located) on the surface toe oe sup inertial mass m be a body of M, and another "eae i interaction on the body of mass m= 2% force o! 3 sa a dius of the earth snaion a ‘Newton's second law of mi Z joawen ia bier mass * acceleration CMm Thus "= mg R On| Bas R | _ (Here, we assume that the inertial mass is equal to the Bravitationay mass) ion due to gravity (g < 9 i f the acceleration 18 Seat ene ee the mass of the body. Thus two bodies ¢¢ Toes nell (if air resistance is to be negligible) fall freely and the oul) huve the same value of ¢ near the earth’s surface. This shows that if two bodies of different masses, shapes and sizes are dropped ina Yacuum from the same height, then both will reach the ground (surface) simultaneously. In the presence of air, the viscous drag, buoyancy ete. th, motion (free falling) of the bodies are affected and thus the heavy body comes down earlier than lighter body. Variation in acceleration due to gravity (g) : At the latitude of 45° ang atthe sea-level the standard value of gis 9.8 m/s? or 32.ft/sec? But the value of gis not constant and varies from place to place. {9) Due to the spheroidal (Oblate Spheroid) shape of the earth . GM As derived above g = —>* and since the equatorial diameter is larger than the polar diameter, the value of ¢ ial region i enthare ge pol eine © of g in the equatorial region is less THOS: ¢ = max. (At poles) =min. (At equator) (b) Due to the axial rotati ksPton theearth’s surface jot the earth ; a ele If a body of mass m is earth's rotation the weet oe bea Place whose latitude is) then due to changed weight is the apparent’s woest¥ed to have changed. ‘This @pparent weight a PP eared due tg yar St Of the body. Obviously an In fact the bod, Variation in g ly describes : 2 (traces) a circle of radius r= R, cos i due to Scanned by CamScanner=. ¥-wisionias-nmet Fthe oPhyetes am ‘The expression of the apparent weight ts of red derived as— pe “Apparent wt (mg/) = mg ma? r cos? = Fee ED an \ =3'=g—w' rcosth But at the pole A= 90° = x =g (max. atthe poles) At the equator 2 - 0° = g'=g-c!r (At the equator) Obviously, if the earth stops to rotate then =O and here g’= £ the earth’s rotation increased 17 times of the present value, then the ‘weight (apparent wt.) at the equator will be zero. tal Obviously, the value of g increases on decreasing the value of angular velocity of the earth and vice-versa. (@) With distance from the Centre of the Earth Here the graphical representation of the variation of g with distance has been displayed— The value offg = Oat the centre of the earth. It increases linearly with distance up to the surface of the earth and then decreases rapidly and again becomes zero at infinity. The acceleration due to ——_————— gravity g is maximum on the surface of the earth. (a) Variation in goin from the earth’s surface. (i) The value of g decreases in going up. If any body goes ht height from the earth’s surface, then the value of g decreases and say g’ which is given by & ‘es(t = z) r=Re cosh @ =angular velocity = latitude of the place © (centre of the earth) cs “Vr uesy 1g up from the earth’s surface and coming down creases in coming down. If any body comes (ii) The value of g also d eases and we down to height from the earth’s surface, the value of g decre say itg’ whichis given by ginal iE ) a Remark : The value of g from going up OF coming down inside the earth decreases but decreases more in going uP than in coming down. Applications of the variation of g (i) [a llift or an elevator goes up wil sitting in it experiences a larger weight than thal Thus, apparent weight = (mig + ma) (increased wt.) where; m= mass of the man. i Scanned by CamScanner th any acceleration a, then the man t of his original.General Science own with any a tor comes a Y accel jfalift or an elevator weight than w simitaty i 3 Hr or mexperiences # lesser iz that of «a then the man (decreased wt.) Thus, original. t= (mga) ( ; parent weig! ‘haconstant velocity (no acceleras, Thus apparedt clevatormoves With acon man, tag Now (ui) Ifaliftor vano change int upondovm then there is 20 CHINES Ye of the lift OF elevator ‘Thu (iv) If daring coming dowhre curs and the sitting man experign | broken, then a free falling motion Teg | a weight lessness. — the valy Since during free falling = 8+ depend Thus apparent wi. = ma= MS lesser ¥ At OE udielihvorcieviloedurt thesan Jue of the acceleration a of the lift orelevat ing coming Th dove drint became more than g, then the sitting man on the floor of the 7.990 would escape on the roof of the lift. a ‘As ifa>g then apparent twi. = mg —ma <0 ——ve satelli Thus apparent wt.(-ce) physically activates the man upwardly ang man comes on the roof of the lift (elevator). 1 Planets and Satellites : Planets are the celestial bodies revolving around the elliptical orbits of the sun in our solar system. But the heavenly bodies revolving around the planets are called satellites. The Earth is the planet of the sun and the moon is a satellite (natural) of the Earth. The planets and satellites draw their light and energy from the sun becatise the have no energy of their own, There are so many artificial satellites like”. Geostationary satellites, Sputnik-1, Aryabhatta, Rohini and Apple whi have been launched in various orbits of the earth. Various combeaniene satellites are orbiting around the Earth, nication a sci it. the frst artificial satellite launched in 1957 by Russian Pe or Orbital Velocity : tevlves around another bd ey ay atelit) the velocity of the revolution, etek, the Earth) then orbital velocity, \¢ first body is called Let m be the mass . s the earth of the mace ae orbiting around is velocity) and let R, be the fadios cee %0 (orbital 5 ee ‘e tadius of the earth, i Centripetal 4 Scanned by CamScannerPhysics 5 Le er im Tmussey ayy =e eG (: Now, if =0, Then v, will become the orbital velocity of the earth. Tho (een Bal eg VR Obviously from the expression of the orbital velocity of the satellite, the value of vg doesn’t depend upon the mass (m) of the satellite rather it depends on the height (h) of the satellite, and the larger the value of h the lesser would be the value of vg, But satellites having various masses with the same orbital radius have the same orbital velocity. The value of orbital velocity of the earth and a geostationary satellite is, 7.99 km/sec. (approx. 8 km/sec.) Period of revolution of a satellite : The time required in which the satellite completes one rotation is called the period of revolution (T). Thus the period of revolution (T) = Orbital velocity 3 2e(R +h) 2n(R,+h) Rok — 2n (K+)? % Rvs Rg 3 2n(R, +h)? g - Ra (* -84/xsi) Obviously, the period of revolution (1) of the satellite is independent of the mass of the satellite. Rather it depends on the height of the satellite from. the surface, and the more the height (h) the larger the period of revolution (1). The period of the revolution of the earth or a geostationary satellite is 84 minutes. Geostationary Satellite : A geostationary satellite is a communication satellite which revolves from west to east and whose period of revolution is 24 hrs equal to that of axial rotation of the earth (earth’s spin). Such satellites are stationary and are located at 36,000 km height from the earth’s surface. Geostationary satellites (Communication Satellites) transmit signals across larger distances by receiving these signals from one point on earth’s surface and reflecting them down to the another point. In order to provide a stationary target for the transmitted signals, these satellites must remain stationary at a point above the earth. Utilities :(i) The electromagnetic radio-waves are reflected and transmitted and various programmes on the television are displayed. Itis utilised in radio transmission and telecommunication. The Meteorological Department uses it in weather broadcasting, and in earlier predictions of the floods and droughts. Scanned by CamScanner| wow visionias-net Bw = - Escape Velocity : The escape velocity is the minimum requ of a body through which it is proj pe ited velog jected. It goes beyond the wed Vele pull and never comes back. Bravitational 7 be the mass of a body projected from the earth’s surface Brand mass M,, the kinetic energy of the body Must be equal g Bravitational potential energy. 0 the GM Thus; Ly? CMe 2 %@ R, G or vu. = /——e where v, = escape velocity locity of a body on the earth's surface is v= /2gR, and the orbital velocity of the body around the earth B- vs, = 1-20, Thus, if the velocity of an orbiting satellite close to the earth is increased V2 times or 41%, then the satellite will leave the orbit In other words, if the kinetic ener it and will escape. B Satellite is doubled rgy of an orbitin, immediately, then the satellite will maximum on the sun and it H,, He etc. do not escape. The i.e. 2.4 m/sec. So, no gases exi: moon has no atmosphere and from the surface of the moon the sky appeai value of escape velocity of the gaseous molecules must be root mean square (rms) veloci Wi Eiily0F the carts Scanned by CamScannersed 2pe. Ted vis ike ity 10 te wow wisionias.met Physics 3 Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion : Kepler gave 7 three laws regarding motion of the planets around the sun. (First law (law of elliptical orbits) : Each planet moves in an elliptical orbit around the sun, the sun being at one of the foci of the ellipse. Gi) Second law (laws of areas): The radius vector of any planet relative to the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times, that is the real velocity of the radius vector of the planet is constant. Gil) Third law (harmonic laws): The square of the period of revolution of any planet around the sun is proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of the elliptical orbit. i where; a= semi-major axis Obviously, those planets which are far away from the sun have a large period of revolution. The planet Mercury which is nearest to the sun has the period of revolution of 88 days while Neptune, which is far away from the sun, has the period of revolution of 165 years. 5. Properties of Matter Matter : Matter is the substance that occupies space and has mass and it is perceptible to the senses. Matter is one of the two basic components of the physical science in which the another component is being energy. The uishing properties of matter are gravitation and inertia. Any entity exhibiting these properties at rest is matter. All material bodies have mass, which is a measure of inertia and every material body near the earth's gravitational field interacts by the virtue of its mass. Thus two types of masses—inertial mass and gravitational mass remain in existence by their proportion of equality. The broad classification of the matter is given as below— e. The Matter Physical Classification Chemical Classification Pure substance Mixt Solid Liquid Gas oe Homogeneous Heterogeneous Element Compound Metallic Non-metallic Organic Inorganic The physical classification separates matter into three categories— Solid, liquid and gas-known as three states (phases) of matter. But today Plasma, which appears in gaseous or ionized state is actually comes into existence during a thermonuclear process and which is composed of charged particles, is assumed to be the fourth state of matter, Scanned by CamScannerau Important characteristics of the Matter Solids - Elasticity Liquids —_- Pressure, Floatation, Surface Tension, Capillarity, Viscosity Gases ~ Atmospheric Pressure (A) ELASTICITY If a rigid body is in equilibrium under the inter- molecular attraction, whose magnitude depends upon the Spacing bet molecules, and an external force is applied, then a new j, developed which causes a change in the relative spa molecules. Hence the body changes its shape or size or both and it is said to be deformed. When the external force is removed the new internal force brings the body to its normal or original state. The Property of the body, by virtue of which it recovers its original shape and size when the external force (deforming force) is removed, is called the elasticity of the body, A perfectly elastic body is one that recovers its original size and shape completely when the external force is removed. Thus a Perfectly plastic body is one that fully maintains its altered size and shape when the external force is removed. Actual bodies behave between these two limits, Nev y recovers completely its original size and shape after undergoing very large deformations. A body is said to be rigid if the relative position of its constituent Particles doesn’t change in equilibrium but on applying an external force a slight relative displacement takes place. In practice no body a perfectly rigid. Elastic Limit : The maximum limit of the external force (deforming force) by applying on a rigid body, elastic characteristics are maintained, is called elastic limit. Different elastic limits are to be found for different bodies. ni Strain : When a body suffers a change in its size or shape under the action of external forces, it is said to be deformed and the corresponding fractional change is called strain. The strain is a ratio and it has no unit, no dimension. There are three types of strain— longitudinal (linear) strain, volume strain and shearing (shape) strain, Stress : When external deforming forces act on a body internal forces opposing the former are developed at each section of the body. The magnitude of the internal forces per unit area of the section is called stress. In the equilibrium state of a deformed body, the internal forces are equal and opposite to the external forces. Thus, stress is measured by the external Bree unit area of their application. The dimension of the etrees i and its units are N/m? (§ 1) and dyne/cm? (CGs). : ® are operative tangentially on a body, then a change in shape in the body occurs and it is said to be thearei. A shear 1s numerically equal to the ratio of the di tovits distance from the fixed surface e displacement of any layer forces of ween the internal force is cing between the Scanned by CamScannerHooke “YY wisionias-nmect stress iS proportional » > °*Peti - ‘Petime; 35 ‘onal to Strain, ‘tally obsery, Th _ PrOvided the otc % that within elastic Hi; riteane ee * ca =a conn 1S small, Maotic limit S18 called Hooke’ ‘ain t (Young’ modulus of elasticity o¢ thet < The constant of . modulus) and itis different for diff 'Y and depend, Proportionality $8 cat there are three types ae 5 Pes Of strain POR thematerial of thetont Rigidity modulus, “*Sticity— Youngs tthe same material ti B'S Modulus, Bulk mod ey Young’s Modulus ; “vent along only one direction sev eR equ: that direction is called ton jtudi © change in as vel ae on a body unit area of cross-section © Ca Lot linear strat ae ahat Henath along Here the ratio of longitug;, eet ; gitudis ee modulus of the material ot ge bode rsitudinal strain is called IfLbe t! y. waseee oy aeneth and A be the cross-sectional area and if its length be length, then ‘wal and opposite § forces F are applied along its Longitudinal Stress = A Longitudinal Strain = at F Thus Young’s modulus for the material of the body Y = A AL . m z The unit of Young’s modulus is same as that of stress N/m2(SI) or dyne/cm?(CGs). Gi) Bulk modulus : When a uniform pressure is applied all over the surface of a body then the volume of the body changes. The change in volume per unit volume Let V be the volume of a body and let it be diminished by an amount AV when the pressure on its surface increases by Ap, then Normal Stress = Ap and Volume strain = 4V. Thus Bulk-modulus for the material of the body. v s ibility. The The converse of the bulk modulus is called compressibi 4 Negative sign is assigned because volume decreases when the pressure increases, ; is the ratio of tangential Gii) Rigidity modulus : When a body is sheared, stress to shestie strain is called rigidity modulus of the material of the body, Scanned by CamScannerwww -wisionias-net General Science E f face area = “Asc be a section of a cube bea of ame A atite rower face be fixed eee ae nope face ° by a tangenti 7 eae een ‘which its vertical sides have een turned, then tangential stress = 7 and shearing strain = 8 In: i be is (p) = A } ‘Thus rigidity modulus of the material of the cube is (p) = 4 hel : al and opposite forces are apps, Poisson's ratio : When two equ see d toa body along a certain specific direction, the body extends along tha, direction. At the same time, it also contracts along the perpendicular direction, The fractional change in the direction along which the forces ; ¢ have been applied is called fongituctinal strain, while the fractional change | « ina transverse (perpendicular) direction is called lateral strain. t The ratio of lateral strain to that of longitudinal strain is called poisson's 1 ratio. tis a constant for the material of a body. Ifa wire of original length | and diameter D is subjected to equal and_| opposite force F along its length, then the length of it increases tol + al and Sea the diameter decreases to D- AD, aches Al dire Now, longitudinal strain = 7 and lateral strain = 4D Thy dex AD The poisson’s ratio (o) of the material of the wire is =D @ Al The theoretical y, i ! . al value of poisson’s ratio (a) lies between -1 to : pr Wwever its practical value ig mt tena? never negative and it lies between a ws hv ) PRESSURE Pressure is defined as the force i ‘ <¢ applied per unit surface area. 4 Thus, Pressure. —Forceapplied Obviously, the press, Area of the surface of the surface Pressure Will be more f, and vice. or a larger f called pascal ( vice-versa, The S] "ger force and smaller area unit . Pa). It isa scalar quantity. °F Pressure is N/m? which is Scanned by CamScannerwow wisionias.met Physics x Pressure applied on liquids : The pressure on the liquid surface i experienced due to its weight exerted everywhes, Usually ee of a liquid are in a random motion with different speeds in different directions. If a liq confined in a container, then the molecules of the liquid collide with each other and also with the walls of the container (vessel). Due to it on the walls of the container and on its bottom (per unit base surface) exerted pressure is applied. 2 Ss In order to evaluate the pressure exerted on any point of the liquid at height h of the liquid density p, the required pressure will be we Force due to the wt. of the liquid Area of the surface upto which liquid is confined A a= A V=Ah) Where, V= Volume = Area x Height (Length) 8 Thus, p=pgh Obviously, the liquid pressure is directly proportional to the density of liquid. Also the pressure exerted on the liquid doesn’t depend upon the shape or size of the container. If on the free surface of the liquid atmospheric pressure be operative then the total pressure exerted will be = Atmospheric Pressure (P) + pgh Some observations and conclusions regarding liquid pressure (i) At any point inside the liquid the pressure exerted by the liquid is directly proportional to its depth from the free surface. ‘Thus, as shown in the diagram the pressure will be ina decreasing order for the points 4, b and c. Thus, p,> p,> Pz Where, p, p, and p, are the respective pressures at the points a, b and c. ‘At every point and in every direction the pressure exerted inside the liquid at rest is same. If a number of holes are made after filling the container with liquid, then the liquid will be released from every hole with equal pressure. (iii) For the same horizontal surface any liquid at rest exerts the same pressure at all points. Thus; as shown in the diagram Pp=Po=Pr Where pp po and pg are the Scanned'by Canseanner’s Oanawow wisionias.met General science ~ uence of the fundamentay isis a natural COn® hich states cama ently wees a vara ene and Nase of acontined Pa" o act undiminished mass £0 P15 the liquid. According 128 fined mass of Ineo pod confined mass of I angles 0 ore aPC! Sf the cer a wa ~ at appeat as.) ogking of Hydraulic PISS follow in iting ae on the me f the pressure Beet of the liquid. ee potine ating the solid substance erie ten by agro Ege ut won henting the ag Examples Sune ae thepubstance decreases, then by the application point of the solid ang substance if he ving point decreases and vice-versa. Examples — jqg) ‘of pressure its melti . bismuth et ases on_increasing the pressure : i int of a greases. —— the free surface of the Ii hheri¢ pressure the boiling point of the water ‘Example : At simple atmosp! i ‘ is 100°C ai the pressure is doubled then its boiling point becomes 125'C__ oad When a body is whol Upthrust or Buoyant force of a liquid : When ly ly or. ially i liquid at rest, the liquid exerts pressure on every partially immersed in a liquic st L ue art of the body's surface which are in contact with the fluid. The pressure. E larger on the parts immersed more deeply. So the sts eat on all sides in upward direction called buoyancy or buoyant force. The upthrust or the buoyant force acts on the centre of gravity (c.g.) of the displaced liquid by the body which is called centre of buoyancy. Archimedes’s Principle : Archimedes’s principle states that when a body is partially or fully immersed into a fluid at rest, the fluid exerts an upward force of buoyancy which is equal to the weight of the displaced fluid. Here the apparent weight of the body is equal to the displaced fluid. Fluids are those substances which can flow, the liquids and the gases both are fluids. Archimedes’s Principle is valid for both liquids and gases. Applications ; (a) The relative density of any solid . Wt. of the solid in air ~ Apparent wt. of the solid parce of the solid in wat ©) The relative density of any liquid “a — ~App. wt. of th i Fonsi “ie e Solid in the liquid Wt. of the solid in t The relative density is a Pure numby poate Density - _ Mass _ Volume Relative density - density of the ob; = . Ibject densi = Note: he density of water aie vor aes er and it has no unit. En Scanned by CamScanner= —. m if a body tends to sink j jately become operative — the upthrust or force of buoy: Bo Here three cases arise. @ If W> Wie. the wt. of the body is greater than upthrust, then the body will sink. (i) If W = W’ ice. the we. of the body is equal to the upthrust, then the body floats inside the liquid. (ii) if W< W . the wt. of the body is less than upthrust, then w WwW Ww the body floats partially in the i) W>W7 (ii) W=W“ (iii) We’ an and the upper Part of the body remains outside from the Also for a body floating partially the ratio of the following must hold The density of the body, The density of the liquid — Total volume of the body inside liquid Total volume of the body Application: fa piece oficefloats ona watersurface thenits1/10"partof thetotal volumeremainsabovethesurfaceand9/10™partremainssubmerged. us the densi the ice is 0.9 gm/cm*. The density of the pure water 1g/cm? 011000 kg/m") Onthe prinapleot these applications the quantity Ofwater i impure milk is measured by the Lactomete: The law of floatation : When an object floats inside a liquid, then the apparent wt. of the object is equal to the liquid displaced by the object. The centre of gravity (c.g.) of the object and the centre of gravity (c.g.) of the displaced water lie in the same vertical line. Thus, the wt. of the displaced liquid = Upthrust or force of buoyancy = Apparent wt. of the object Examples of Archimedes's principle and law of floatation (i) The ships of iron and the boats of wood float in water but the nails of iron sink. The special design and shape of the ship and the boat through which wt. of displaced water are more than the wt. of the ship and boat, due to which more force of buoyancy becomes operative and the ships or boats float. But the wt. of the water displaced by the nails is less than the wt. of the nails that is why nails sink. (ii) Life saving belts and submarines operate on these principles. Meta Centre : The centre of gravity (c.g.) of the displaced liquid by a floating body is called centre of buoyancy. The vertical line drawn from the sentre of buoyancy of the displaced liquid intersects the vertical line passing Scanned by CamScanner -General Science ody. This point of in \ ity (cg) of the BOO. in a stable equity contre-of gravity (CBI sai Sere Sat | through the ootrre. A floati'S (above) than its centre of ce called metacentre highe! wer a piece of ice is floating, then ator, | ont Jt ofthe water in the container is thes, Itinacont amplote melting eter (original) iiibeium of a floating body Conditions of €94! (The wt. of the the same vertical line. red for the translational equilibrium ang librium of the body. ¢ cg. of the body (3) oyancy) must lie on arpaeni ‘The first condition it e J rotational equil z oe ‘riclaw: Theposition of the metacentre relative tothe See ety kg ofthe body plays a significant role in the stability op cei of gravity (6 body, When the metacentre lies above the cg. ofthe the equilibrium 0 i. ‘libri d when the metacentre [ix isin stable equilibrium an: neta es ! bec then the dy in ae dy then the body is nee i : basic constituents of force and Adhesive force : The most | a the whe cet are molecules among which intermolecular forces exist, The forces (attractive) operative among these molecules are called Cohesive force and itis larger for the solids. That is why ithas a definite size, J But in liquids the value of cohesive forces is very small and it is negligible { for the gases that is why gases diffuse. The forces (attractive) operative prong the molecules of two different substances are called Adhesive force Due to adhesive forces water wets the subst Blackboards by the chalk letters become visi value of adhesive force is greater than | (D) SURFACE TENSION Surface Tension : The evid, (tree surface) of a ligui ences of the membrane havin, possible surface area as permit i yrs Property of the liguid is ee ne cou *y the force per | iF & 2 i g = s — E ; i = & 3 s n i : tially to the git dud surface acting and tange apart along the line Surface of the liquid and rface Thus, Surface Tension ()=——_ Force (ry ce imaeoa The surface: length tension of Of then drawn Tiga Gh Over thy of theall liquia, “small temperature range! Sdecreases jj Scanned by CamScanner fing body is equal to the Wt. Of the tigus, | float displaced. and the c.g. of the displaced liquid (centre o¢ | visionias.net i wre ‘Thus, 7 where, Surfac unit is N/ Note zero i ‘Surf surface 0 of the lic creating energy: tension Joule/+ surfac: ete. ar imme curve surfa calle: ou b te3 www wisionias.nect Physien ‘Thus, T=, (1-at) where, T, = value of the surface tension at °C t @ = Temperature coeff. Surface tension is a vector quantity and its st” unit is N/m ie. Nm — zero at the critical temperature. Surface Energy : Every strained body possesses potential energy. Thus surface of a liquid behaves also like a strained system and hence the surface of the liquid also has a potential energy which is equal to the work done in creating the surface. This energy per unit area of the surface is called surface energy. The surface energy of a liquid is numerically equal to the surface tension. Thus, surface energy and surface tension both can be expressed in Joule /meter? The free surface of the liquid tries to acquire the minimum area due to surface tension and that’s why rain drops, liquid drops, drops of mercury etc. are spherical. Angle of contact : When a solid body in the form of a tube or a plate is immersed in a liquid, the surface of the liquid near the solid in general is curved (concave or convex). The angle between the tangents of the liquid surface and the solid surface at the point of contact, inside the liquid is called the angle of contact for that pair of solid and liquid. Pressure Inside a Soap bubble and inside a liquid drop: The pressure inside a soap bubble or a liquid drop must be in excess of the pressure outside the bubble or drop because without such pressure difference, a bubble or a drop cannot remain in a stable equilibrium. Due to surface face tension the bubble or drop has a tendency to contract and disappear stic altogether. To balance the tendency to contract, there must be an excess of pressure inside the bubble or drop. um ‘ss. The excess pressure inside a soap bubble = ed Where; T = Surface Tension 1 R = Radius of the soap bubble id and the excess pressure inside a liquid drop Where, T= Surface Tension R = Radius of the liquid drop Fora soap bubble two surfaces are taken under consideration upon which surface tension is effective, while for a liquid drop and for an air bubble ‘one surface is assumed to be effective for the surface tension. = 2t R "Scanned by CamScannerGeneral Science jon 1d facts related to surface fen Some incidents an gto surface tension, JA thin tile needle cn fom oe surface tension of the w and Deterget Ble St ecb : erent tens Koil) the surface tension of water req} rosene oil (Kol ‘ ee OS oak nto the water and die. ule % (@) Hot soups tasty (delicious) because its surface tens} tye ‘outh-tongue. bay it epreads unformiy on WF Frick to each other due to surface — {viyThe hairs of shaving bru = ‘on drawing it out from the water. a malt (E) CAPILLARY ACTION OR (CAPILLARI tie When a long glass tube of very fine bore called af be is di into a liquid, then the liquid ecieprenes ine tube. If the angle of contact is acute (less then 90°) then liquid rises and if the angle of contact is obtuse (more than 90°) then the liquid depresses. It is called capillary action or capillarity. Generally the liquid which wets glass rises upwards and the liquid which doesn’t wet glass depresses downwards. | When a capillary tube is dipped into water it rises, while in the case of mercury it depresses. Let us suppose rbe the radius of a capillary tube, T be the surface tension of the liquid and p be its (liquid) density. Let if it rises or depresses i: height or depth then the radius of the tube is given as: Mercury depressed T cos 6 or t= 276088 where, = angle of contact Obviously; id will ri sl a sly; a liquid will rise the most for the least radius and vice- Water rised For pure water and glass 0 = 0° For pure mercury and glass; 6 ~ 135° If a capillary tube be of height les ight less than h, then the liqui overflow. The angle made by i with the a Sasa y the liquid surface wi i ses in such a way that the force 2277 cos 8 boa ye aPaey tube Squalises to the weight ofthe liquid raised in the capillary t be a Examples of Capillarity ; sed () Blotting pa i which 2 ke the epiar eS oles (pores) ofthe Pier Gi) Through the wicks of Koil lary jes capillary action. P Koll rises into the (il) In the branches of plants and te transported through the capillay wick due to ‘fs the water and nutriti KY action. Pas ‘onal salts are Scanned by CamScanner= + Physics r a In the artificial satellites (in their state of wei itlessness) if a capillary G9) Rive is dipped into water, then the water wilirce cote it fall Raghe w) Just Se na Plough their agriculture lands to break ‘Ci so that loesn’ ae and the soil remains wet (wetted). 7 TE ip (E) VISCOSITY If the layers of a fluid (liquid or gas) slip or tend to slip on another ‘ in contact, then any two such lajets cert a tangential force on each other. The directions of these forces are such that the relative motion petween the layers are opposed. This property of the fluid to oppose feiative motion between its layers is called viscosity. The forces between the layers opposing the relative motion between them are called the forces of viscosity: Thus, viscosity may be thought to be an internal friction of the fluid in motion. Let us suppose a liquid is flowing as shown in the figure (i) and AB is the ground level at which the lowermost layer is at rest. Fig. (i) Fig. (ii) : Velocity distribution curve As we move from the lowermost layer to upward the flow velocities of the liquid layers go on increasing and the uppermost layer has maximum velocity. Thus every lower layer has lesser velocity than consecutive upper layers and others. In fact every upper layer tries to drag forward every consecutive (adjacent) lower layer, but a lower layer tries to pull consecutive {adjacent) upper layer backwards. Ifa liquid flows in a cylindrical pipe or tube as shown in figure (ii) a velocity distribution curve is obtained which is parabolic and the velocity of the mid. Layer is the maximum and decreases for other adjacent layers. Thus, viscosity is the internal characteristics of liquids and gases which are produced by the cohesive forces of the molecules. When the liquid flows a relative motion among its various layers start due to which the distance among the molecules increases and it is opposed by the cohesive forces and thus viscosity is produced. But in gases viscosity is generated due to molecules transfer from one place to another. That is why, in the gases viscosity is less than that of the liquids. In liquids viscosity is also measured by their concentration. The liquids which are more dense (concentrated) have more viscosity. Examples ~ Glycerine and Honey have More viscosity than water. Due to viscosity in air the cloud particles come slowly tbe floating. and clouds seem Scanned by CamScannerwewew wisionias.mct General Science - st ¥ jscosityisthe only parameter Coefficient of viscosity: Thecoetficient ofviscosi ye eee i id is measures rough which the viscosity of the fluid is measv quid ns through Nroundlevelandietvbethe velocity. =e — of layer at a distance x from the bed and ae p+ dobe the velocity at a distance x +x: aa aae ‘ ‘Thus, the velocity differs by dv in going i through a distance dr perpendicular to it g 4 Here, # led velocity gradient. locity Bt re, §° is cal : iscous force acting bel Newton observed that the viscous ; Ms adjacent layers of the liquid is proportional to the velocity gradient 2) in Thus, FxA® =F ; where; 1|= a proportionality constantcalled coeff. of viscosity. Negative sign indicates that the viscous force opposes the relative motion. ; The SI unit of viscosity is N. $m“ and its C.GS. unit is dyne. Sem™ 4 However poise is another SI unit of viscosity which has been given in the honour of the French scientist Poiseulle. Adio, 1 poise = 0.1 NSm@ The viscosity of the liquid falls very rapidly with rise in temperature. But no actual theory t ‘of temp. variation with viscosity has been until developed. a The viscosity of a gas increases with rise in temperature, time The line along which the Particles of the fluid move one after anoth ‘other, with their constant velocitie: wi Velocities at various points and thei i ae tangents t0 those points, is called a streamline, Theater aides te Of the fluidcflog eye 2nd the tangent to it at any pay eo Concludes that hi Boron, aia 'Y Point gives the direction Turbulent flow : In the f1 ; : In the flow of anoth, constancy of the veloci ty of its Muid partic a thisis called turbulent flow. Mi this type of flow is used in setti, Scanned by CamScanner aon otYar, wow wisionias.met ibe Aone - - 6 ny 8 = change continuously and haphazardly. Such a flow is called turbulent flow and most of the energy needed to driv now dissi % setting up eddies and whirlpools, '* “Ne NAtid is now dissipated in O. Repair determined the value of the critical velocity v, fora liquid ™, as; v, = Fl. Where, 1 = Coeff. of viscosity = Density of the li Radius of the tube in which liquid is flowing. ~ Reynold’s number in which liquid is flowing. This is called Reynolds formula. Here k is called Reynolds number, its value is very high and usually it is represented on a logarithmic scale. For a narrow tube the value of k is 1000. Obviously for the flow of liquids Baas of higher viscosity and lower density through narrow tubes tends to be © steady or orderly (streamlined) whereas that of liquids of lower viscosity — and higher density through broader tubes tends to be turbulent. on, : __ Principle of Continuity : If an incompressible (const. density), non- le viscous, fluid flows. steadily through a tube of non-uniform cross-section, then the product of the area of cross-section and the velocity of flow is same at every point in the tube. ‘Thus, in a particular tube if A_ be the area of its cross- section and v be the velocity of flow of the liquid at a place (point), then according to the s continuity principle; Av = Constant Thereby, for two different places (points) in a tube as shown in the figure, ¥ ag sey A, 2, = Ay v% Usually the principle of continuity is a fundamental law of fluid-flow and it is a special case of the general physical law of conservation of matter. Also we can conclude that in a steady compressible flow the velocity of flow varies inversely with the cross-sectional area, being larger in narrower parts of the tube and vice-versa. Bernoulli’s Theorem : This states that for all points along a streamline in an incompressible and non-viscous fluid flowing steadily, the sum of pressure energy, potential energy and kinetic energy per unit volume is constant. Thus, if p be the pressure energy per unit volume, p be the density of the fluid, h be the height from the ground level, then by Bernoulli's theore: pt i pv? + pgh = constant. Scanned by CamScannerwisionias.nmet Are ressure of the fluid eve, Pf the fluid. The term, me + pgh) represents the rue of its velocity n'y term (P ose pressure Te neat soit ecole ee ‘and by vil ssure of represents the pressul a at dynam ee a can also be expressed as called dynamic pressu i i's theorem or eq} o onaiank Thus, Bernoulli’ tl eee Static Pressure i nothing but the law of conservation oy Bernoulli's theot ieee cena an bea a : This instrument is based upon = imeter ek Applications : w venth the rate of flow (speed) of the liquid Gay Bernoulli's theorem ee Salat (device) is based upon Bemoutii’, (ii) Pitot Tube = Ss as. theorem which measures the rate of om Lcooe on oe one a ae 5 zi p . Si eer eer ydvotal inning bal, the spinning shot of a rifle by virtue of its motion ydrofoil, a spi oe eae ina sea if two water boats are moving parallel to each other i : it behind the two then the velocity of the water | ieee Dentin laroer then ee individual relative velocities of the boat and consequently low pressure regions develop and the boats collide. (v) Ifa Cyclonic storm comes, the roof of the tin foils are flown away i H because the pressure of the outer surface of the roof has low Pressure (high velocity) than that of the air inside the roof in a closed room where no { change in the pressure takes place. j Terminal Velocity and Stokes’s theorem : When a solid body falls 4 under gravity through a liquid (or gas), the layer of the liquid in contact with the body moves with the velocity of the body, while the liquid confined at the far distance from it is at rest, Thus, the body produces a relative motion between the layers of the liquid. This is Opposed by the luid. The viscous force ly becomes equal to the i force of the body. The body then falls a i itis called Trina! veces P28 then falls with a conctonn velocity and Stokes observed dimensional With a constant velocit through wane eet the wh 4 Perfectly homogeneous viscous fluid aad erty of the uid. This is catter) stokes falls 'Y from rest unde; it and acquires a terminal velocity 7, a South a uid of feu 6x nw = 4 - VPS (poe ey 2 To-o)g where, » — termi q of asman rminal velocity; This in sPhere is proportions) ‘oth ous wha the terminal velocity Of its radius, Scanned by CamScanner is he mix! pre: of! atn No ex to uia RT eww .-wisionias.net Physics ” (G) ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE The gaseous layer which surrounds the earth is called atmosphere. It is held on the earth by the action of gravity. Atmosphere is a mechanical mixture of the gases namely nitrogen and oxygen and some other inert gases. The pressure of these gaseous mixture of atmosphere is called atmospheric pressure.s gravity isthe only force acting on the atmosphere, the pressure on the atmosphere is obviously the weight of the vertical column of air of unit cross-section and height equal to that of atmosphere. Firstly the atmospheric pressure was evaluated and measured by Von Guericke. Normally, the atmospheric pressure is the pressure required which is exerted by the column of 76 cm of Hg at 0"C and at 45" latitude near the sea. Thus we can also say that atmospheric pressure is the pressure equivalent to the wt. of the column of 76 cm of Hg for unit cross-sectional area. Unit of Atmospheric Pressure Column of 1m ofHg = 1.33 x 108 Pascal 1 Pascal =1Newton/meter* ~TBar = 10° Newton/meter* 1Millibar = 10? Pascal 1ttor =1 milli Hg Pressure 133.8 Pascal Far “3 More appropriately, Thus, the atmosphere exerts on us a pressure of 1600 kg, but we don't realise pressure. The osmotic pressure of the blood and mineral water of our body exerts an equivalent pressure that's why we don't feel external pressure. At the earth’s surface (near sea level) on reaching a distance of 110 m upwards, atm. pressure decreases by 1 cm column of Hg. In hilly area it is difficult to prepare food because of a fall in pressure on the hill and the boiling point of water correspondingly rises up. Consequently the latent heat of vaporisation of water decreases too and, that’s why the difficulties occur. The phenomenon of ink overflowing from the pen of a man sitting in aircraft at higher altitudes, the phenomenon of bleeding through the nose etc. are common interesting incidents. ‘Barometer: The barometer is a device by which the atmospheric pressure is measured. Fortin fabricated and designed the barometer on the basis of Torricelli’s theorem. It measures the atmospheric pressure accurately and by the help of Fortin barometer weather related activities are predicted. When the indicator of a barometer suddenly falls, it is the indicative prediction of the appearance of a cyclonic storm, but if its indicator falls slowly then the possibility is of the coming of rain and if the indicator inclines upward slowly then there is a possibility of the appearance of a clear day. Due to large size and some other drawbacks, Fortin barometer was replaced by Aneroid barometer which is compact and convenient and in it no liquid is used. The frequent use of Aneroid barometer is customary to measure the altitude of various places. The device Altimeter operates on the basic principle of Aneroid barometer by which altitudes are measured. The Standard Atmospheric pressure is the pressure require: of Hg column or 760 mm of Hg column, which is équivalent to 1 atm. Scanned by CamScannerVvisionias.nct ere General Science re) eaSinple Fisevionte MOS es dunes jodie motion and Oscillatory motion : Any ri ee ooh J yiarea oC te cid periodic motion. The motion of & engine, Sint its ante e'a periodic motion. The motion of the pis ca shame ee Soa en bare naan Treas SOF ime after which motion the examples of periodic motion. The interval of tine af as wih is repeated is called time period (7) or pevioaicty of erect ao repetition of the motion is called frequency (. een period (T) and frequency (n)is n= 7. If a particle in periodic motion moves back and forth over meme path, it is called an oscillatory (vibratory) motion. 7 ates ofa aati = simple pendulum, sonometer wire, atoms at the Tate ots . mass attached to a spring ete. are the examples of periodic m Ste Simple Harmonic Motion : Simple Harmonic Motion ( ae is defined as motion in which acceleration is always directed towards a fixed point in the path of motion and is proportional to the displacement from that point. ‘Characteristics of Simple Harmonic Oscillator (A) If an oscillator executing S.H.M passes through a fixed /poirit (riean position) then (@® No acceleration exists or acceleration is zero and thereby no force comes into existence and no work is done. i) The potential energy of the oscill is maximum (B) Ifan oscillator ex: (end point) then (i) The acceleration be maximum ator is zero but the kinetic energy “cuting S-HIM passes through the extreme point velocity becomes otential energy is t Scanned by CamScannerat repeats in of the earth ‘an engine, om etc. are ch motion nin 1 sec ‘een time- he same ons of a solid, a “M.) is a fixed t from roint orce wow wisionias.met Physics Now, from eqns. () 6 (Hi) = f- £2 -— wr. The negative sign is the indi cle’ ie motion toward the mean posmaauth of Paricié's = Bees 2 4 wy=0. dat This is the eqn. of a simple harmonic oscillator in differential form, The solution of this eqn. is given by x= asin (wt + 4). where, x = instantaneous displacement at time #. © =aconstant, called angular frequency, 9 hase constant @_=max. displacement or amplitude. Thus, velocity of the particle executing SHM v =* ~awcos (wt +4) = velocity -v 0 Va —x Time Period and frequency of a body suspended by a vertical spring : Let L be a natural length of a massless spring and a block of mass m be attached to it and the | & , spring be vertically suspended by a rigid support. Now, let the spring be slightly extended from equilibrium, then | the time period of oscillation of the block is given by T-2n \/7. Here; kis called spring constant, and frequency of oscillation =n = + ae mi If the mass of the spring say m, is also taken under consideration, then time period of the oscillating body (block). =n= Lt je T 2 m, i i ivi by If a spring of length L and spring constant k be cut (or divided by breaking) into two equal parts or pieces each of length L/2 and spring constants k, and k,,then k, 5 k, Thus, k= :~ 2 Tm be the frequency of oscillation of a body of mass m attached to a 1 massless spring, then frequency of oscillation () = Vm Scanned by CamScannerwww vwisionias.nmet — ach attaché sO ie then e = erg cutee nec ee P ency eer [ it f the th ST unit frequency of th ‘Here angular frequency of a simp! frequency of nas. ~ 2n, but "= 7 ¢ expressed in Hertz: oscillator i: lator («) is related. to je harmonic 02! 2x Thus, o ~ F ; easured in seconds, jod of the oscillator ™* aa Ee ee oes oxcilator, (or particle) frony the ee af oscltatien (avean. position) #8 calle centre ee made diametrically opposite the poinis Ifa smooth straight tunnel is ped toit executes S.H.M. and on the surface of the earth, then a body drop, its period of oscillation is 84.2 minutes. j igang related to it : Simple pendulum and Some datercting sacidents ro cavers sl A simple pendulum consists of a heavy partic a). The ds massless inextensible and perfectly flexible string (thread). e between the point of support () and the particle (bob) is called length (J) of the pendulum. An ideal simple pendulum defined as above can never be realised in Practice, though in laboratories a small brass ball (bob) ‘s suspended by a long thin cotton thread to construct 2 simple pendulum, The distance between the point of support and the centre of gravity of the bob is called the effective length of the pendulum. time period of the simple pendulum = T = 2 ft 8 (A) Obviously T « 7 i.e on increasing the | ( raed i length of the time period 7 will increase and viee-veren, For Shain hi jhen Soy be stand up during springi feler dean Of the git! comes upward ard the effec (c.g.) of the body mM doesn’t depend upon its then its ti me period doesn't Baste /T nd the value of ¢ deg | teases either in goi ee sites " going up or nd will indicate a long 8 coming down inside SMe slowed down a 8° 8 pendulum clock will er time period, Scanned by CamScannerwowew -wisionias-.met with a : Physics a ss (©) If a pendulum clock is brought inside a due to the state of weightlessness inside the satellite ge eet then ite (g = 0), the time period of the clock becomes infinite (). That's why ou 4 i tz), the artificial satellites. hy such clock doesn’t work inside ‘dto (D) In summer season the eff tive length of the Pendulum clock is ‘So its time period is also increased and 'es slow. But in winter season the effective Period is decreased and the clock becomes Iengthened (increased length), consequently the clock becom: length is contracted thus time fast. (©) As on the moon the value of acceleration due to gravity i m where g is acceleration due to gravity on the earth's surface, nas ie fo period of oscillation of the pendulum clock is increased on the ments surface and so it (pendulum clock) is slowed down. s IL. Sound (Acoustics) 1. Wave Motion Wave motion : A wave motion is a process of transmission of disturbances created somewhere in an elastic medium in all directions around it and along with the disturbances energy transmits. Although the particles of the medium only vibrate about their mean position and do not leave their original respective positions. Thus, three conditions are required for the formation of a wave— (@)_A vibrating body called the source is necessary to create the disturbance. An clastic medium called the propagating medium through which the wave transmits. Giii) Particles of the medium which take part in the process of onward transmission of the disturbance by executing successive similar vibrations in the source about their respective mean position. Such wave (disturbance) progression along with energy transmission is called a wave-motion. Broadly a wave is categorized into two types— (i) Mechanical waves (Elastic waves) (ii) Non-mechanical waves (Electromagnetic waves). (i) Mechanical waves (Elastic waves) : Waves which propagate in materialistic elastic medium like solid, liquid or gas are called mechanical waves. There are two essential features— elasticity and inertia for the existence of the mechanical waves. Types of Mechanical waves : (a) Transverse mechanical wave + (b) Longitudinal mechanical waves. (a) Transverse mechanical wave : If in an elastic medium wave propagates Scanned by CamScannerted in solids and , ‘echanical wave can Be BERTI eh geecs a om Transverse mee tai ur it cannot be genera rse wave propagates in surfaces of the liquids ei aity, The trary and trough (max. down oe liquids due to lack en displacement) ‘adjacent crests © Bhs is form of crest max. upwards 09 dias wil lacement). i nte ic mm . aiea wavelength and it ti a wave :ifin an aa iba sey then he >) Longin sae the direction of P® propagates (transmi -hanical wave: in all medium— wave is called tT generated (produced) Longitudinal wave ¢ ression and _ it through comp! and such wave transmit (sity of the medium is solids, liquids and ee pressure and re ean mpressi rarefaction. In compr faction the pressure an abe were maximum, while in ay ‘Sound waves in aif, ea is minimum. Examples — chanical waves. waves etc. are longitudinal met . 0 (ii) Non-mechanical waves (Bestromagine Se ediuevend eat propagation (transmission) does not need any elastic medium Se witch ie, genitratedl by a ee gems are called non-mechanical jcular to each other. Su : % Faves (Sethomagecie waves). The electromagnetic venvey Prnaitte atperpendlicaler direction to each electric field and marae ae es me travels in vacuum with velocity of lighte=3 x 10°m/s or alae C = Each and every electromagnetic wave travels with the same velocity ie, velocity of light c. The wavelength range of various electromagnetic waves lie between 10°" meter to 10% meter. The examples of electromagnetic waves are radio waves, ultra violet rays, X-rays, y-rays, thermal radiations ete, tic waves) : Waves whose : In the early days light was also assumed to be an elastic wave and a hypothetical medium called ether was supposed to be its medium of Propagation. But later after the negative result of ether drag by Michelson- Morely experiment, this concept was discarded, (abandoned), Spectrum of electromagnetic waves Presens Inventors Wavelen, Frequency Utilities magne Fange(m) range (Hz) Xrays Roentgen 19-10 mM to 1018 Hzt ps = rs 10’ Fy, © Xrays are extensively h used in various surgical Qa “fow') diagnosis like bone fractures, diseases of lungs, kidneys ete. and i _various "industrial Oo my ) Purposes, Scanned by CamScannerel www wisionias.mct \ Visible Newton 3.9 107m to 10! Hz to radiation 78 107m bacteria. 10% Hz objects become objects are distinctive. UR-radiations 10"°Hz thermal Infra-red Hurssel 7.8 x 107m 10'?Hizto radiation to 10°m of the objects ves mist and fog. It is also Ee used to warm patients in hospitals. In TV. ns remote I/Ris used. Shortradio Henric 10%m tolm 10"Hzto Short radio waves are d waves Hertz 108Hz used in radio, T.V. and of Telephone ete. = Longradio Marconi 1mto104m 10°Hzto Longer radio waves are waves 10*Hz used in radio and TV. Terms related to wave motion Phhyslea Bleetro- "Inventors" Wavelength Frequency Utilities: jaagnetic range(m) range (Hz) waves prays HBecquerl 104mto 10 Hzto y-rays 10°? m 10" Hz 7 (aya u/V-ays Ritter = 10*mto 10" Hz to. “U/V rays are used 107m 10“Hz in producing electric [rows- discharge, photoelectric 00%) effect and in destroying By visible radiation and by the illumination of the visible radiation radiations and on which object these incident raise the temperature. These are utilized in photography visible made are behind | | Compression Rarefaction: Scanned by CamScannerwow wisionias.met General Sefener m the mean . jsplacement from the me: assem dieplacement from the ean (Ample The maxon ram called empitade of the vibration mr anplocerent on Bol wave. Thus, maxim re position is called amplitude which i FT ation of the particles of {i Time-period: The time taken by the Vit tod (T) medium in completing one ne (ii) Frequency : The ™ of the medium in one secon unit it is expreened iecillation 19 aye t afins'executed by the parti, umber of or uency (a oF Une Wave and inet is hertz (Hz). 4 Thus; 1 sat i z. ion of a\patticle of the medium ay, (tase Th sae of mete a at of meen et int of time is cal se of i : stn poi tie sled hs Ho iecton of moon that instant ? e complete oscillatio, :Thedistance required to cover oné mn | ee eae eaium iscalled wavelength (3). Ina transverse weal the distance between two consecutive (adjacent) crests or troughs is calleg its wavelength (4) and in longitudinal wave itis the distance between two_| consecutive (adjacent) compressions or rarefactions (si) Wave speed ; The rate of the distance travelled by the wave (disturbance) is called wave speed (v). The relation among wave speed (0), wavelength (3) and frequency (rn) i Wave speed (») = frequency (1) « wavelength (A). 2. Sound Wave The sound wave is a longitudinal mechanical wave whi roduced) by the transmission of of vibration lies ‘within the body, Provided its freq limit (range), € range 20 Hz to 2 quency Gequene) ie frequencies of Tess than 20 H, audibility freq f 'z (lower limit Of audible ves 8e fi : Me called audible we ae lie between (20 can be heard by Scanned by CamScannerwww visionias.net Utilities = () In medical science operations, in detection of radiation various neurological Gi) In western countries milk is purifi db i i i ioe Cena Purified by passing contaminated milk 3. Speed of Sound For the propagation of sound wave (mechanical longitudinal wave) 4 materialistic medium is needed. That's why sound doesn't Propagat= in vacuum. The speed of sound is different in different media, Newer firstly theoretically observed and propounded that the speed of sound is dependent on elasticity (E) of medium and its density (d) as piven below, 1. If the medium is solid then elasticity (E) = Young's modulus (y) then v= ft (solid) Newton assumed (considered) that if sound wave iropagites ugh a gaseous medium, then the disturbances transfer in the form 0 “ompressions and rarefactions in such a way that the temperature remains it and the process is said to be isothermal. Thus, elasticity (E) = Bulk's modulus (8) = Pressure (p)Vvisionias.nmet Ar General Science E = 280 m/sec = v= JF gas) a where, p= 1.013 * 10° Nm, 42 1.29kg.m>. But this calculated jan the actual himeet wos lees han the 2 ne which was globally. St ete was nade oy Laplac i ts restive a mis eae ‘he asserted that during the me ly that temperature doesn Pepa . fons and rarefactions transfer 80 rapidly that Serv Perstt “dot ‘emai ratant but the total thermal energy remain const transmission is adiabatic rocess of sound wave mae ee cee nese (const. temperature) and itis calleg (const. thermal Laplace's correction. . 7 ‘Thes, elasticity (E)= Bulk’s modulus (8) = y P S, _ molarsp. heat at constant G, ~ molarsp. heat at constant volume "as (for air diatomic gas) peed of sound by New Jot ne ecl of sound (= 332 m /eanh where, y= Thus, speed of sound =» = //-F =332 m/sec. As the speed of light in air (c) is 3 x 10 m/s (300000 km/sec) which is very large than the speed of sound (332 m/sec). That's why during lightning in the sky both light and sound originate at the same time but light appears earlier to the eye and sound comes later to the ear. Liquids are more elastic th: in water = 1493 m/s and in iron = 5130 m/s Speeds of sound in variow, va 5 media jum sound in|Medium Speed of sound a in m/s at oC & Water 1493, on Sea water 1533 Alcohol en 5130 Hydrogen Glass 5640 Mercury 1450 ‘Aluminium Scanned by CamScannerNewton 'M/sec) in this We the loesn't tereby abatic called ch 1S at www wisionias-.mct Physicn 7 Variation in the speed of sound Erfect of pressure : At the same temperature the speed of sound in gas doesn't vary with pressure. Effect of temperature : The speed of sound is dizectly proportional to the square root of its absolute temperature ie. ye Jy.) PY POMONA More appropriatel speed of sound is 332 m/sec and if at INC speed be v, ther, — 332 + 0.61!) Obviously, for every °C increase ct temperature the speed OTsound increases by 0.61 m/sec. Effect of humidity : The density of dry air is more than that of moist air. Thus, in moist ait value of the speed of sound is more than in This is the reason why in rainy season the siren of the train is heard sharply up toa far distance than in summer season. Effect of the speed of the medium : If the medium is speeded up then the speed of sound increases in the same direction and decreases in the opposite direction. 4. Characteristics of musical sound Musical notes differ from each other in the respect of at least one of the three properties, namely- Intensity, Pitch and Quality. These three are called characteristics of a musical sound. A musical sound is bound to differ from another musical sound in at least one of these three properties and hence they provide a means to distinguish one musical note from another. Intensity and Loudness : The intensity of a musical sound is defined as the rate of flow of energy per uni of a plane perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation. The SI unit of intensity is Joule/sec-meter? or watt/meter?, The intensity of a simple harmonic wave is given by I= 2ev'aXpy. where; a = amplitude of the wave p = density of the medium v= frequency of the wave v= wave speed Obviously, the intensity of the musical sound is proportional to the square of the amplitude of the wave, the density of the medium, the square of the frequency of the wave, and wave speed. Apart from these the intensity of the musical sound varies inversely as the square distance of the source and varies directly to the elasticity of the medium. This intensity also depends on the size of the source and a larger source has larger intensity and vice-versa, In fact intensity is a special feature (characteristic) of the musical sound by which feeble (weak) and loud (sharp) sounds can be identified. Though the absolute unit of intensity is watt/m? but it has no significance and another arbitrary unit is bel which is expressed on the logarithmic scale and it is used frequently to measure the relative intensity. This unit bel was @ nobel honour to the inventor of the telephone Graham Bel. Generally, jolt of bel which is called decibel (db) is the most practical unit of the relative intensity. ——— Scanned by CamScannerwow wisionias.met General Science to second on the logri ‘The standard intensity |, . iy of first relative 4 7 4. decibel (db): scale is expressed as 10 10810 7, aetna the relative intensity’ ee eare-andtasi selected for expressing ¢ en 7 ‘sensation produc a Loudness is the sonic and it varies from person to) pen athe something that isnot absol sity. Thus intensity the physical cag ite ape ern pon whic 8 assume to of the loudne Thus, relative intensi interpart of the decibel (4b). — b = we Intensity (db) |Source of sound Intensity aay Whi oe 15-20 Press 100-105 Ondinary conversation 40-60 |Archestra 100-110 Loud speaker 70-80 Rocket 160-170 a : Missile 180-190 Hot discussion 70-80 ; “Reavy motor vehicle, 90-95 n 190-200 motor bike For a sound sleeping man, 50 db sound is sufficient to wake him y To dwell in the noise of 80 db is harmful and 90 db sound has i maximum limit to dare and if such noise be continued everyday 10 hours then the man would become deaf. World Health Organisation (WHO) has recommended Baboound good for the bua ears, the sound of more than 75 db ig assumed to be dangerous and the sound of 1 is Senet abating und of 150 db can make human beings Pitch and Fr : The pit fi whan ahand Frequency :The ith of a musical note is that Physical cause mice rom a grave note of the same intensity Faauent. Thus the degree of shrillness of % by a source depends W and high pig-pts Shows that m 5 i (Braphical repre Looe ‘which haa ion). Scanned by CamScanner ———= recsQuality or Timber : Quality or_timber is a third feature of a m siete whic dstingulalwes belNGn tero nota of Ui taste toectey Gas E but produces two different musical instruments. The quality or timber of and it jg a note is appeared due to presence of different harmonics. The presence of onalthoug, harmonics affect the form of the wave emitted by the musical instrument. sical cause i on ee | DAA é fab) Tuning fork | | Violin Clorioney io The harmonics present do not affect the frequency of the fundamental tone, but they simply reshape the form of the fundamental wave as shown: in the diagram. On account of the different shaping of the wave form by 0 the harmonics, the quality of different notes becomes different. Due to the > difference in the quality we identify and detect the voices of well known persons. him up. 5, Properties of sound wave and some acoustical applications. bamum (i) Reflection of sound wave : Like light wave, sound wave also the man returns to its original medium after incidence on any rigid surface and it is fended called reflection of sound wave. When reflection takes place from a rigid 5 db is ‘wall there is no change in the nature of the wave i.e. compression remains beings compression and rarefaction remains rarefaction. But when the reflection. , takes place on the open end of a pipe (organ pipe), then the nature of tae wave changes ic. compression changes into rarefaction and vice-versa, [cause Due to a longer wavelength the sound wave reflects at large surface than Baty light wave. In our daily life there are so many examples of sound wave feta reflection like reflected sound from walls, mountains, rivers, vallies etc. ag (a) Echo ; Echo is a natural phenomenon of reflection of sound and it feta is simply the repetition of a sound wave produced by the reflection from Pthe an obstacle like rigid wall, tower or mountain. The essential conditions for the formation of an echo is that the interval between the arrivals of the | direct wave and the reflected wave must be at least ath of a second (0.1 sec) because a human ear cannot distinguish between two sounds arriving , within th of a second. Thus the minimum distance to hear (listen) an echo distinctly would be 16.6m (approx. 17m). Since speed of sound (v) = 332 ms’! in air at NTP, time interval (#) = 0.1 sec. .. ., vt x0. | => required distance (x Seo t = 16.6m "i i (echo heard at O) With the help of echo the depth of sea, | reftected wave the depth of wells, the altitudes of flying , aircrafts etc. are measured. With the help of SONAR (Sound Navigation And Ranging) ' ad producing (by the use off ultrasonics we f measure the sea-depil Scanned by CamScannerwow wisionias.met General Science © eduesd_on the moon dug) sewnto:mechanical wave ANP ET jack of an elastic median) an re, Also UE 10 aC Oo ced. Thus Tae tempera eal mechanical wave) ¢ produced) on the moon. upward sound wave) ean ot Mroprammes of MUSIC SPEECH Or conga] PAN! (b) Reverberation Wher 1 cinema houses or auditoriums ee ‘ete, are organized in Ler om ‘place from the walls, roofs and flog: betta Series of multiple reflections 4%" F "of sound is stopped then up to aad] on (or the respective buildings. 1 concerts are audible. This continua, the no! seers these uri Popytvel above the Creshold ofaUMY isdueg witha the original ty Nonof the source. Here, if source of sound is cut off the multiple reflect to which this sound is sustai, it is called reverberation and the time UP js called the time of reverberation. | “The time of reverberation depends on various factors like materia} the abeorber, area of the absorbing material, volume of the building (jj fecture hall, auditorium) ete. Here, for the evaluation of reverberation time, Sabine gave a law ag r=oa7t ¥~o.71 K Glunit) called Sabine’s law. where, V = volume of the hall and, A where, a= absorption coctf. rea of the absorbing material. Thus, time of reverberation can be balanced (accom: ‘ modat increasing oF decreasing the area of the absorbing material, To canta e ats everberation in the lecture hall i ¥ % icyarenm yer iloraudtor te wasare made ough] oe and original sound becomes clearly (distinctively) audible ere eee | for the floor is also utilised as sound abeorbe eves) audible. The carpet of fends ee eon sorber. Due to the reflection of sound ey The fitness of lecture halls, ci alls, cin speech, concerts ete. depends Ineo a>, Auditorium ete, for si pends largel music su If the construction is such thai ie and construction, spceche: ich that there is uniformi ‘struction, Patino) nts concertsetc.then thesearesaidtane, in rendering, of hey aresaid tobe: x said tobe acousti 4 bes echos and rev tobeacoustically bad. Ther istically good, a erberation for the bad acoustig ee tWO chief parameters: ii) Refraction of Sound ies of the buildings mm mechanical (elastic) medium Ee ee @ sound wave moves fj x tS refs anothe; * es from the rooney tet Of ansmitted. This pho eel (elastic) medium, the |B Them ‘ave is deviated f Phenomenon is calle ei : in reasoner fom the origina led refraction and a Sound in diffeent moc e eM OF tefcaction inet oF the incident wave f Thebeste dium at different tema un is differen f (sound) rolfanalPleof retractionotsg nPeratures, t speeds of temperate stOt'IS the appea ‘'undoranaturalco ‘ of the ean uct variation ofa hog cmPerature sadn Co q carat duckie eawently obese different mechan et Variation of | inthe late eveningy oe that human got) Rear the surface 1 pte during day ti Re ate more clearly ‘me. In the day time, the Scanned by CamScannerwww -wisionias-net Physics 61 temperature of air is maximum near the ground surface and it diminishes upwards. Thus, the speed of sound is the largest near the surface of the earth (v = vT)and decreases upwards. Soa ray of sound diverging upwards from a source on (or near) the earth's surface is refracted continuously towards the normal and hence less sound reaches the observer. At dusk the situation is just the opposite. Now, a ray diverging upwards from a source ‘on (or near) the surface of the earth is refracted continuously away from the normal. Novy, it is totally reflected when it begins to travel downwards with a continuous refraction to reach the observer towards vertically. Day time Dusk time E l<—— Normal Normal (Late evening time) <— Hot Air “<— Cold Air Earth's P (Source) Earth's P (Source) See Surface (iii) Free Vibration : When a body, which is capable of vibrating is displaced from its position of rest and then is left to vibrate itself, it will vibrate with its own time period or frequency. Such vibrations of the body are called its free vibrations, provided it is free from all type of resisting force, external or internal. Example - the prong of a tuning fork, thestretched string of a sonometer etc. are vibrations capable bodies. When these bodies are disturbed from their position of rest they vibrate and these vibrations are said to be free vibrations, and these are not resisted by frictional forces such as air resistance, viscosity or any other frictional forces ete. Though vibrations of such bodies are free from the external forces namely air resistance, they are not free from internal frictional forces namely viscous force, In the course of vibrations, the different layers of the prong, move relatively to one another and due to this relative motion between the layers a force comes into play which tries to diminish the relative motion. This force is called viscous force or internal frictional force. In practice vibrations of a body are resisted by some kind of frictional force and hence resisted vibrations are the natural vibrations. The frequency of free vibrations of a body is called its natural frequency. (iv) Forced vibrations : Resonance : If a body can vibrate freely then due to resisting forces the natural frequency of the body starts to decay and thus an external periodic force is needed. A tussle starts between the frequency of the external force and the natural frequency of the body and ultimately the frequency of the external periodic force predominates and Scanned by CamBeanin the hady vibrates which is called forced vibration.wisionias.nmet wre aaa of the exten tS ot body of tal a orsnance natural Frequency Thus at onal periodic force. 1 the nea was destroyed dite to Se ip the Outer anes ir oor that of natural frequen f resonance occurred. @ ique situati But a unigu on ai Jodie force becomes equal t0 th iret hi called resonane. ebay ea to the fone of he ” prample nn 1959 Takoma Bad ce. The fast mechanical riscnanee, The ast ‘ae pe he phenomeno! he natural of the across ently tl : 5, tl i of the bridge, consequently TP in ee pcavoided by walking troops litary men move acy resonance is said Be & order. se the condition o| in the same , sure the con ir feet do not fall in aa ed on) by means of resonance d wa edio station ismade adjustab tuned by the same frequency on the antena, is tuned by From a physical point of view it ig mei such a way that t ¢ Atransistor (radio) i also tuned (6% ‘The frequency or wavelength of a P% and a particular frequency position of waves = (vy) Superposition prt a rouflont wave mst horned. Thebse necessity is alled superposition principle of wa vont rinciple states that the resultant displacement due Irn narnber of waves at any point in a medium is the vector sum of the| to a number of waves at a ves. If Wy, Vp Yar om be the ents pro the component waves. If Yy Yy Vy . Gedinia c dsrios uns postu by Wie capenars waves its iver point (place) then the resultant displacement (wave) at the same point by the superposition principle will be given by PRAHA Hen In sound (acoustic) interference, beats and stationary waves are the direct outcome of this principle, (a) Interference in Sound : Interference is the cancellation or reinforcement of two waves, Specific conditions. When the effect of one by the other, the two Waves are said to interfere destructively (destructive interference) and when their effects are reinforced they are said to interfere Sustructively (constructive interference), Ag usual Interference is a basic characteristic of the wave. : In sound when ‘undercertain. suitabl destructively producing phenomenon of sustained. when they meet under certain Wave is constantly neutralised Although total energy energy m transferred from 'S conserved in the the regions of silen, interference, here sound ce to the regions of anti- han 16 He) ne amplitude but slightly avel along the same ling formed by their supe nn an Y their super ition, ly which Sta Bives rise to a peak Scanned by CamScannerthe extern, vol the fra requency og d due to . "sonance. djustable antena, ew it is edium a position entdue 1 of the be the agiven dint by re the ained rtain lised stive fere asic wow wisionias.met Phystes 63 value with a waxing noise and then fading out with a waning noise. This phenomenon of waxing, and waning in the loudness of the resultant wave is known as beats. Thus, the beats are formed due to the superposition of waves. Interferences and beats both occur due to the superposition of waves and these are concerned with the variation of the intensity of the wave. Interference is the phenomenon of sustained destruction or reinforcement of two identical waves and there is a spatial distribution of silence (destructive interference) and anti-silence (constructive interference) but in beats silence and anti-silence occur periodically at the same place, so it is also called interference in time. In producing interference the two interfering waves must be essentially coherent (having constant phase) but, in producing beats any two sources can be taken. (c) Stationary waves (standing waves) When two identical progressive waves (waves having the same amplitude and frequency) travelling in the opposite directions meet along, the same line with the same > velocity, then the result of the superposition of such waves in the formation of a system of waves which alternately appear and disappear in the region where the two waves | > meet without advancing in | — N= Node Als Note: either direction is called stationary (standing) waves. In the formation of a stationary wave, the space confined has two types of points. The first is Node where no displacement takes place and another is Anti-node where maximum displacement occurs. The distance between two consecutive Nodes or Anti-nodes is *; where 4 is the wavelength of the waves undergoing for superposition. (vi) Diffraction of sound : When sound waves originate by a vibrating source they spread in the medium and if the medium is homogeneous and isotropic (have uniform density), then these waves have spherical wave- fronts from the point source. Far from the source the wavefronts are nearly planes and the shape of the wavefront is changed when the wave meets an obstacle or an opening in its path. This leads to bending of the wave around the edges. Such bending of waves from an obstacle or an opening, is called diffraction. Diffraction is a characteristic property of the wave and all kinds of waves undergo diffraction. The effect of diffraction is appreciable when the dimensions of the obstacles are comparable or smaller than the wavelength of the wave. If the obstacle is large compared to the wavelength, the diffraction effect is almost negligible. Example : The wavelength of the sound wave is approx. 1 meter and of the same order as the doors and windows of our houses. That's why sound wave is diffracted broadly and one person easily hears the voice of the another. Scanned by CamScannerwww wisionias.mct General Science o and (vii) Vibration of ers vari und i souree of sound in Varin fork is weed as eet Mose as source of sun peek vA tuning fork is used as an exe of air is ws ; I forms two Works— firgy” Ehoint, sta: Bans ously Bpen or closed) due to whig. of viata i ces inside the PIPE Or ces which appears ows the air particles 1 the form 5 m 1 ‘vibrations are, eee Produced reflected wave is produced whig, gressive wave and th Interferes and forms. stationary WN ons through the tunin Ise of compressi Lee ee 2 Fipf a closed pipe, then the reflected wayg fork is incident on 5 i wulse of rarefactio, sssions and similarly a pt Es cad srr pacman ose pipe 9 pe Se ate and rarefactions change into each other. Thus ae oe Or ind reflected wave change their phase by 7 | Closed organ pipe — = i es When the air column is contained in an open pipe, the two ends are essentially Anti nodes and then it is said to be in the fundamental mode of vibration of the air column. Obviously, L whi fina it oie t JE Fite VE i a (vn JG) Thisis the fundamental frequency or first harmonic, Similarly frequency of second mode or second harmonic or first overtone =n, = 20-25, [E =2n,, and frequency of third mode or third harmonic or second overtone 32.31 /E So Fava Thus, my 2nysn, 2:3: =n ~3n,. Thereby it can be concluded that the possible tones of an open pipe have frequencies in the ratio of natural numbers. The note emitted by the air column in an open pipe will have the full series of overtones and hence it is very rich in harmonics. That's why the quality of a note emitted by an open pipe is always better and sweeter than that of a closed pipe. 6. Doppler's effect in sound When there is a relative motion between an observer and a source, then the pitch of the note emitted by the source appears to be changed to the observer. This apparent change in pitch due to a relative motion between the observer and the source and also sometimes due to motion of the medium is called Doppler's effect in sound (acoustical Doppler's effect), Actually Doppler firstly observed this effect in light waves. Thus, the optical Doppler's effect in fact firstly propounded the spectral lines of certain stars which were found to be shifted towards the red or violet end of the spectrum from their normal position by a very small distance. For the red and violet end stars recede from the earth and approach to the earth respectively. Doppler's effect is also a basic characteristic of the wave and it is to be found in all types of wave. Scanned by CamScannerwisionias.nmet rere Genera =~ pe observed froma 1nd) Doppler ee passes the platform at (sou Jocomot en the pitch of the whistii a ing for itch appears lower . Beforraing the platform is pee appear 2 ered for Dope? ¢ formu! aoe pent pite or frequen (" - — Jocity of the obse1 relative Wyo velocity of 80UNd_ . Actual pitch or ce ith respect to ve a * aie velocity of thesource Wi ena jlatform Figh speed higher and id respect to velocity of Sour ‘Thus, actual pitch or frequency. velocity of sound. velocity of the observer. elocity of the source. he / Shock waves and Mach-number : ; a ie velocity of a source exceeds the phase velosity of a sound wave, then Doppler's effect fails and it has no meaning, There are many. instances in which, source moves through a medium at a velocity greater than the velocity of sound. A jet plane, a ballistic missile moves through the air at a velocity greater than the velocity of sound. In such cases the wavefront takes the shape of a cone with moving object at its apex. The Jet Plane or the supersonic plane sends a cracking sound called sonic boom Which can crack glass dishes, window panes and even damage buildings, The wave originated due to sonic boom is called shock wave. The spherical wavefront intersect over the surface of the cone with the apex at the source, Because of constructive interference of a large number of waves arrivin, at the same instant on the surface of th s large amplitude are sent with waves. Here, we can write sin 9 = 2 = velocity of sound % = velocity of source, where, » Maerodynamics, thig ratio Scanned by CamScannerPhysics a 1. Heat & Temperature The degree of hotness or coldness of a body is called its temperature and thus temperature is an indicator of the thermal stage of the body. Due to different temperatures of two bodies thermal energy transfers from the body having higher temperature to the body of lower temperature and at 4 particular temperature the process of energy transfer stops and now both bodies are said to be in thermal equilibrium. This thermal energy due to which the existence of the temperature in the body appears is called heat. In other words, heat is a type of energy by which mechanical work can be done. This was firstly detected by Rumford. Later, Davy confirmed this fact after rubbing two pieces of ice on melting. As no source of heat is available in the melting of the two pieces thus frictional forces came into existence due to the rubbing, which produce heatenergy and consequently the twoice pieces melt. Later by Joule’s experiment it was observed that heat is a form of energy by which various works can be performed, Joule also asserted that heat and mechanical work are inter-transferable to each other and the ratio of mechanical work and heat energy by which work is done is a fixed ratio called mechanical equivalent of heat and basically it is a conversion unit. If a mechanical work W is produced by an amount of heat H then J= W/Hor W = JH, where; J = mechanical equivalent of heat. = 4186 Joule/kilo cal. = 4.186 Joule /cal. = 4.186 « 107 erg/cal. Thisimplies that if work of 4.186 Joule isdone then 1 kilocal, heat would be produced. Effect of heat : (a) Physical changes : By the application of heat or thermal energy the physical structure of a body like its shape-size, volume, temperature and its state changes (i) Change in Temperature: Ordinarily temperature of a body increases with increase in heat or on supplying thermal energy to (ii) Change in Volume : Ordinarily with increase in heat or thermal energy the volume of the body increases. Gii) Change of state : Usually there are three states of matter— solid, liquid and gas and these states exist due to the difference of temperature thereby due to heat. Thus, change of state takes place due to heat. (iv) Otherschanges:Onheatingabody itsshape, size, clectricalresistance, the ability to dissolve solute in the solvent etc. change drastically. (b) Chemical changes ; On heating a substance some changes occur Permanently. One can observe free oxygen released on heating potassium chlorate with mangnese dioxide. Units of Heat : The SI unit of heat is Joule and in C.GS. its unit is calorie. Calorie : The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g water by 1°C is called calorie. Scanned by CamScannerVvisionias.nct rae ral Science of heat required to > 55°C) iscalled in moped sca Thu: a e amount of heat required to, lost! Unit (B.Th Te © op js called 1 B.Th.U. mea pitish Ther nd water its: " inw fterent un = 0.24 cal. ed Se = 4.186 % 10° Joule = 1009 ‘sB 1 kilo cal. ss = ch of thermal physics tonne in Thermometry : The DAN’ ie thermometers, ple, fy y various devices: etry. is measured mses etcis called sheen apeby cawottheds a Fat Pr erator EE Eee ‘on the temperature, ar Allthermo io directly ni a ded a whose volume expansion © types which are fabricated and designeg s meters ane of various YP torment means and PUurpOs © es -tagusi hermomster basal 7 a Thermometers are of many f Ory hasan temperature), ca i toe oa (capaneionin volumeof the gas with increasein temperaturgy 4 Near iatce Cienarovnetit eke ‘ latinun resistance thermometer ercuty oF alcohol j " Liquid thermometer : In liquid thermometers mercury ol ig i ‘ liquid thermometers which measur. nie Ai ee es ca an T5Csg ie serpents eae sn't work below-115°C. The freezing and boili erate mas are - 39°C and 357°C respectively. Thos mercury ecrurnaier is fabricated and designed to remain operational from 30°C: to 350% Clinical thermometer: To measure the temperature of the human body: suitable thermometer hasbeen fabricated and designed on Fahrenheit scale and it is called clinical thermometer. Since the temperature of the human body varies in very short span, thus in clinical thermometers lower fixed Points Kept at 95°F (35°C) and upper fixed point at 110°F (43°C), Gas thermometer : Constant volume hydrogen gas thermometer i standard gas thermometer from which even, other gaeedus thermometsed are fabricated The temperature upto 500°C ca be i ithydrogen spaced perature upto ean en Ebyeees gen then temperature Platinum resistance on the basis that th ae eve perature The great advantage of this thon me Weastures very wy le emperature ofthe gene i 1 ANBeS From ~ 200% % ra a a era Te Other theron ara tha this thermometer ¢, ae oe ometers, Sed to standardise the thermal capacity ¥..> 8° this thermometer IN Which it is immersed. Scanned by CamScannerPhysics Thus; this thermometer has an excessive time lag, Further, some timeis also Jost in balancing the bridge. That's why this thermometers not suitable for measuring rapidly varying temperatures. ‘Thermo-couple : This isaspecial typeof temperaturemeasuring device in wich two junctions are constructed by differen mslale- ane eonction ishot and another is cold and due to thermoelectric effect temperature is incastuired and this effect is called Scebek’s effect. 1n 1923 Seebek discovered that when two dissimilar metals are joined to form aclosed circuit and a difference of temperature is established between. their junctions. an emf is developed and hence an electric current flows through the circuit. The e.m.. so produced is called thermoelectric e.m.. and the phenomenon is called Seebek effect. Such an arrangement of connecting two dissimilar metals together is called a thermo-couple. The Thermo em. (E) magnitude of thermo-electrice.m.f. depends upon the nature of two metals, and on the temperature difference of their junctions. Ata particular temperature of hot junction thermo-e.m.f. becomes | maximum. This temperature of the junction (at which e.m.f. in thermo-couple is maximum) is called neutral 23 Neutral temperature is constant fora given s pairofmetalsforming thethermo-couple. lithe © Temperature (T) > temperature of hot junction is raised further, the thermo e.m.f. decreases and becomes zero at a particular temperature whichis called temperatureof inversion T, . Beyond inversion temperature 7,, thermo e.m-f. again increases but in reverse direction. Temperature of nbody inversionistoo much above than neutral temperatureas the temperature of cold junction is below to it. Thus, inversion temperature is not constant for itscale mama a given thermo-couple, but depends on the temperature of cold junction. fixed Here, a relation between neutral temperature and inversion temperature is given by, risa ee, hte ‘eters f (ee Sy ‘whefe,T, ~ temperature of inversion, tand in be T,, = neutral temperature. T, = temperature of cold junction. cted Thermo e.m.f. in the circuit varies with temperature of hot junction is vith graphically obtained which is a parabolic curve given by a relation E = atit AT + BT? (a parabola). Here, cold junction is kept at 0°C, while A, B are tlue constant and t is the temperature of hot junction. mnt, the \ Wal radiation pyrometer: This is also a temperature measuring device through which the temperature of bodies like stars, sun etc. (which have ity very high order temperatures) are measured which are far away from us. Thus, radiation pyrometer is a device through which by the estimation of ter Ps radiation without touching the bodies, temperatures are measured. Total a Scanned by CamScannerwow wisionias.met » Genera'Sc1ence ciple of Stefan’s law ang ter operateson the Py per unit area is radiation pyrometer OP mitted per second pel Pr towhich heat sade, abet temperature. Testor, having t the fourth pe ‘doesn’t emit a suitable (detective) radiation and thay. less than BOO?C dows tion pyrometer the temperature of only those through the to Mhiclyhave a temperature of more thar 800°C, ane meastl : measurement : In the construc Various scales of temperate Ti ttedon various scales in whet oN thermometers two fixed points are select Fhe hing ae rrasmum point called UpperFixed Point (U:EP.)and thereisaminjgy 's Point (LRP). There are various scales like Cal int called Lower Fixed P i . (or centrigrade), Fahreneit, Reaumur, Kelvin and Rankin, Generally; the freezing point of ice is taken as L.EP. and the boi point of pure water at 76 cm of Hg < is taken as UEP. The difference eet, ee UEP. between the U.EPand L.RP.iscalled COONS — e: 100°C Fundamental difference or Interval Fahrenheit 32°F 2120p (FL) Reaumur O'R 80°R Kelvin 273K 373k Rankin 42R, 972R For any thermometer; Reading ~ aconstant F-32 _R-0 | K~273 _ R,-492 12-32 ~ 80-0 373-273 672-492 or, x R K-23 _R,~492 iia = Absolute zero: Theoretically there is no limi restriction onthemi butthereisa limitor: temperature is Scanned by CamScanneradjustable to sustai why some free space is left at the joints.of two such tracks. = 2. Thermal expansi mn Of solids, liquids and gases Ordinarily the volume me of a substance increases with the supply of heat (thermal energy) resulting from the increase of intermolecular distances in the substance, But there are some exceptions also for instance. in water volume contracts on increasing its temperature from 0°C to 4°C. Similarly in Silver lodide (AgI) volume contracts on increasing Thetemiperature it has temperature between 80°C to 140°C, On supplying heat expansion occurs in all solids, liquids and gases, but gases expand more than liquids and liquids expand more than solids. Expansion of solids : Usually if any solid body is heated, it expands in length, breadth and thickness and if the expansion, in length is only substantial then it is called linear expansion but if both length and breadth expand substantially it is called superficial expansion and ultimately if the Jength, breadth and thickness all expand, then it is called volume expansion (cubical expansion). Coefficient of linear expansion—It is defined as increase in perdegree celsius temperature with unitlength of the body and it is represented by a. Thus, coefficient of linear expansion _ increase in length © original length xincreaseintemp. ~*~ Lx a0 Coefficient of linear expansion is represented by @ and its unit is per degree celsius. Coefficient of superficial expansion : It is defined as increase in per degree celsius temperature with increase in unit area of the body and it is represented by j. Thus, coefficient of superficial expansion _ increase in area __As ~ original area xincreasein temp. ~~ P= 3x46 Coefficient of cubical expansion—It is defined as increase in per degree celsius temperature with increase in unit volume of the body and it is represented by y. Thus, coefficient of cubical expansion increase in volume &. AV ~ original volume increase in temp. Here, it is observed that f= 2a and y = 3a Thus, a@:B:y=1:2:3 Application related to expansion of solids : eland thesearemade (i) Railway tracks are constructed from ironand st remendeous load and the thermal expansion. That's (ii) IF we pour or keep hot water inside a thick glass (jar) then the inside surface of the jar suffers thermal expansion while outer surface of the jar remains unaffected due to its thickness that's why glass jars crack. Scanned by CamScannerwww wvisionias.nmet : ugh pyrex; ‘Today good tructed thro ity glass jareare cons! rough pyrex thermal ex ei gtisile “and jars can be Pro a mansion is } : ie ¢ period of # pendulum clock is given byT = 2n Gi) As time period ¢ its time period. obwjously dener the length of a pendul suri ee Pratam clock s}ows and consequently the pene tuo the time period decreases and pends a of the pendulum contin er gulum clocks are constructed through metallic bode ar ae asthereisno shape of liquids like solids, 1943 Expansion of liquid or (vessel). 50 linear expansion and super are always kept ina cerive no relevancy and significance. So Spansion Oe in the liquids has only the aj ion olunte expansion) in the liquids : apron expansion (volar feat (thermal energy) is supplied the liquid st wepen but along with it its container (vessel) also starts to expay Raecty upto whatextent liquid originally expands it doesn’t perceiver iiscxpansion is lightly less than the original because some thermal e is used up in expanding the container. This shows that there are two types of thermal expansions ong apparent and the other is real. Thereby coefficient of apparent vo} expansion (,) fows down. But in Winter the, apparent increase in volume original volume x change in temp. and coeff. of real volume expansion (y) _- —___feal increase in volume original volume x change in temp. Thus, if , be the coeff. of volume expansion of the (Container) then, y, (coeff. of real volume exp.) =, (coeff. of apparent volume exp.) +, (coe! glass the veg ‘© of volume expansion of glass) ‘ substance is defined ag Anomalous increases wit eases ; ter: There vt “ensity decreases e Me aquatic fife = many incidents "in the winter sea Scanned by CamScanner ter sui cor tssel ? —— gmc thermal capacity a iner ocess continues Until the total voharey ‘ tlic. ithe atmospheric temperature falls more sharply eee chike ish due to the anomalous expansion of ly the out ined fro: fiver ofthe water i in liquid state of C-Thats ofr at ee the water of the lakes and ponds the fishes and olka” aquatic organisms on transforming it int the tanks (pipes). con Most active substances which take ing heat to the gases not only their and volume also change under the suitable condition. Boyle's law, Charle's law etc. were derived from these conditions. Beyle's law - pV a constant (at constant temperature), : Vv *nAO Ifm=1kg and A0=1kelvin then s =AQ S.l_ unit of specific heat capacity is J kg-! K:! and in CGS it is cal Thermal capacity : It is defined as the amount of heat required toraise temperature of a given amount of a substance through 1 kelvin, thus ms Joule/kelvin or cal. °C! Scanned by CamScanneree a cot visionias-m 7 gubstances ome important Su * , j Sp. heat (caljp,, f stance Ems if ic heat capacity oF °C) | Sub: . a’ Sp. heat (cal./gm*C) |B a 50 7 SY ood : | Lead 0.09 JAlcohol oa ‘ a 0.42 ‘ ha on rare m 0.25 : 01 Magnesi bon ce Sica end) 020 ee ren Aluminium 021 ar heat capacities of the g Syvcific est copacitics sa i te vt of thermal €QErEY to gaa, the speci stantial am: lume and pressure chay, Be meri gases deerenee and Pie the temperature Variation sore with it. Thus, it can also be noite lemiperatire weriation Withvoly, ous conrcaiconsavcumeand cate two specific heat capacities a constant presoure That's em G, and another at constant volun, iste sf conta preteate indice By thatspecificheatat constant presgun indicated by C,, Hereitisals Ce is greater ita Specific heat at constant volume (C,) : The amount of heat Specific heat capacity at coat ~_ ofa gad'throught Kar cones required to raise the temperature ot kg. the gas at constant pivasune rs i-mate ee (C,.) : The amount of heat icity at const * sige ratetetpeoncintn ene through 1 katconstan volume is called specific heat capacity of the gas at constant volume (C)), Molar heat capacity at constant Pressure (C,) : The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of | mole (gm-molecule) of a gas through 1K at constant pressure is called molar heat capacity at constant Pressure (G). Joe he anctPaciyatconstantvolume(C ):Theamounter heatrequired to raise the temperature of | mole (gm-molecule) of a Bas through 1K at Constant volume is called molar heat “pacity at constant volume (C *): Relation between Gandc, : () Cis greater than C,and Mayer established a relation; C —¢ — R, called Mayer's relation, ms Water equivatent: Thisi i the Bam eUnt of heat to ran TUaNtity of Walerin kg which will require the bod 0 raise its te the body wf ™Perature throw i ie 'eN heated through the Same tem, Bh 1K as ; or limbe Mass of body i . in Water “divalent of the body Scanned by CamScannerMame, wow wisionias.met - 8 Obviously; water juivalent (in are numerically equal. Y“'°?* in gm) and thermal capacity (in cal, /°C) Latent heat of fusios expressed in cal/gm in CGS unit and: prec (Sim in CGS unit and in Joute/kg in $1 wait where, Q=heat required ‘ass of the substance (solid) L = Latent heat of fusion, Latent heat of ice (latent heat of fusion of ice) = 80 cal/ gm = 0X42 joute/kg, Sl unit. Thus, Q=mL, where, Q = heat required m = mass of the substance (liquid) L= latent heat of vaporisation Latent heat of water (latent heat of vaporisation of water) = 536 cal/ gm = 536%42 J 49 _ 9959 x 10° J/kg 10 Change of state of matter: A substance can be found only in three states of matter— solid, liquid and gas. If a certain amount of thermal energy be supplied to the solid state then at a particular temperature (melting point of the solid) it is converted into liquid and this thermal energy is latent heat of fusion and conversely if such energy be withdrawn from the liquid it would be transformed back into the solid state. Similarly the liquid is converted into the gas (vapour) at a particular temperature (boiling point of the liquid) and the thermal energy supplied is latent heat of vapourisation. Conversely by withdrawing required thermal energy, the gas could be again transformed back into the liquid state. \feam at 100°C is hotter than water at 100°C though waters boiling. This is strange but true because boiling water has only thermal energy whereas steam has thermal energy plus latent heat of vaporisation. Because of this steam is more painful than boiling water. Most metals are found tobe in solid state but mercury (Hg)exceptionally is the only metal found in liquid state. contdiveastitle Melti: int of a solid : A constant temperature at which a solid teanstonned Into liquid by the supplied heat energy of latent heat of fusion is called its melting point (m.p). Scanned by CamScanner<— vwisionias_met rare ~~ : When a solid melts, there may be an increase Ee uuaewihite spetienion of pressure. The melting point, : in ‘ B eee aa ike a ccssare Tes 8 will melt ata temperature lower than, wees pressure is higher than that of the normal pressite, a ~Sffect of Impurity : Normally the m.p. of solid decreases more s! arply i fumes are added to ice of oa mixing impurity. Example- If some salts or per °C then its melting point decreases upto - 22°C, | a Freezing point : Ata fixed temperature the ce a a ; into the solid by lowering the temperature or withdrawing ie pa Gneray (latent heat of fusion) is called freezing point. The freezing. poi coincides with the melting point of the solid, / ; ; Boiling point of a liquid : A constant temperature at which a liquid is transformed into gas (vapour) by the supplied heat energy of latent heat of vaporisation is called boiling point (b.p). Effect of pressure : When a liquid boils ie, changes from liquid to gas 9 temperature under reduced pressure, Hence; water will boil ata temperature lower than 100°C when the pressure applied is less than normal pressure. Effect of Impurity: On mixing the impurity boiling point of the liquid increases, Condensation point : At a constant temperature the transformation of vapour into the liquid is called condensation point and usually the Condensation point and boiling point of the liquid coincides. ifference between vapour and Bas : If the “temperature (b,p) thenaftera few seconds latter latent heat of vaporisation Beige the vapour. But a few seconds laties vapour increases its temperature which is called critical temperature (T_) above which vapour is called gas, liquid boils at a particular 3. Transmission of heat Due to substantial temperature ditfere She Place to another in a substance then There are three Processes (modes) of the t a) ) (it) eatin ~ cf) SBy theprocessof, conductionheatis transferred fromone Place toanotherby the particles vibrations ofthe substancebut these particles donotleave their occupied Position. In fact when asubstanceis being heated then the molecules i itis called transmission of heat, Transmission of heat— heat nergy and it is called the ‘ Phenomena of thermal conduction in solid) heatis transmitt ed by the Process of thermal conduction: only but this process s¢anned by CamScannervy of heat in the substance is called thermal conduac ‘thermal ictivity, The rat (heat) energy transtnitted through, the substance (conductor) depen various parameters likearea of crosssection, temperature din gotadcd the fateo Of the substance and the thickness of the aubstancs end tae ec as the rate of thermal energy transmitted ~ (2) EA. st where k is a proportionality constant cal i ore fc st led coefficis conductivity whose value is different for different substance (conten) and depends on its material. ee A =areaof cross-section: 0 — difference in temperature At = thickness At = change in time ‘Also here; a is called temperature gradient On the basis of thermal conductivity the substances are classified in the following types— (a) Good conductor : The substances through which heat is transmitted very easily and conveniently arecalled good conductors or conductors, Most of the metallic solids are good conductors. Examples : Metals, acidic water, human body ete. are good, conductors. (b) Bad Conductor : The substances through which heat is not transmitted easily and conveniently and a little amount of heat transfers are called bad conductors. Examples- Wood, fiber, glass, rubber, air etc. are bad conductors. (©) Thermal Insulator : The substances through which heat is not transmitted by any means (methods) are called thermal insulators. In fact bad conductors are sometimes synonymously used as thermal insulators. Thus, we cansay bad conductors are good insulators. In garments and cloths air is trapped which provides a good insulating characteristic. Examples— Abonite, asbestos etc are insulators. (ii) Convection : In the process of convection heat is transmitted in the substance by transfer of molecules (particles) of the substance and thus a current due to the molecules transfer is generated which is called convectional current. . Whenever a liquid or a gas is heated, the molecules (particles) of these substances become lightened and move upwards and then cooler molecules settle downwards and heated. Now @ convectional current is formed and heat is transmitted throughout i the liquid or gas. The atmosphere of our earth is heated by the process o! convection. Scanned by CamScannerVvisionias.nct Aarne isnoneedof, . ofradiationthereisnon eh: (ERE et onan ad omen am eat, while . — necessarily needed ces. We obtain heat ( ich it passes. : jecium through © adiation on the earth's surface and heating the m ae the process of rea eiiagnatle waves wit energy from ee imply radiation) ors manifest themselves as he, thermal radiations (simp Y tr in bodie imulate th i on being aoe Oy ee cromagnetic waves iat while those pena Ba he an are called luminous radiations, a oe ee ‘called actinic radiations. 7 chemical thermal radiation and light radiation : Therma Difference between \d light radiation (optical radiation) both have Caen ett vadlant energy and the diference between thes isa the same form of radiant ind. difference of frequency or wavelength, but not of kin ations : Any hot body maintained at a consta, nie waniies proneer ean radiations, The earliest source sa ndtioa iste npecprines nanan ee cube which is simply a hollow cube of metal blackened on one side with, lamp-soot. When the boiling water is poured into it, radiations are emitte from blackened surface. But now at present two special devices have designed by Fery and Wien's black bodies which are usually used as the Source of thermal radiations. The ideas of these radiations came from the euch of black body and the theoretical facts that the quality of radiations insidea uniformly heated enclosure isexactly the same as thatof black body radiations (radiations from a hot black body), Black body : A perfectly black bod: all the radiations of whateve reflects nor transm, Of the incident radiation , temperature enclosure, it 42 quantit mit the Full radia temperature With it. Thus the full radiatio, ‘ Te on attaini, mitted by a py Ng equilibrium ” consisting lack body is also absorb all the ru suri ‘aCe Which is assumed all the visible e eMissive i : Power of a en legth is define as the Heally repre eae = Of the ly per unit Scanned by CamScanner———————— ae ao - = : ornystes * i i ~ he absorptive power of a body ata given wavelength is defined as the ratio of the radiant ene erat? and fora given \ce of the body to the total en, ergy absorbed per second ae Itis symbolically represented by ea falling per second on the same wer for a radiation of a given wavel Prthe same blac es emissive power of any body (e,) absorptive power of that body (a) =emissive power of black body at the same a te This law also concludes that if a body absorbe radlgtieiat a wavelength strongly, it also emits the same radiations stron; ly Thue the alternate statement of Kirchhoff's law is 800d absorbers are eae ene oe Red glass appears red because from the thermal realtor it ee upon it red colour is totally reflected ed. Ifthe tally and other col redcolour from the white light is withd: rawn, then thiswouldsosmteypos ren. That's why whena red glass is heated for a | a conversely on heating a green glass it appean ee nee = Stefan's law : It states that the total radiant ene: E)emit con cane area of bag Se ot Tey (ete per scond of its absolute temperature (T) power 4 Thus [FaT’! => E=oT*, Here, oiscalled Stefan's constant. Boltzmann established this law theoretically from a thermodynamical consideration and hence an extended form of Stefan's law is called Stefan Boltzmann's law which is stated as below—_ . if a black body at an absolute temperature T is surrounded black body at an absolute temperature T, then it will lose an ae of energy OT per sec per unit area and will gain an amount of energy oT, per sec per unit area from the surroundings. Hence the net loss of energy per sec per unit area of the body will be E = o(T4— T') which is called Stefan—Boltzmann’s law. ° Newton's law of cooling : It states that the rate of loss of heat energy of any hot body by the process of thermal radiation is proportional to the difference between the mean temperature and the surroundings. Thus Q 0, +0, Thus the rate of heat energy lost (2) = «(“L"2-o, where, k =a proportionality constant 0,, 0, = two temperatures of small time interval. 6,, = temperature of the surrounding. ' =time It is observed that if a hot body loses its heat energy in such a way that its temperature falls from 70°C to 60°C in particular time ¢ min, then itwill take more than f min. in the temperature falling from. 60°C to 50°C. By the process of radiation the heat energy lost not only depends upon the temperature difference of the body and the surroundings, but also on the the surface of the body and its surface area Scanned by CamScannerwow wisionias.met ‘of the body and 'S | . ve Jaw of radiation. ei rns of transmission of heat in OUF daily ye tio F tions of conduction ; (a) viities a Pace of ON and wood placed in thesame, Wea ae than the wood. The reason ze ‘ind i iss Bed conga pater the iron in comparison to the piece of the wood, ony hy temperature (normally 37°C) is generally greater than th sok Wien we couch an iron piece, heat is rapidly conducteq fom herd (hotter body) to the iron but wood being a bad conductor Con a heat by touching iron than © 0 Utilities and Applica} littleamount of heat. So we. lose more Sheehy. aniron piece appears colder. But when both are keptiin th, sky under the sun, then on touching the iron piece it appears hotter the wooden piece. This can also be explained exactly in the similar wa (ii) Eskimos live in the houses of double walls of ice as shown in the figure. Such houses keep people warmer and comfortable because air molecules are being trapped between the ice walls of the house which is bad conductor of heat. (ii) To drink tea ina metallic cup is Eskimo's Dwelling Painful than to drink teain a ceramic or fiber cu itis that heat from the tea "sand Applications of convection Scanned by CamScannersurround, mn of Steaks ‘ily life me room, y, conduction, ‘han that o, d from th, “conducts van w ithe open, tter than rway. Ped air walls thing tand reat. avel on id or wowew wisionias-nct raysies + a x: from North and South rushes to take o ‘up tl fhe rotation oe th caith from West to Ea ee ee (liquid) > (Solid) orropy. ie. (gas) etiopy entropy em which operatesinsuch (i) Cyclicprocess : The thermodynamical syst Seer igenid vob rr Scanned by CamScannerre www -wisionias-net 86 General Science By the First law of thermodynamics dQ=dU+dW=U,-U,+dW=dWw ( U=U) , Thus, total thermal energy would be utilised in doing mechanical wor, and change in internal energy would be zero. Gi) Quasi-Statie process :A processin which asystem never works more than infinitesimal (very small) from the equilibrium state and itis called a quasi-static process. Thus, the quasi-static process is an ideal process which can never be exactly obtained but can be approximated under some specific circumstances. ; (ii) Reversible and Irreversible process : A reversible process is one which can be reversed in such a way that all changes taking place in the ated in the reverse order (opposite sense) and no changes are left in any of the bodies taking part in the process or in the surroundings. The conditions of reversibility are never realised in practice, hence a reversible process is only an ideal conception. Any process which is not reversible exactly is an irreversible process. All natural processes such as conduction, radiation, radioactive decay etc. are irreversible processes. Thus, irreversibility is a rule. (iv) Isothermal and Adiabatic process: When thermodynamic system undergoes through a process in which its temperature remains constant, then the process is said to be isothermal. The essential condition for an isothermal process is that the system must be contained in a perfectly ) conducting chamber and it occurs extremely slowly in which the heat produced or absorbed during the process at once goes out or comes in from outside. Hence, temperature will remain constant but as there is no perfect conductor, so isothermal process cannot be performed exactly but can only be approximated. Ideal gas equation PV = RT is directly applicable for an isothermal process. But when a thermodynamic system undergoes a process under the condition thatno heat comes into or goes out of the system, then the process said to be adiabatic. Such process can occur when the system is perfectly insulated from the surroundings. But since no perfect insulator is available, perfect adiabatic change is impossible. Thereby, an approximate adiabatic process can be obtained (achieved). It is an extremely rapid or fast process because there isa very little time for the heat to go out or to come into the system. The equation PV’ = constant is directly applicable and relevant for an adiabatic process, where y = specific heat capacities ratio of the ideal gas. direct process are exactly rep Examples: Ifa gas is suddenly compressed, the heat of compression is added to its internal energy and its temperature rises. That's why the bicycle pump is heated when the air in it issuddenly compressed. Similarly, if a gas is suddenly expanded, then the extemal work done during it against the surroundings draws energy (equivalent to the work done) from its internal energy and its temperature falls. When a motor tyre bursts, the sudden expansion of air into the atmosphere is an adiabatic process in which the tyreiscooled down, Asin an adiabatic process no heat ceca ge takes, Scanned by CamScannerjanical Work works More qutscalled twos which nme specific es is one wae in the sense) and sorin the practice, process. decay ete. iesstem ‘onstant, nfor an veectly heat from pertoct nonly ‘oran * the cess tly re, tic ss e © a —_—~ so entropy also remains constant. That's wi, : called isentropic (constant entropy) process,” N* ®diabatic process is also prepare dry ice (Solid CO.) caries i A ehequently it converts ind ion called te suddenly expanded (#) Isobatic and Isochoric process : A ther Jace at constant pressure is called an isobark, Example—The boiling of water to steam o taking place ata constant pressure also at cons processes A thermodynamic process tal jsochoric process. Obviously process is zero (dW = 0), modynamic process taking Process, the freezing of water to ice tant temperature) are isobaric king place at constant volume i lume is called such a process the work done on or by the ; energy of the system. itan ideal gas is assumed to be a thermodynamic system, then work a by the gas or on the gas are different for different proces: ichean bythe gern the gin ae a Processes and which can Wratare ” Whottemat > Waasaic Wiig ~* Thermal Expansion, W, > Wadutote > Wiatbemnat > Wigeane —* Thermal Compression cherie Miscellaneous topics @® Cooling process (Mechanism) (a) Evaporation (Vaporisation) : From the outer surface of any liquid at any temperature slowly and steadily the transformation of liquid into vapour is called evaporation. In the process of evaporation (vaporisation) the heat energy is supplied by the inner molecules of the liquid and when a sufficient heat energy is acquired by the molecules of outer surface then these molecules start to detach from the liquid. Thus, vapour is formed and along with themselves molecules have lower heat energy and ultimately temperature falls. Thus evaporation is a process of obtaining the cooling from the liquid. The evaporation depends on various factors like amount of vapour present in atmosphere, the area of ihe liquid surface, the temperature of the liquid etc. If the water vapour f.esent in the atmosphere is large then the rate of evaporation is least and vice-versa. That's why in summer wet clothes are dehydrated soon and made dry in short interval of time, while inrainy season the process of drying takes a longer time. Insummer, surahi (water container made of ceramic) by the evaporation process lowers the temperature and water becomes cool. If the body temperature of a man/ women due to suffering of a severe fever becomes extremely high then on keeping the weted cloth on his /her forehead such high temperature can be lowered down through the process of evaporation. Scanned by CamScanner‘ tbe cooled down is Josed space (region) tora it will be warmed fom hal joor of the refrigerator but ultima rand expels it into ae ce emnaves heat fom is Se ey inallan tioecil spank eee ry recap hmm hr se Biecteenice so roduces cooling by wis filled up Bronce of refrigeration the Be eapeeaticn cooling is achieved, = rocess Of by the p: the mechanica | ‘coil of copper and by isation : At present by : (®) Adiabatic eee s obtained by the method of adiabatic _ lowest process the ic substance is magnetised, it, ization: When a paramagnetic subst |. The necessa demognetinion: When. paramagnetic subaianes 1 The necessary Nee eee eitathetatemnal tray ofthe v ae work done in ths prase 6 ature. If the substance 1s allowe to coo wr the deengeciend wenier an-adiiivetc condition, the sac ecules tised u a ae ante he original random disixibution and there 7 consepen ting aie temperature. This effect is too much pronounce fall in . temperature. - Ht Giauque and McDougall used gadolinium ae Earamagie i saltand a magnetic ield of 8000 Gauss in order to obtain the temp. 025K (© Joule-Thomson (Joule-kelvin) effect + Joule and Thomson experimentally observed that when a gas under constant Pressure is forced through an insulated porous plug (compressed porous material like cotton- change is directly proportional to the pressure diffi the plug. At ordinary temperature all Bases, except hydro, suffer a fall in temperature (cooling effect), while hy suffer a slight rise in temperature (heating effect), The temperature of inversion (7 7a) ischaracteri Bas and below this temperature cooling is observed, w is observed and at the inversion temperature neither takes place, gen and helium, drogen and helium, Stic of the particular hile above it heating heating nor cooling The inversion temperatures for A, cy these gases show heating effede at ordi, initial temperatures of Hy, He is brought below q sec Bases will also show cooling effect and — and He are _ (4) Adiabatic expansion : 1f g com; wo the atmosphere, then it does 3 externa B25 is sy pttactions. Since the expansie, at N15 sud, Bains: heat flows into it from the surroundin, es and no Apreci, the internal energy of the gas itselg » the Which me &temal ‘ ‘or! 2 Qoul e ie. ( Booting * Jo He-ThOMSON),. ing > Ser tng anicay 1) (a) Hu + The oe dtiape ‘ i pont of water vapour present ‘in We i ic tmosphere is called humidity. The amount ot w. fi ‘ 2Ssary near the sea-level is large thus, humidity isaktolarge Inne nie ‘stance humidity is found to be more. Becinrainy season usually © coo} (b) Relative humidity : The relative humidity is the ratio of the y i amou: 2eules of water vapour in the air of a given volume ata particular tempest nt ding the required water vapour in air to saturate the same volume the one “love temperature. ° The water vapour in air of any volume at etic ‘Thus, relative humidity = ——_____any temperature eee The water vapour required of the same volume | at the same temperature 7 The relative humidity is measured by a device called Hygrometer. On Son increasing temperature relative humidity is increased, wd Saturated vapour : If at a given temperature air absorbs a definite mn amount of water vapour, then at this state air is said to be in the state of ire saturated water vapour. th (c) Air-conditioning : The climate of any place on the earth's surface is e determined by various parameters like temperature, relative humidity, the * wind flowing direction etc. Usually for a hygienic and comfortable clignate 4 the following conditions should be fulfilled, (i) The temperature should lie between 23°C to 25°C. (ii) The relative humidity should lie between 60% to 64%. Gi) The speed of wind should lie between 0.0125 m/sec t00.01417m/ sec. Such climate usually doesn't exist naturally specially in the urban areas. Thus it is prepared artificially and on this principle air-conditioning, operates. IV. Light 1. Nature and Speed of Light Light: Lightis an external cause due to which any objectbecomes visible for human eye. For the illumination or visibility of an object light incidents. upon it (up tg.1/6th second), Then after reflection it comes to the eye and then the object is seen. At present light is defined in the form of an energy which transmits (propagates) as an electromagnetic wave and whose energy 1S confined in the form of a small packet called photon. Dual nature of light : In early time it was believed that light consists of a stream of corpuscles, emitted by various light sources travells outward from the sources instraight lines. This was the idea of Newton's Corpuscular theory. The corpuscles directly penetrate through the transparent materials Scanned by CamScannervisionias.nmct Arar. ~ rials. Whenthey (co; thesurfacesofopaquematerials PRs ere thy cause ieseioe ee of light a8 a wave y ing the middle of 17th cen’ hel ws of reflection an. Tefraction behest 1670showed that thelawsof reflection anc ref that it ee eoterac ten tian thet auld be able to expose f de lghtohias te wove mctcee da ryound the obstacies in ine Path, re bend a 80 small that fSeeinng termina ten sending which aca takes place tae end the edees of wy Object eee ibe bending of light waves or crimuldll Belone tees Ke fa penomneron hee ee te prt GF eee baie significance cere Hooke in 1665 in terms of wave picture, interpret waa toe recognized at that time. ind Fresnel on the interference After 1827 the experiments of Young jlight in liquids by Foucault and the measurement of the velocity wid not be conectly explince by demonstrated the phenomenon which TT eee then the corpuscular theory, and it could be spies the wavelength of the waved Young's experiments enabled him to mea tion of light as well sev and Fresnel showed that the rectilinear propaga Id be explained hn diffraction observed by Grimaldi and others, cou P assumed to be waves of shorter wavelength, The next forward step in the theory of light was taken by Maxwell who showed theoretically that an oscillating electrical circuit radiates clectromagneticwaves propagating withthe velocity oflight. Approximately fifteen years lates, Hertz succeeded in producing short-wavelength waves se Tektromagnetic origin and showed that they Possessed all the properties of light waves like reflection, refraction, polarisation ete. Thus, Maxwell's clectromagnetictheoryo| teen petimentally verified Dutunfortunatets the phenomenon of photoelectric cflan (the election of electrons from metallic conductor by the incident of light on its surface), Compton's effect, Raman effectetc.couldn'tbeexplainede the basis of wave theory, Einstein explained these on the basis of Plank's quantum th At present the dual nature of {j acceptable. The phenome ithe penaBM wnveteary ee oe i in the process of emission an absorption is a “orpuscular phenomenon Speed of light : istly Romer (q i speared of lig ly i astronmer) obtaj Y esha tent satteot the pae cai ofthe ‘et (Jupiter). In different media the speed, f i refractive index of the medi a 2 medi cre ana nae eta upon the Tger refractive index has small gt 8 light" ™edium which hoogP The refractive i ) : 10® meter/sec, t of vacun, aSet Medium the speed T the Speed of ~ value of the speed T than 35%, suum, in water it is Scanned by CamScannerwow wisionias.met Physics. 9 ‘1 values of the speeds of light in various media Medium Speed of light (m/s) |Medi: Medion Sree sala Spend of light (m/s) ter 2.25 = 108 Rock salt 1.96 x 108 Ciloftarpin — 2.04 x 108 Nylon 1.96 x 10% Light from the sun reaches the earth’: . 's surface in 8 minutes 19 and the reflected light from the moon takes 1.28. seconds reais snathe to reach the earth's Rectilinear propagation of light: Inanisotropi i i ectilir r ical (havingsamed materialistic medium the rays of light move in straight tine This oa rectilinear propagation of light. The formation of various types of shadows, the formation of image through a pin hole camera, occurrence of solar and junar eclipses etc. are the examples of rectilinear propagation of light. Miscellaneous (i) Firstly Newton asserted that light is made of micro particles or corpuscules: and it moves in a straight line. Newton also speculated that white light is made of all the seven colours. (ii) Huygens propounded the wave theory of light. Which asserted that light can be displayed in the form of waves. (iii) Young propounded the theory of Interference of light. Young’s experiment was the base of the verification and confirmation of wave theory for the physicists. (iv) Maxwell propounded the theory of electromagnetism in 1864. According to Maxwell the oscillating electricand magnetic fields generate an electromagnetic wave perpendicular to each other and its direction of propagation is perpendicular to each electric and magnetic field. This theory was verified by Hertz and later on commercial level too much work was done by Marconi in this regard. (v) Max. Planck in 1900 gave the famous quantum theory by the help of an equation F = hv, where h is called Planck's constant and v is the frequency of emitted photon. He also explained that the energy in the electromagnetic wave is quantized and appears descretly in the form of packet called quantum and this energy is confined in the form of a pocket called photon. This concept became the origin of Quantum mechanics later. (vi) Einstein on the basis of a comperhensive observation and speculation in 1905 declared that the light is quantized and the energy is divided into a small group called quanta and the corpuscule of the light is called photon. Sources of light: Thesun, stars and other celestial bodies inouruniverse are the natural sources of light. In stellar or solar system, hydrogen atoms regularly transform themselves into helium and tremendous amount of solar energy or stellar energy is produced. Apart of such energy is received by our earth’s surface. The sun is Scanned'By" nor corand and according to Einstein's masswww -wisionias.-met / “>. - z 2 = ), the rate of mass decay is 4 x equivalent relation es wets its energy upto sppron Ttis ne pee Sa oe are some artificial sources of light like thousand crores years. ¢ 1 bulbs, matches, candles etc. which light | Shadow : When an opaque body (body ee oflight, ener ! obstructed on passing) is placed in the front of a hich iscalled eho the opaque body a black or dark region appears whi of light. If the sg, formation of shadows depends on the types of oe ac bra wink of light is a point source, therthe shadow formed is calle Me anextended source of light is called penumbra. | Pin hole camera : In it a rectangular wooden box whose inner w; are painted black and a pointed hole is made in the front wall of the box verof rubbed 4 Rectangular wooden box en an inverted image is formed near the rear wall of the box. If more than one pointed hole is made in the front wall, then & a number of inverted images are formed which are equal to the number of holes. This also proves the rectilinear Propagation of light. The size of imag depends on the distance between the Pointed hole and screen and th distance between the object and the pointed hole. If on behalf of the scree the photographic plate is taken, a distinct and decent (perfect) image is Pin hole Pin hole camera formed. H ification — Height of the object lore, magnification = © ght ofthe image ~ Image distance from the hole Object distance from the hole Obviously, fora substantial pointed hole should be small. | Eclipse : magnification the object distance from t n the moon comesbetween the sunand the earth, 3 sun is not visible and this position is called solar eclipse. This eclipse may be full or partial, Full Solar eclipse occurs on the day of full moon, ! Dana EAIPSEA WHER... (4): the earth comes between the O i Solar Eclipse sun and the Lunar Eclipse Scanned by CamScannerPhysics is called /unar eclipse. This eclipse ma Position eclipse occurs on the day of nalts pa ae ‘°F partial, Full lunar ‘Edlipses are not visible and do not occur each and every month because the equatorial orbit of the earth makes i pe epistoral on an angle of 5° to 7° from the axial 2. Reflection of light When a light ray incidents on a smooth and polished i undergoes (comes) back almost in a different aici see of light ray is called reflection of oH ao light-Aplanemirrorisassumed LR RR to be the best reflector. ‘The straight line perpendicular to the reflected surface is called ily LR. — Incident Ray normal. The angle between N—Normal incident ray and normal is LR. — Reflected Ray called angle of incidence and between the normal and reflected ray is called angle of reflection. ° There are two laws of reflection— (i) Incident ray, normal and reflected ray all lie in the same plane. (ii) Angle of incidence and angle of reflection both are equal. Thus i= r as ze - met ee Plane mirror : One surface of the mirror is plane and another surface id the has a sharp metallic polish which is pasted. This is done to avoid the polish he screen decay. The backside of the mirror with silver or mercury layers (metallic image is polish) works as reflector surface. The object and image both are located at equal distance. In a plane mirror the formed image is always imaginary and it is equal to the size of the object laterally inverted. (i) Ifa body having a speed » moves forward with this its image through al Bi trie i) For showing. the full image of an object, the size of the plane mirror should be at east hall ofthe object i he Y ae constant and the pane mirror is rotated. eo iv) If two plane mirrors are inclined to each other at then total number of images formed between Thus, if two plane mirrors are inclined at right angle to eac! willbe formed between them. Utilities : The plane mirror is utilised in the form of kaleidoscope, Periscope, looking glass etc. ( Kaleidoscope : In it three rectangular plane mirrors of equal length and equal breadth are attached to each other in such a way that the angle between two mi: rrot of 60", The reflecting surfaces of all these mirrors are inwardly confined and in the space confined by the-mirrors, the pieces of Scanned by CamScannerLI wisionias.nmet re General Science Gi) Periscope : In it two Plane mirrors are attached to each othe; 45° in such a way that th, a n suc no Jeflecting surfaces are oppositely directed, Lig of ray first incidents on the reflecting surface of the first (upward) mirror ang the reflected beam Tow incidents upon the second (downward) mirror that after reflection it enters the eye. That's why during war time the arms Ses periscope to detect the enemies who are hidden in bunkers. Also in Submarines periscopes are frequently used today. ol Spherical mirror : in spherical plane a the constructed mirror is called spherical th mirror in which one side of the mirror has E 7 a layer of mercury or coating oflead oxide, A thin layer is painted and pasted to one side and another sideis used asa reflecting € surface, Concave mirror q The spherical mirror is of two types— () Concave mirror : The spherical mitror whose reflecting surface is_| inwardly leaned is called concave mirror, Itis also called converging mirror because it converges the coming rays from infinity, (i) Convex mirror : The spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is outwardly leaned is called convex mirror. It is aleg called diverging mirror because it diverges the rays coming from, infinity. As both concave and convex mirrors are constructed through spherical lass The cere of the glass sphere i called ca oUGh the same (C) and the middle point (©) of the spherical mirror is calle, ole wrvature passing through the centre of curvature and pole is calleq tle. The line The middle point of the straight line drawn from the Pole to qniPal axis, curvature is called focus (F). Thus focal distance (f) = Fdius' sot curvature Scanned by CamScannerMt a ot oS where = Object distance v » = Image distance f= Focal length of the mi —_ e mirror, Magnification : The ratio of image distance : ratio of the length of image to the | of the mirror and is represented by ot he OP ‘Thus magnification (m) = Length of Image __ image distance (») Length of object ~ Object distance (1) ‘The image formed by con — ‘ ayes formed Nau pave lero In convex mirror the image of an between the pole and the focus and the image formed is smaller than the object and it is erect and virtual. If the position of the object is changed and if it shifts from the pole, then the virtual erect image becomes smaller and shifts towards the focus. Use : Since convex mirror is diverging in nature, so the objects of a large region are being diverged into a smaller region. That's why the convex mirror has a vast field-view and so these Re Frese areas wow miror Duc (olasge felt ter test atte in the reflecting lamps installed near the roads and streets. The images formed by concave mirror: The position of the object may vary according to our choice and so the images which are real and inverted can be formed at various locations tabulated as given below. A A CF e Ne 7 BS (A x (a) (b) (c) Scanned by CamScannerVvisionias.nct rae General Science * : 4 Size “68 “image Naw Petition of object Position of image ee tison ‘ to object I al (a) Atinfinity (@) At focus Very smal real and in Betweencentre Between —_ focus Small real and in Pe of curvature and centre of ini rvature : ie cei. eae reaneie GbE gailliiongiht real aaa (©) At cen ature curvature @ diween focus Between centre Large real and iny, and centre of of curvature and curvature infinity ‘ (e) At focus Atinfinity (*) Very large real and in (6) Between pole Behind the mirror Large virtualand and focus erected 3. Refraction of light When a light ray passes from one transparent medium to anothe transparent medium perpendicularly at any point on a line divi the mediums, then the ray passes direct! they incident inclinedely then they deviat phenomenon of ligh Normal iding ly without any deviation, But fe from the original path and t is called refraction of light. A Rarer medium (air) Normal Rarer medium ~ (air) p—_Q Q Denser medium ‘| Denser medium \ (water) A (water) denser medium (say, air normal drawn on the dividing Laws of refraction (i) Incident ra (ii) For any t sine of the an, Scanned by CamScanner ab cal ta tei WO wee ww wisionias.nmet ” . sini si 2 (then Ha -2Ms°! = sinr’sinr™ sing Similarly; Hor Shy fed Uinvertes Where 1 + ait (a), 2—= water (w}, 3 — plans () an lane, refraction takes place from vacuum er aie ‘Teg re Tatio of sine of angle of incidence and cine oe medium then the ;ine’of an d a sine of angle of tion is dv saute nara or any nae Sete stone inv law: ete ‘Thus, absolute refractive index (y) = S81 sinr t the ratio of velocity of light in vacuum, AVerteg tis also observed optically that is equal to the absolute refractive index ity of light in any medi atocity of lig) y medium (the medium. velocity of light in vacuurn (,) fy Thus: Mo ~ Velocity offightin medium (e.) b&* My=— The refractive index of different colours (different wavelengths) of the light are different. On increasing wavelength refractive index decreases That's why the red colour of visible light has the least value of refractive index and the voilet colour has the largest value of refractive index, as tother the red colour has longer wavelength and the violet colour has shorter i both wavelength. Also with rise in temperature index of refraction slightly 3ut if decreases. : a : Atmospheric air has various layers of different densities. Whenever light rays coming trom stars incident on air surface (layer) then refract from various layers because air layers are not static. Thus we observe that stars are twinkling due to their various tions in different time intervals. (ii) The coin kept at the bottom of a container having water seems upwardly uplifted : Whenever a coin is kept inside a water container, then the phenomenon of refraction takes place and the coin kept in the container seems upwardly uplifted. Giii) A fish inside water seems uplifted from its original position. ng (iv) Astraight rod partially sunk inside water seems to be bent. air m (v) Whenever the sun is below the horizon then before sunrise and ™m after sunset the 4, Total Internal Reflection of light When any light ray enters from an optically denser medium to an d optically ium then due to refraction the light ray bends away from of the normal. But as well as the values of angles of incidence are increased, 's the light bending from the normal becomes more and more away. Thus, the value of angle of refraction is in increasing order. But for a definite angle of incidence the angle of refraction becames 90" and here the angle of incidence is called critical angle. Thus index of refraction (jt) = — W)= sae = sinc= 1 where C = critical angle. " —a Scanned by CamScannerwow wisionias.met General Science sai = Ifthe angle of incidences increased by ! at all. Ihe light ray doesn’t refract at all. TES U7 pa te than 90°. In this situation incident fedium and this incident in geo! reflection. ‘Also the region (space) pee oe reflection takes place becomes econ PY son tea onan Thus, for the occurrence of total in g ro than a certain value, required— le1 F, 71) The light ray must enter from an optically denser to an optica mba a of incidence should always be greater than crit angle. Critical angles of some important substances ¢ i Gubstance Index of Critical | Substance Index of Critical refraction angles metrection Water 133 485° [Flint glass ‘6S Crownglass 152 41° Some interesting incidents related to total internal reflection— (i) Over brightness in diamond : The critical angle is very low (approximately 24") fora light ray coming from diamond to air. When light rays enter into the diamond, then from various layers multiple reflections take place and if the angle of incidence of the rays becomes less than 24°C then light rays come out from the diamond. Thus, light rays entering from every side into the diamond, only appear to come from certain side and that’s why the diamond appears overbrightend. | ii) Ships hang inverted (looming) in i i trees hang inverted (mirage) Shdesground hoaaw. a sountien al Mirage in deserts Of Sea-water a inthe eran it ie Tmostdensed state at the surface n the stirfacet tPwards. So the rays di i 2 of ein ays diverging ay from the normal. Now iva! 8 @ ship are refracted ets gra upwards froman object of Wey continuously aw: light rays begin {0 travel downwards with oo, (Olly reflected when the With continuous refraction towards | Scanned by CamScanner massedwowew wisionias.mct ” In deserts the situation is just the Jal geound level and gets gradually denser as aa Here air is the Tarest at the Frisia coir engbaratagend te ee ra away from aihen the light rays begin to travel up wergeteal. Now itis tota towards the vertienl and soon reach tht me @ continuos direction. The leaf so appears under, thine’ the ship and the toe aFe not inverted but ga ial are simply optical illusions, Seem to be inverted. These Gi) The cracked part of glass 4 ; tof glass contains air, which acts Ifke n° De brightend : The cracked When light rays enter through the Blass (er, # which the angle ae incidence becomes enedto heer the phenomenon of total internal refleaers takes place: That angle, and part of glass appears to be brightend, Pl t's why cracked (iv) A test tube filled with water amplitude or intensity. An optical fibre is basically composed through a long, large andcompactquartz fibre and each fibre is 10 cm thick. Around theoptical fibre a substance whose Light | index of refraction is Optical fibre about 1.6 is wrapped out. When the light rays incident on one side of this fibre by making a very small angle, then these are refracted insicle it. Thus incident rays after being totally internally reflected collide with the otha. end of the fibre. On this limiting surface upto which optical fibre is confined again the angle of incidence becomes greater than the critical angle and total internal reflection takes place again. Thus, the phenomenon of total internal reflection takes place repeatedly and the light ray reaches from one end to another end. Use of optical fibr Total internal reflection To send laser light rays inside the human body. _ Today optical fibres are frequently used in telecommunication. Old [Per cables are being replaced today by optical fibres whose capacity is “*8e and they are convenient in use and which are noise free. Scanned by CamScannervisionias.nct rae General Science 100 lens through 2 : ction of light HN" pounded by two's 1 5. Retraction etiam BO : tens is @ 0 bounding sur ma f oon = tres of curvature othe enabya plane p seer line joining the f ihe tens. The sect section of the lens. A jen 7 Ace ercipal axis is called Pt ee axis ofthe through its principal i A the point 0 fh the lens is called its opal cipal s shown by its princip: jeviated throug) faces are called oo through Which rays pass under pherical eae fecenarecallanee centre, Lenses bound bY te concave sphere rays toa pointaresaid tot Jensesand those bound by Wo & parallel beamotra yea cram a viciiat lenses. Lenses which or Eee which diverge t vex lenses are conve comer ivorgent in nature. GenerallY, OT Ser te dpe Under co-ordinate focal length of the convex taken negative, n convention (which is updately acceptable) the lens is taken positive a ind that of concave lens is The lenses are generally constructed by i y the good quality hollow spherical glasses which act like refracting surfaces by various ways but ‘only six types are common which cars be shown as below,— 1 Conver lens of Plano-convex te 5 o-convex lens ex lens Coneavo-convex lens Concave Tens or Coneavo-concave tens "M0-concave lens Convexo-concave lens Scanned by CamScanner10 sPhericgy ing 8UFFa¢0, 8 rlane passin, ms. A lens ) the ns is low but wisionias.nmet Are Inysies ~ ‘Terms related to lens Optical centre: It isa my through it doesn't deviate. Focus : The point at which the fi aais meet Or appear to meet after called focal length, The Image formation by its size and position etc, depend on the diets, focus. There may be follo, given as below— Position object (a) At infinity («) Ate, (b) Left near 2F, Between F, and 2F, of Position of image (c) At2r, At2F, (4) Between 2F, Right from 2F, and F, (e) AtF, At infinity (20) (9 Between © — Towards objects and F, Scanned by CamScanner 1d Pointinatens and a BNE rays cor nin, Tefraction is call Focal Length : The distance between 1 sonvex lens : The nature ing Positional tor ny light ray Which passes 8 Parallel to the princi led focus, PAMCipal {he optical centre and the focus is of image formed, ice of the object kept from the configuration in various cases Nature, Size, Position of image real, very small and inverted real, small and inverted real, equal and inverted real, large and inverted real, very large and inverted Virtual, erected and magnifiedwow wisionias.met ‘ie General Scien i wwe lens image formation by concave cave jhe image is formed jetween the jed and By concave lens often tl towards the object side (loft) be focus and lens and itis virtually erect small. - Object can be kept at various position and image ean be obtained. : Relation among object distance, image distance and focal length of the lens. 111 js called tens formula and i | mage with focal length. | tis the required relation between the distance of object and i Here, f= focal distance, +ve for convex lens any object distance image distance. ; ; Relation among focal distance, index of refraction and radius of curvature. d -ve for concave lens, u (a) Thin lens formula: 7 =-1) (x x) where 41 = index of refraction of the lens. Ff = focal length R,,R, are radii of curvature of two surfaces. If the lens isa plano-convex then R, = 9 } 1 Thus, by lens formula + = (y—1) fF f R, om a wel 1-1 =m =oje#=! Leal & ) Hy FOR, | (b) Thick lens formula : If t be the thickness of the lens then 1 11, (u-1)t S=(u-1)Jt.1, a Equivalent focal length of two lenses : (a) If vo lenses are kept in contact the; two lenses is the sum of the Thus if Fis the nequivalent focal focal lengths of the lensea, 4 en8th of these equivalent focal length of two focal lengths are, and, then 1.1, 1 lenses whose respective = F (b) Butif thesetwo lense: focal length is given by 1 ‘sare kept apa Scanned by CamScanneri = wow wisionias.met Physi yaics 103 +ve and ve, That! jens has oe power. ate wihy convex lens has +e power and concave uivalent power of the js of equivalent foral length of ok et earn anne Nl ate two are in contact. Peete +P, If first lens is concave, say P, =~ 1.5 (dioptre) and second lens is convex, say P, = f = +25 (dioptre) then P=-15+ , =-15+25=41di Also, if d is the distance between two lenses, then P = a dP, P. Variations in the power of lenses : When: wos ie kept ind Var : lever a lens i liquid its focal length and power both change. If a lens of mauve i s iris kept inside a liquid of refractive index y’ then here three cases alae {a) When j1> qv’: Here power of the lens de ! increases, The nature of the lens remains the — es (b) When ji =p’ : Here focal length of the lens i e bee shu mower ef the lens vanishes or becomes zero: Thu lens behaves like a plane parallel plate and inside the liquid lens doesn't look. (@ When j1 < : Here power of the lens again decreases and thus f " a 1 length increases. Thus a convex lens acts like a concave lene and vice" versa. 6. Dispersion of light When a light ray incidents upon a prism, it gets refracted through it and bends towards the base of the prism and this ray splits into various folours. This group of component colours is called spectrum. Also the process of splitting of a white light is . called dispersion of light. Inall the colours of white light, violet ray (colour) deviates the most and red ray (colour) deviates the least. The white li colours ge =—BO Magenta, Green + Blue ~* Peacock Blue (Cyan) Red + Green > Yellow G = If two colours mutual = foe Ehve light, then the colon sd dcompe ns white ene Example : Red + Peacock Blue ( Cyan)» Whi Green + Magenta White. a Yellow + Blue Suchtype Which we use ~~ White, Red + of colours cannotbe are practic Peacock Blue (Cyan) — White. achieved j i ye veved in our daily tife because colours Colour TY utitises Primary Colour of Objects : The all other colours are absorbed Scanned by CamScannerMin Ay Ad tota) hensive mplete time i¢ ty that rmed. arcily. cated sun) and aris ited san ary ue _ plours looks white but if all the incident colo: abberbeatdhine (Sect appears black The white clear ns oem the ae Se ofall the colours. Example : When a red rose is seen thy ars black because red colour is not colour is absorbed by it. The colours effect on various type of objects, Nameof Inwhite Inred — Ingreen rough a green glass th rose available for Telectsh cade Inyellow — Inblue objects rays rays rays rays rays White paper white red green yellow blue Red paper red red black black black Green paper green black green black black Yellow paper yellow black —_ black yellow black Blue paper blue black black black blue 7. Interference of light waves In general interference is the phenomenon of sustained cancellation or reinforcement of two waves when they meet under certain specific conditions. When the effect of one wave is constantly neutralised by the other, two waves are said to interfere destructively and when their effects are reinforced they are said to interfere constructively. Thus, we can say that when two waves of the same frequency travel in same direction and have a phase difference that remains constant with time, the resultant intensity of light is not distributed uniformly in space. The non-uniform distribution of light intensity due to superposition of two waves is called interference. At some points intensity is maximum and interference at these points is called constructive interference. At some other points intensity is minimum (possibly even zero) and interference at these points is called destructive interference, Usually when two light waves are made to interfere, we get alternate dark and bright bands of a regular or irregular shape. These are called interference fringes. Interference is the most fundamental characteristic of a wave and there isno loss of energy in it, there is only redistribution of energy from maxima to minima. The phenomenon of interference was firstly demonstrated by Thomas Young in his experiment called Young's double slit experiment. Examples related to interference (i) The kerosene oil spread on the water surface seems to have a decent colour because of interference of the light. (ii) The soap bubbles have a brilliant colour in the sunlight because of interference of the light. Coherence : A wave which has a pure sine wave for an infinitely large Period of time or for an infinitely extended space is said to be a perfectly coherent wave. In such a wave there is a definite relationship between the Phase of the wave at a given time and at a certain time or distance later at given point same condition is again satisfied. Scanned by CamScanner106, ; coherent wave. Lj, hy ‘ ever emits a perfectly coh ight No Se ee waves only for a limited period of time or iny aves whit s ‘ time ted space are partially coherent waves. i iteria of time Thus there are two different criteria of coherence-crite: . f temporal coheren, Sriteria of space. This gives rise to the phenomena of tempoi td and spatial coherence. 8. Diffraction of light ; Ki Ifa opaque obstacle (aperture) is kept between a eotiree sf eens screen, a sufficiently distinct shadow (or an illuminates ee (even on the screen. This shows that light which travels the obsta pen is small (comparable to the wavelength of the light), there nt Parture from straight line propagation and so the light bends round tl fe comers of the obstacle (aperture) and enters in the geometrical shadow. This bending of the light is called diffraction, Consequently, the edges of the shadow (or illuminated region) are not sharp, but the intensity is distributed ina certain Way depending upon the nature of the obstacle (aperture). Thus, if the size of the obstacle is in the order of the Wavelength of light, then diffraction will be appeared which is clear and dist, ‘intive. The phenomenon of diffraction wavecharacterof the light. Sound wave’ haslonger wavelength, ‘akes place clearly in which sound wove wy While the wavelength of light wave i, stacle) we u: Se in our daily life, that's why action is rarely observed ical diffractions— In Fresnel’: from obstacle and we liste! shorter than common barrier (ob; the phenomenon of optical diffr ‘There are two types of opti (a) Fresnel's diffraction : | (b) Fraunhofer diffraction : In Fraunhofer's cla sparc’ Of light and the screen are i diffracting obstacle (aperture), This is achieved by keeping the source and shack in the focal planes of two lenses, Here the in shape) is plane. 9. Polarisation of light waves Ordinary Polarised Maximum Light) Light ™ Light ich Py Ordinary Polarised Light N\ Light 4 a! No Light Py Py > tourmaline crystals Scanned by CamScannerwow wisionias.met Physics 107 When an ordinary light incidents normall I plates P, and P, as shown Ito their er sity as P, ly upon a pair of parallel in the figure which have tallographic axis, the emergent light shows a rotated. The intensity is maximum when the jwsof P,i5 parallel to that of P,, and minimum when itis at right angles. This shows that the light emerging from P, is not symmetrical about the giqection of propagation of light, but its vibrations are confined only to.a Vingle line in a plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Such jight 1s called plane-polarised or linearly-polarised light. According to the electromagnetic theory of light, a light wave consists ofelectric and magnetic vectors vibrating in mutually perpendicular planes, oth being perpendicular to the direction of propagation of light. The electric veetor acts like a light vector. Hence, the plane-polarised light is a light in. which the light vector vibrates along a fixed straight line in a plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation. symbolical representation Unpolarived light % : > Vibration parallel to the plane of paper Plane polarised tight revenge Pe Vibration perpendicular to the > 2 2-> plane of paper As in an unpolarised beam of light all directions of vibration at right angles to that of propagation of light are possible, hence it is represented by a star. In a plane-polarised beam of light the vibrations are along a single straight line. If the vibrations are parallel to the plane of the paper, they are represented by the arrows. If they are along a straight line perpendicular to the plane of paper, they are represented by dots. Light waves are transverse : In tourmaline experiment, the variation in intensity of the emergent light on rotation of P, (First section of the polarisation) shows that light waves are transverse. But if the waves were longitudinal i.e. having vibration along the direction of propagation of light, they will have passed through P, in all positions of it. Thus, polarisation of light takes place with transverse waves only and doesn't occur with longitudinal waves. That’s why sound (longitudinal) wave doesn't exhibit the phenomenon of polarisation. Doubly-Refracting crystals ; There are certain crystals which splita ray of light incident upon them into two refracted rays. Such crystals are called doubly-refracting crystals. These are of two types : uniaxial and biaxial. In uniaxial crystals there is one direction called optic axis along which the two. refracted rays travel with the same velocity. The examples of such crystals are calcite, tourmaline and quartz. In biaxial crystals there are two optic axes. The examples of biaxial crystals are topaz and arogonite. Double refraction: Whenaray of unpolarised light incidents onacalcite (or quartz) crystal, it splits up into two refracted rays. The phenomenon is called double refraction. Scanned by CamScannerAww visionias-nmect “108 General Stience ¢ of these two refracted rays is found to obey the laws of ie. nana ies in the plane of incidence and its speed in the Ee same in all directions. This ray is called an ordinary ray (O-ray) 7 refracted ray doesn't obey the laws of refraction. It Rare s in the crysta, different speeds in different directions. Hence it is eal led an extragra ray (E-ray), Along the optic axis, however, O-ray and E-ray both have Wd same velocity and hence the same refractive ancien ordinary ray (On! and an extraordinary ray (E-ray) obtained through the double “Fraction viene peiaiee Itis an optical device made from a calcite crystal icol's prism: It is an i whe sated ecieciay and analyzing the plone-polaried ign hig Dichroism : Some doubly-refracting crystals have the propery : absorbing strongly one of the two refracting rays, while allowing theougt to emerge with a little loss. This selected absorption by the erystal ig; nowy as dichroism. The best example of such a crystal is tourmaline. When aray of unpolarised light is sent through a 1 mm thick, tourmay plate then it splits up fats plane polarised lightin which O-ray and Eval vibrate in mutually perpendicular planes. O-ray is completely absor while E-ray istotally transmitted. Thus, the light emerging through theplats is plane-polarised. This is the basic principle of the commercial Polarising devices called polaroids. Polaroid : It is a large-sized polarising film mounted between ty glass plates, and is used to obtain plane-polarized light for the commercia Purposes. The film consists of a thin sheet of nitro-cellulose packed with ultra microscopic crystals of the organic compound iodosulphate quinine {also called herapathite) with their optic axes all parallel. These crystal, are highly dichroic, absorbing one of doubly-refracted beams completely. Hence when a beam of unpolarised light passes through the polaroid film, the emerging light is plane-polarised | Recently large-sized polaroids have been made by stretching a film of polyvinyl! alcohol. The stretching orients the complex molecules with theig long axes in the direction of stress and makes them doubly-refracting, Then the film is impregnated with iodine which makes it dichroic Such polaroids are called H-polaroids. If instead of iodine impregnation, the stretched film is heated with a dehydrating agent, then it slightly darken and becomes strongly dichroic. It is called k-polaroid. Uses of polaroids (i) Polaroids are used in the laboratory to produce and analyse a plane- polarised light. These are cheaper than Nicole (ii) K-polaroids are used in head-lights and wind-sereens of cars to-cul off the dazzling light of a car approaching from the opposite side. They are fitted in the head-light and wind-screen of the car with their vibration planes parallel to each other but inclined at 45° to the vertical. When two ars approach each other from the: Opposite sides then through the vibration- plane of polaroids light is sent out to each other and hence light coming from the head light of one car is completely cut off by the wind-screen the another car and thus the driver ig able to see the other car by the light box: Sent out from his (or her) own car. Scanned by CamScannerwow wisionias.nmet ~ . 168 (iii) Polaroids are ured to contro! t " and aeroplanes. A polaroid is fixed oun ited inside it which can be rotated and th by rotating the inner polaroid. we naa atin are used in viewing three-dimensional pictures, v) The polaroids are today frequently used in smeccken the glare of light reflected {rom the horizontal surfaces suey ne eo cover glasses of the paintings, polished table, pavements ete eae Plane, Circularly and Elliptically pola : Maxwells electromagnetic theory, = ght wate sone coker magnetic flelds (vectors) vibrating in mutually perpendicular planes bev being perpendicular to the direction of propagation of light:"The cleca vector is responsible for the optical effect of the wave and which icalenealicd light vector.In unpolarised light light vector takes all the possible directions of vibration in a plane perpendicular to the directions of propagation: If however, light vector vibrates along a fixed straight line in the plane, the light is said to be plane-polarised or linearly-polarised. ‘ When two plane-polarised waves are superimposed, then under certain conditions the resultant light vector rotates with a constant magnitude in a plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation. The tip of the vector traces a circle and the light is said to be circularly-polarised. If, although the magnitude of the resultant light vector varies periodically during its rotation, the tip of the vector traces an ellipse, the light is said to be eiliptically-polarised. Thus, there are usually three types of polarised light which exist in nature. y of light in entering trains window,-while the other is e Intensity of light can be adjusted 10. Scattering of light When light waves fall on extremely small bodies (particles) such as dust particles, very small suspended water droplets, suspended particles in colloidal solution etc then these are thrown out in all directions. This phenomenon of light is known as scattering. Here bodies are small in the sense of theirsizesand aresmaller than thesizes (wavelengths) of theincident waves. Thus, the strength of scattering depends upon the wavelength of the light beside the size of the bodies (particles) which cause scattering, If these particles are smaller than the wavelength of the incident light, then the scattering is proportional to 1 This is called Rayleigh’s law of scattering. x Thus, red light is scattered least and violet is scattered most. That's why ted signals are used to indicate dangers. Such a signal appears to be visible at a larger distances without an appreciable loss due to scattering. Incidents of the scattering of light in our daily life— (i) Due to the scattering of light sky appears blue ; When we look at the sky it is scattered light from the atmosphere that enters the eyes. Among, the shorter wavelength the colour blue is present in larger proportion in the light. Light of short wavelengths are strongly scattered by the air molecules and the suspended water droplets and it explains the bluecolour appearance of the sky. Scanned by CamScanner| General Sciente 10 ars red : At such occasion. e and sunrise sun app’ Stnosphere. THe lag {i Soteavel large distance through si amoerhere etka bourng colours are scatered Thus at sunset and sunrise sun appea the abet ver ls predominantly red. epee red and it occurs due to the scattering of ligl a i) If there weresio atmosphere of theca? a black and stars would be seen during HY ears light focayhe (iv) On a humid day bea san te Be quality cfoolur oti ; s deep blue. The i ayes fantthe fact at the water droplets pond Legend eric ae ave a size larger than the wavelength of light. vie ahs bated doesn’t apply in this case and colours other than blue may larger proportion. ; ; (¥) The seas also appear blue duc to the scattering of light. then the sky would appear ‘11. Human eye : The human eye is like a Sclerotic camera with the help of which We see the objects. Human eye is externally very hard and it is covered with a opaque white membrane which is called sclerotic. The front part of sclerotic is concave which is called cornea. During eye donation This part (comea) is a donated. | A light ray enters the eye | through cornea, Behind the cornea which is called Iris. In the middle of the Iris there is a sharp hole, which is Ciliary muscles Vitreous Humour Visionary muscles Aqueous Humour Black colour Membrane Human Eye a colour opaque membrane is located called pupil. tris controls the amount of light which enters the eye. If more light comes inte t, then automatically itis compresses itseli- Alo in dack OF insufficient light it (iris) automatically expands. Behind the pupil the located. The eye lens is made from many layers whose wee refraction increases from outside to inside and itemean index of refractionis approximately 1.44, Theeye lens is confined with in the musclular region and itis capable of adjusting its focal length. That's why humaneye hasa variable nature of focal length. Between cornea and eye lensa saline transparent fluid is filled up which is called aqueous humour and ite index of refraction is 1.336. Behind the eye lens another transparent fluid is also found whichis called vitreous humour and whose index of refraction ig also 1,336, Behind sclerotic there is a black coloured membrane which is called choroid. It absorbs the light and stops the process of internal reflection. Inside this membrane and in the innermost part of the eye there is a transparent membrane which is called retina. The retina is basically a film of optical nerves and these nerves produce the sensation of the image formed in mind (brain). Thus, shape, size and colour of the object's image is observe by the human eye. When alight ray incidents on an object, then by reflection it passes through the cornea and aqueous humour reaches to the ret retina (used as screen for the glass lens) a real and inverted image a Scanned by CamScannerPhysics ut is formed and this message is sent tothe humanbrain by the visionary (optic) nerves and the brain realises the real erected image. There is no of light is found the place (point) where optic nerves by making the hole in the retina goes upto brain. This place is called blind spot. There isa mid-point in the retina which is of yellow colour. Here the obtained image svery sharp and distinctive. It is called yellow Spot. Power of accommodation of eye : To see any object distinctly (clearly) itisnecessary that the light ray reflected from object be totally confined on the retina. In usual condition the light rays co are assumed to be confined on the reti then eye muscles start to shrink and reduce th iii surfaces. Here the focal length of the eye len: starts to form on the retina. This adjustment of the focal length of the eye is called Power of accommodation of the eye. As we try to look at the nearest abject more and more power of accommodation of the eye is required and ithas also a limit. If any object is kept very close to the eye it doesn't look distinct. Thus the maximum accommodation power of eye is applied to the nearest object which looks sharp and distinct. This distance of distinct vision iscalled the least distance of distinct vision and fora normal human eye itis 25m. But inversely the eye without applying the power of accommodation can see distinctly any object located at far point and for a normal human eyc itis infinity (2). ” Colour vision: There are two types of cells found in the retina of theeye which are optically sensitive. These are called cones and rods. Cone shaped cells react aecording to the consistency of the colours by which we realise about the colours, Rod shaped cells react according to the consistency of the intensity of light. This is very sensitive for the dim light. That's why we also speculate (guess) about the object in the dark. When light is of shining (dazzling) type then rods cells stop to act and cones cells become active. A normal human eye's retina has three types of cones cells — G)_ First type-Sensitive to the lightof shorter wavelength (blue colour) (ii) Second type-Sensitive to the light of middle range wavelength (green colour) Gii) Third type-Sensitive to the light of longer wavelength (red colour) Chromatic adaptation : If a piece of glazed (shined) colour Paper is ‘aken and half part of itis covered, then on looking up to approximately 30 seconds at the rest of the piece and if the covered part is now made open then on looking at the entire piece the covered part appears more glazed. This optical incident is called chromatic adaptation. Successive contrast :If we lookat a coloured image up toapproximately 30 seconds and a white surface is seen then a post-image appears, whose Peand size is equal to that of the real image, but its colour is different. If the real image is red then its post-image is green and vice-versa. If the real mage is blue then its post-image in yellow and vice-versa and for the white fenimage its post-image is black and vice-versa. Such optical incident in ‘ical form is called successive constrast. " . sis reduced and again image Scanned by CamScannersa distinet vi trast : The Chromatic Induction of Sismaltaneou ont ot ata Pare lour depends on the all arou lous colours are to ogy aso a ean Confined it looks different, Ifany colou! seen in he Gomain (background) hen this colour seems to be light, ‘This relative distinction in the aoe ae cricur this colour gears to be shat. ee contah colour is called chromatic induction Fa a region OF bd ir : Sometimes we TOOK 2 ey can be observed shite These caours ae called phantor SO: es quickly. inva black and white TV specially when Fee Tl hitman eyes thelleagh ts of vision) : For & eye can cast the ima; ye oe eet cr aision f 25em. Normal human eye esa st te ed distance of distin Vso ce the tant litance of distin of an object on the retina o! re oat : uc to late or old ag: ; : ee i Cl cevalers se famaged or diminished, and itis called casons the power ofthe eye lens is damaged or di eye defects. There are various types of eye defects— (i) Myopia or short sightedness : The person suffering from myopia cannot see the distant objects but easily see the near most objects. Causes : (a) The sphericity of the eye lens is Myopia increased (b) ‘The focal length of the lens decreases. (©) Powerof the eye lens increases, thus here the image doesn't form on the retina but in the defective eye it forms in the front of retina. Remedial measure: Themyopiaaffacted person uses concave'lens of suitable focal Remedy of Myopia length so that the image starts to form on the retina Gi) Hypermetropia_ or Long. sightedness:: The person suffering from hypermetropia cannot seethenearmost O P objects but can see the objects located at remote distances, Causes ; (a) The sphericity of the eye le (b) The focal length of the (©) Power of the eye lens ec on the retina but forms just behind i Hester te image docs form Remedial measures : The hy, + The hype: tmp Te hype Suitable focal length sothat nove the imag. Starts to form on the reti 7 ——___mion the retina. Hypermetropia NS is decreased, lens increases, o>) Remedy of hypermetropia Scanned by CamScannerwww wisionias.nmet Physics i (ii) Presbyopia : In old age, the power of accommodation : of the eye is diminished (ended) due to which person s it r wai rae ip cia per ‘an see neither the near object Remedial measures : The of suitable focal length. Presbyopia affected person uses bifocal lens (iv) Astigmatism : The person suffering from astigmatism sees horizontally but not being capable to look verti. Fe it uses cylindrical lens of suitable wavelength clearly cally. The person affected by () Colour Blindness ; Every human eye by nature is not able to see ery colour distinctly and this defect of vision is called colour blindnese, Colour blindness is of many types and it occurs at various levels. The colour blindness depends on various defects of the cylindrical (conical) cells of the retina. The colour blindness is basically a hereditary disea curable. The person suffering of colour blindness cannot and green colours distinetly. ‘which is not distinguish the red (vi) Persistence of vision : The image of an object persists on the retina of the eye upto 1/10 second, If the object is then removed from the eye, the object viability persists upto 1/10 second. This special characteristic of called persistence of vision. Cinema works on this principle. Due to persistence of vision various celestial phenomena occur in the sky. The blades of fast moving electric fan also appears indistinctive due to the same reason. 12. Optical Instruments ( Camera : The camera is an optical device with which phiaographs of various objects re taken on the photographicplate ortilm and by developing the reel permanent photos are prepared. Ordinarily a camera of two types (a) Box camera (b) Folding camera Important parts of the camera Light insulated box : This is made of wood or metal whose length is fixed in the box camera. But in folding camera this box is made of leather whose length is not fixed. This box is fully enclosed from every side so that no external light ray can enter inside to it. The inner part of the walls are black polished due to which light ray doesn’t reflect. Lens: In front of the light insulated box a convex lens is enclosed which is called objective. In good quality cameras the objective is made from the composition of various lenses. Due to it aberration in the image doesn't appear. Diaphragm : Just in front of the objective a round metallic screen is enclosed in which a hole is made through which the light in the camera enters which is called diaphragm. The size of the hole is adjustable which can be increased or decreased according to requirement Shutter : Behind the lens an autocut plate is attached which is called shutter. Whenevera shutter is enclosed light doesn't enter inside the camera. During taking photographs it is opened and light is focused on the film or photographic plate upto a definite time interval like 1/10. 1/50. 1/100, ... Scanned by CamScannerBMPR ww wistonias not ae General Science ime of exposure is decideq ' ti etcand the timesare called time of exposure. The time of OXF intensity of by various parameters like value of aperture, spee the light ete. ; Cea glass screen : It is a plate of grounded (or rue ieee whieh is enclosed in the rear part of the camera Tne object faben'sharoly ee adjusted in such a way that the image of i \ distinctly, After adjusting the distance the photographic plate or the film is attached. Te lated to camera ei Aperture : The ‘effective diameter of the lens is called aperture. Relative aperture : It is the ratio of effective diameter and focal length cof the lens. Effective diameter of the lens Focal length of the lens Focal ratio : The reciprocal of the relative aperture is called focal ratio, ) Thus focal ratio = —_ ‘ral length of the lens Thus; relative aperture = effective diameter of the lens f - number : The numerical value of the focal ratio is called J number. ‘Thus; /-number - —fcaldistance __ f effective diameter d (i) Simple Microscope (Magnifying Glass) : A thes be D—™ h Eve tana =F, fh length of the object AB D least distance of distinct vision optical ces e rough the simple wisn ee focus (F) ofthe microscope is vi ngle made by thei noscOPE is virtual, erected lens. The image obtained thi ahd magnified. Also astheai © angle made by the obj the angle made by the abject aid thus it act the lens the image of the object made on the eye is large. Thus, the : Magnifying Powe ratio of angle made by the (ce) at the eye at the loa object appean consequently the angle : re Magnified, he ening power of any lensis defined as the i ve t stance of distinct ‘isle penne bate Thus; magnifying power (m).. 2 Scanned by CamScanner “wow wisionias.met . Phy i Steg a - “ iY gy For a simple microscope, magnifying power (m) — 1 + D |! 7 gi seh where, D = least distance of distinct vision, f harpist eae trey ang J = focal length of the simple microscope Im i Virtual Image atinfinity: fina - let i i i wostationary point charges q, and q, are kept th Apart at a finite distance r, then there exists.a force" ; Scanned by CamScannerwow wisionias.met General Science “ of attraction or repulsion due to both point tee ay Bi: ‘et : the square of the distance ne is be Thus Faq,dyF * | (in air or vacuum) ; - =9 x 10°N.m?coul?} : is called a constant He led the absolute permitivity of free spaceand its numericg, | lere G, isealle tivity of ree value for alt or vacuuim i3 8.5 » 10" cou. i en. there will be a force of If q, and q, are the charges oe se of attraction, repulsion but for lene Se ran ator the o7titing leationd protons (part of massive nucleus) balance toeach| ene by an ee coulombian force. Thus, atoms remain neutral. The molecules ate composed through these atomsand the matter through themolecules. Thus, electrostatical force is significant among interatomic and intermolecular binding of matter. Also Coulomb's force is similar to the gravitational force and this force (weakest force) is only attractive in nature by the virtue of their masses (no concept of -ve mass) while coulombian force is both attractive and repulsive and predominants from any larger distance up to 10° m. For the distance of less than 10-* m coulomb’s force doesn't exist but nuclear force (strongest in the all forces) becomes operative which doesn't depend on the charges and distances Flectric field Intensity or Electric field strength or Electric Intensity ; Ut in the electric field of a charged particle (say, q) i any other unit positive test charge (say, q,) is kept at any 4 | | Importance of elect Point then this test charge experiences a force and it ic called electric field intensity of that point and it is a vector a juantity and its di ion is as e guancity ‘S direction is as that of the force (coulomb Obviously F.—1_ 1 9) Y Page a Newton. But the electric field inter Thus, Sl unit of electric fj iene . , eCtri intensi a Unit of tis volt/metie, iMtensity is Electric field of ah, ‘ollow cond, conductor is zero, tn wer steko eletre field ins ZeTO, vhey ic body acts like an ele iow sper ina caronarainy da reside on the outer ¢, inside the car. Scanned by CamScannerRT wer vitteniss-net Sine, se ws ‘onay ® dipole and electric dipole moment stationary point charges of equal iftwo small (short) distance apart, then en ude but of opposite sign I * sep pee. configuration is cn The product of the magnitude of the charge _¢———_“ the distance between both the charges is called ~ 7 x jc dipole moment and it is represented by F anditisa . cited from -ve to +ve charge, along the dipole axis °F auantity ‘Thus, p = 2ag (electric dipole moment) *Ficay Hlectric dipole kept in an electric field (a lfthe field beuniform: fa dipoleis keptin auniformexternal electric "eof geld Emaking and angle 0 with the field, then the charge +q experiences a force gE in the direction of the field, ing While the charge-q experiences an equal force in the opposite direction. Thus, im there is no net force on the dipole. But a5, these twoequaland opposite forces form ' a couple which produces a torque and it ae tends toset the dipole in the direction of ——=g——* __, x the field. 2S * (ii) Ifthe field be non-uniform :In a non-uniform field, the forces onthe h two charges will not be equal and opposite and so there will be a net force ° on the dipole and this force will also generate a couple and so a torque. it Thus, in non-uniform field a dipole experiences both a net force ane a 4 torque. Electric flux : The electric flux is defined as the product of the electric field intensity and the outward normal area of any ae EN particular patch where an electric field is assumed A E to be confined. Itis represented by ,. Thus; = EA. Its SI unit E is N/coul.m? or volt-metre. Gauss's law : Gauss's law states that electric flux Patch ¢, through any closed surface is equal to — times the net charge q enclosed by the surface. =FAn 2. a, 1 Thus, = EA = mi RG (For the spherical surface A = 4x1”) where E = electric field intensity This law gives a relation between the electric flux and the charge enclosed through any closed hypothetical surface (called Gaussian surface), Gauss’s law is the most fundamental law instead of coulomb's law due to certain conceptual advantages. The first advantage is that Gauss’s law ‘tarts with the concept of electric field, which is more fundamental than interaction of charges with which coulomb's law deals. According to modem field theory approach, the interaction between the two charges* “ceursabundently through the electricfield. Thesecond advantageis that all Scanned by CamScannerwww -wvisionias.net 16 General Science those results which were given by coulomb's law alter tedious catay were too complicated but it had much simpler way by Gauss's Jno Electric potential: The electric potential at any point is defined work done by an external agent in bringing a unit positive test, charger infinity to that point confined in an electric field. Fp, Thus, if W work is done in bringing a unit positive test charge 4, fy w ow. Ye %. 4 S.L. unit of electric potential is Joule/coul. or volt. The special unit electric potential is volt in the honour of an Italian scientist Al Volta. The electric potential is a scalar quantity. If 1 coulomb +Ve test che is brought from infinity (c) to any point and thus, does a work of 1 Joule then 1 volt potential is said to be confined at that point. Zero potential : For the measurement of any physical quantity usual a standard parameter or reference point is taken, whose indicator reads zero level. Thus, to measure electric potential earth is taken to be a referenc. level and the value of electric potential at any point on the earth's surfage is assumed (o be zero. Our earth is a great conductor in which addition @ Subtraction of some charges do not change the value of its potential. Thate why at every point of earth's surface electric potential is assumed to be always zero, Potential difference or Potential drop : If in an electric field a unit Positive test charge is carried out by an external agent from one point to another, then the work done in this process is called potential difference {p-d) between both the points. ‘The p.d. is measured in volt and it is also a scalar quantity, ¢ inside potential of a hollow conductor : Whenever a hollow conductor iselectrified (charged), then the charges accumulate on the outer surface of the conductor and this charge doesn't enter the hollow part of the conductor. Thus there is no inside charge but the potential of the part (hollow part) is not zero. In fact every point inside the conductos has equal potential and it is equal to the potential of the conductor, Electrical capacity and capacitor or condenser : When a conductor is given a charge, its potential rises in Proportion to the charge given. ‘Thu: charge Q raises the potential of a conductor by V, thenQ2 Vie. Q = CV, where Cis a constant depending upon the size and shape of the conductor, the surrounding medium and the Presence of another conductors near by to it. This constant C is called electrical capacity or capacitance of the conductor. Thus c= 2 infinity to a point then electric potential at that point = V of 5.1. unit of the electrical capacitance is farad. Itis also observed that farad is a too larp, | units like microfarad and picofarad are used ‘Thus we use: F microfarad (1yy) = 10-4, 3 picofarad (1p/) ~ 19-1%4, ih a Scanned by CamScanner {8 coul./volt and its special name4 ° 4ne yr If Ce the capacitance of the sphere then C = The potential is given by V = = Axe,r. => capacitance (C) = This concludes that the capacitance of = iene proportional to its radius. Capacitor or Condensor : An isolated capacity of storing the charges i.e. only very acallamonctat ch cpoeles to the conductor raises its potential by a large amount. If Weweves cectondl earthed conductor is placed near it, then an equal and opposite amount ot - charges are induced on the front surface of the second Conductor uhich lowers the potential of the first conductor. Thus capacitance of theconductor increases. Such a pair of conductors which can storea good amount of charge is called a capacitor or condensor. The conductors are called the plates of the capacitor. The net charge on a capacitor means the magnitude of charge on either plate. There are broadly three types of capacitors—Where. ; ( eA A= area (1) Parallel-plate capacitor (C= <0") d= plate separation - | ab \ % b= inner and outer (2) Spherical capacitor = (C=4r€, real Brerical or cylin Qne,t) Fadil Di [= length of the cylinder tog, (2) . Dielectric : A dielectric (an insulator) is a material in which all the electrons are tightly bound to the nuclei of the atoms. Thus there are no free electrons to generate the current. Hence, the electrical conductivity of adiclectric is very low. The conductivity of an ideal dielectric is zero. Glass, mica, plastic, oil etc. are examples of dielectrics. Dielectric constant : When a dielectric material is kept between the plates of a capacitor, the capacitance of the capacitor increases. The ratio of the capacitance of a given capacitor with the material (dielectric) filling the entire space between its plates to the capacitance of the same capacitor in vacuum is called dielectric constant or specific inductive capacity oftie Material. Thus, if C, is the capacitance with dielectric materi I and C, thal f without dielectri¢ in the vacuum, then dielectric constant () = Cyl. The value of dielectric constant is independent from theshape and size the capacitor, but its value varies widely for different materials. = vacuum; (k)=1air; (k)=1.006 glass; (k) = 6 re ~onpolar and olecules : The molecules of ‘ified as Dorota paler Anonpolar molecule is one in Scanned by CamScanner ted sphere is directly (3) Cylindrical capacitor ( - electrics are which thewisionias.nmet Are . Generar sure = 126 ide with the ceny, ofthe postive charge era ne eras a polar ne awou cae otf ieneceatve charges: (cero pontive ae Sistane wee! = ae eral y vi ite distance. The (2) is one in which the aS charges fy oO rites and perme 2% the centre of gravity Or elertricdipole and jously a zero clectricgint ond molecule thus atslike an electricdipetr a Pa dipole moment. A nonpol npalac Himanpis oo moment. - smmetrical structure are 0" Eire oe Molecules havin ving spherical 3) Maer scotipted HCL CO, HO, NH, ee Jectric material is kept in, u poe Easy fmatter: When a dielec -polar) moleaut re Pc roattive and negative Gan eS directions FS) c field, the posi ie forees in the Seaman experience Se are separated from each other Thy sect Ue ceken arauire an induced electric dipole moment in the direct, molecules i ization of matter." iffe of the field. This phenomenon is called electric polari: tter. ae = i ‘i ener Sec Current Electricity ‘ lect ‘ ye carriers and between le ee es pyaar pecnrn pepe charges move from, “a Nghe toa lower Potential and for these charge carriers the direction Be conventional current is that ofthe charge carriers. Since metallic bodies dy (calle not have any +e charges as charge carriers but only electrons (-vely charge of tt carriers) are chargecartiers. That's why the conventional currentis assumed to flow from a low potential to a high potential or opposite to the direction of flow of charge carriers (electrons) in metallic conductors. Despite the magnitude and direction of the electric current, it isg 7 scalar quantity because it doesn't obey the triangle law of vector addition into "parallelogram law of vectors. Usually in solid conductors electric current a is produced by the electrons, while in liquid itis produced through the ions and electrons and in semiconductor electric current is Produced through both the charge carriers electrons and holes. Ifin any electrical Circuit the electric current is passed unidirectionally electric current passes in the mat i | (wa i t is called alternating current ee oct current salted in ampere and its another units} The hen init @ metallic conductor (wire) 1 ampere electric current Sie is passed then in every second 6,25 x 10!8 electrons Wille ter fro1 e end veh and the same number of electrons wil ng Passed out, womo™ the Thus, an isolat ; number of free dew (say wire) always contains somé Which arecalled conduction ela’? Ving at random with high speeds) by toa battery, an electric, fete et": Whentheendcare rears con red field exerts a fore wang ie ‘et UP at every Point within the wire. The Blas (emf). Thereby, the total number UStOn electron called electro motive forte section per se | Conds the efectrie a tee Charges Passing through any cr0s “Surrentin the wire, Ifa free charge q P: Scanned by CamScannerx Be Lif Be of Pee one TT www -visionias.met Physics Ww through any cross-section of the wire in time t, defined as i~ 4. Current density : The current per unit area of am; cross-section conductor is called current density: tis the charactedexic ofsipokvtinaides conductor (not the characteristic of the conductor ase whole). If the current is distributed uniformly across a conductor of cross-sectional sant the current density at all points in that cross-section is given by ‘ then the electric currenti.is The current density isa vector quantity while currentis ascalar quantity. Obviously, SI unit of the current density j will be ampere /metre! ct anciey sec-metre®, Electriceell: The electriccellisanequipmentwhich maintainsa potential difference between any two points of the conducting wire so that the flew of electric current is continuously sustained. In electric cells the chemical +vely charged is called anode and collected ions are called anions, while the metallic rod which is ~vely charged is called cathode and collected ions are called cations, These metallic rods (electrodes) are kept inside the solvent of the container called electrolyte. Usually electric cells are of two types : (© Rema ii) () Primary cell: Ina primary cell chemical energy is directly converted into electrical energy and when all the chemical energy is exhausted (used up) the cell becomes dead. e entire process is completed by charging and during irged then it is again charged and this is the Process (way) ofits functioning. That's why all the secondary cells are rechargeable. Process of recharging is done through an external source of electrical energy. The battery or cell attached in motor vehicle, motor bike, emergency light etc, are the examples of secondary cell. Copper Voltaic cell: The voltaiccell was invented rod (Cu) by Professor Alsendro Volta in 1799. In this cell azincrod and a copper rod are keptinside the 8lass container of sulphuric acid (H,SO,). In this cell the copper rod acts like an “node and the zinc rod acts like a cathode. The Value of emf in this cell is 1.08 volt. Zine rod (Zn) Voltaic cell = by CamScannerwow wisionias.met inc rod acts like a cathode ino cra which aets like an anode the value Of £77 ont volt. This type of cell eae ae mainly s not regularly available. toed in electric alarm, siren, isuphone cell: In this cell the electrolyte UEC a. form. In it there ig ot Sec of solution but it remains INS £47 Oy ctnmonia’ zine container (vessel) in which Te dha auiddle of this mixtue fields NE ow a el ‘icts like an anode while the zing is kept. Here, the ca I trae sa he Fee ha f MnO, and carbon. 4 i inside the minture of ed requenty in torch transistor radto etc, " Emfof the cell : Through any calli wise SOATASEISS il cal 1 coulomb electric charge be circulat ae : i ete closed circuit, then the ; Decrleal eherey, supplied by the cell ~Woltaic cell 1.08 volt, is called electromotive force (emf). The “Daniel's cell 1.08 volt, emf of the cell is measured in volt. The Dry cell 1.50 volt, value of emfof the cell is always greater | eclanche cell 150 volt than the potential difference (pd) of the 224 container cell 2.00 volt i ittery. eens researc ‘of a cell : The Battery of six cells 12.00 volt resistance produced by the electrolyte of the cell in the path of electric current is called internal resistance of the cell. If E, V and I are the emf, potential difference (pd) and electric current respectively, then the internal resistance of the cell is given by wibe¥ 1 __ Electric Conduction; Ohm's law : Firstly, a German physicist George Simen Ohm invented a relation between electric current and potential differencebetween any two points of a conductor. Hestated that ata constant aes the current passed through any conductor is Proportional to \e corel difference of any two points and this is called Ohm's law. IfV and I are the pd of any two points of a conductor and electric current x i Ohm's law Passed through it, then according to Vel ie, V=RI tc ee ged is‘ Leddanche’s cet r where Risa i ' dees proportionally constant called resistance diame ee of ay conductor is the internal a conduct i , current and which oppotesin ene Mi oot a raped ae Scanned by CamScannervr . Ee ee ew eoess eee maa 129 ‘electrons, atoms and molecules cons, froduced (generated). equently the electrical resistance is As from Ohm's law Resistance (R) = Pot-difference(v) electri The S.I. unit of electrical resistance is ohm @), Theek a of any conductor depends on the following parameters @)_On the nature of the conducting materials, (ii) On the temperature of the co: lectrical resistance 1€ resistance of the conductor is directly proportional to the length ofthe conductor. Thus resistance incresses with rise of temperature of the conductor and vice-vene (iv) On the area of cross-section—The resistance of the conductor decreases with increase in the area of cross-section and vice-versa. Ohmic resistance ; The conductor which follows Ohm's law is called Ohmic resistor and the corresponding resistance is called Ohmic resistance. Example — Manganese wire, copper wire, aluminium wire ete, Non-Ohmic resistance : The conductor which doesn't follow ohm’s law iscalled non-ohmic resistor and the corresponding resistance is called none ohmic resistance. The non-ohmic resistor (non-linear curve) follows Child Langmuir’s law. Example~ Diode valve, triode valve ete. Child Langmuir's law (diode characteristic non-linear curve) : The diode doesn't follow (obey) Ohm's law but follows Child-Langmuir’s non- linear law. i 3 = 3 2 3 a i B z x Here as shown in the curve the portion OB 4 my is the characteristic curve and Child-Langmuir's i law in which the plate current (I,) increases with > tr the plate voltage ( VD non-linearly and it is = B 3 O"'F, (oolt) > where, kis a proportionality constant. This is Child-Langmuir's law. Specific resistance or resistivity : The electrical resistance of any conductoris directly proportional tg the length ofthe conductor and inversly Proportion to the cross-sectional area of the conductor. ThusR« |. ie. Rap usRe-ieR=py, where, p is a proportionality constant called specific resistance. ts The value of specific resistance or resistivity depends on the nature of Substance of the conductor and on the temperature. "IS, A=1 then R= p.4 =p Scanned by CamScannerwow wisionias.met General Science 130 js resistance of the “ ctor is resi conduct, “Thus specific resistance of any COMAUICT T'oF cross-section. Sa th 2 est value of sn eins rset Oe rar wea is itis the ; oes fof silver. That's why it ae ne me substances ‘Specific resistance 7 ; ae resistance on|Substance Sp ecu ee 0°C (in Om) : ec Silver 1.6 x 10% at A ae Aluminium 27 ai ee ae 8 se sa 10% Manganese 44108. orate 77 x10 Carbon 35% m0" Nichrome 0.46 silcon 231 i? — 10° aot |Glass 10' - 10! Mica 10-10" Electrical conductance : The reciprocal or Hevea OF the electricg ii ical conductance. resistance of any conductor is called electric : Thus electrical conductance (¢/) = S-aacatresistance (RD) S.1. unit of conductance is ohm“! ("') and it is also called mho, its St unit is simen (5). a Specifieconductivity : The reciprocal orinverse of the specificresistance is called specific conductivity. ‘Thus, specific conductivity (0) — sp. resistance (p) S.L unit of specific conductivity is ohm” metre“! (Q" m') or mhometre! or simen metre”. Combination of resistance : In order to obtain the derived current through the electrical circuit usually more than one resistors are used. [fall the resistors enclosed in the circuitare replaced by asingle resistor so that the same electric current be passed, then this resistance is called an equivalent resistance. by two wanes Heeteal circuits the grouping of the resistances take place ¢) series grouping (combination) (i) parallel grouping (combination) dette srouping 2 If various resistors be connected in an electrical Current through al? at these resistors have various pa’s but the same e resis! is - eg a 4 called series grouping. By ihagoeie {his grouping. (combination) & equivalentally, Ping maximum resistance is obtained Scanned by CamScanner amy like cor cor an ise cor cal ieeewow wisionias.met Physics BI currents. In order to Gombination)is made,” °°*#i" the minimum resistance such pooping are various resistances : oo Pr Cmsultan®) resistance of the combination ia = ("Parallel then hie nbig lig I R oa" Ry Ry RS Electric power : The rate of loss of lectri circuit is called electric power. Electric oe 1s defined oy ithe electric electric current and pd of the two end points of any conden, Product Of . mi Thus, electric power (P) = current (I) x pa (V) maton => P=lIVv SI unit of power is watt. Other | ‘i Cena + larger units of the power are kilo Watt kW Hour or unit : 1 KWH (kilo Watt Hour) or 1 uni Sy it 51 1 unit is that amount of electrical energy which is consumed in 1 hot i te aan uur through any electrical system Thus, 1 unit is the amount of electricit luired: ich i: i utilizing a bulb of 100 watt in switching meee ae to ane fame If on any electric bulb there is a mark of 60W- 220 V then this impli thatifthe bulb is switched on 220 volt, then 60 walt power will be amps every hour. Example-1:If a 200 watt bulb is switched on upto hrs. everyday then how many units power will be consumed everyday ? 2005 100 x 10 Example— 2 : If an electric heater of 220 volt draws the current of 5 ampere, then in 5 hrs how many units power will be consumed ? Solution : Here the required power consumed Vibt— , 220X5%*5 5.5 units Solution : Obviously power consumed = = 1 unit, ~ 100x10~ — 1000 Effect of electric current: The electric current has various types of effect like magnetic effect, chemical effect, thermal effect ete. Magnetic effect : Whenever an electric current passes through any conductor, then a magnetic field is produced (generated) around the conductor. In 1820 an observation was made by Oersted who saw that when amagneticneedle is brought near a current carrying wire (conductor), thenit isdeflected. But this needle only deflects in magnetic field which obviously confirms that current carrying conductor produces magnetic field. This is called magnetic effect of the current. The direction of magnetic field is given by Maxwell's Cork-Screw rule, Fleming right hand rule etc. Maxwell's Cork-Serew rule (law) : If a cork-screw be taken in right hand and rotated in such a way that electric current is passed forward in heclirection of on the direction of the thumb of the hand isalon Scanned by CamScannervisionias.net wre ighthandis keptoma, je: Tfthe right i Doyo veingn ant ile oe a wire in such away that Uremand if forefinger is along tic nee ate nger i long, the deflection of Ihe magnetic needle Pot middle fing ie aaong the direction of the magn ; Of force thumb of the hand is = yaa charge carriers activate in a conductoy Lorene, fore ed while if these free charge carriers start 3 anclectric fil d every current carrying cong, then alecte cunent Prete tt nate pertide hes bak electnie has a magnetic field. Thus, an experienced By the charge partie oa meager c which is called Losente's forex: i Jectric and magnet . Thal Lorentz's force (F) = gE + qB sin @ where, 7 = charge on the particle E = electric field intensity v = velocity of the charged particle i = magnetic field intensity. ) = angie betiveen the velocity of charged particle and elec. field intensity. ; at The direction of Lorentz's force can be determined by Fleming's le hand rule. ecgucatl Electromagnet:Ifaninsulated wireis wound arounda cyl indricalobjeg, itiscalled asolenoid. Thecylindrical objectis called core. Thesolenoid whose Coreismade of soft ironis called electromagnet. Theelectromagnet is utilised in dynamo, transformer, electric alarm, telegraph and telephone etc, The {emporary magnetism can only be achieved by soft iron. The magnetic field intensity of an electromagnet depends on the fol lowing parameters— (i), No. of turns of the solenoid : re magnetic field intensity of the solenoid (B) = where, yw, = 4x x 107 i = current ” = No. of tums per unit length. Thus, if there is more no. of turns then magnetic field intensity will be large and vice-versa (i) Thenature of the core substan ice :If the core of the of soft iron then the magnetic field intensity wil] be lige, ( e ; Hi) The magnitudeof the electric curren ic field intensity t: The magnetic field intensi is directly proportional to he magnity e. : Thus, - Y me to ti gnitude of the electric current. Hy in. (absolute permeability) solenoid is made ‘Asity will inex magnetic mease with increase of electric carment and The force actin; ona cu field : If Tour throat miki trying conductorii ina uniform magnets deus Arductor of length | which is placed sn COnductor = Fyn he the force experince by the Where, an ficl n current carry; nsity, Obviously ifos ‘ing conductor and the magnetic o Scanned by CamScannerMs beet wow vwisionias.met ill be ade asity hus, and etic the yen 0 ie if current carrying Ses x - auctor is in the direction of magic xs intensity then no force would be fils rced by the conductor. jenced by fo = 90° ea: meee. | put if = xx Rieke ee oe then F = 1 BOAO RDC x se ‘Thus, maximum force will be experien joid is perpendicular to the conductor. Magnetic Flux : Ifany surface be kept in.a uniform magnet the magnetic lines of force originating from that surface eerily ane is called magnetic lux. It is represented by 4,1. unit of magnetic fen weber (wb) Mathematically, »,, = BA weber where, B= magnetic field intensity. A=normal vector area, Magnetic field : The region (space) around a magnet which has the magneticeffectis called magnetic field. A magnetic field issaid tobe existing atapoint ifitean exert a force on a current carrying conductor. The magnetic field has a unit normal area. Units of magnetic field intensity (strength) : SI unit of the magnetic field intensity(strength) is Te/sa. The magnetic field is also expressed in weber/metre*. Thus, 1 Tesla = 1 weber/m?. C.GS. unit of magnetic field intensity is Gauss[1 Tesla = 10° Gauss, SI unit of magnetic field strength. 1 Tesla (T)= 1 NA mt = 1 weber/m? = 10* Gauss. Biot-Savart law : As Oerested observed a current carrying conductor producesamagneticfieldaround it. Themagnitudeand direction of thisfield atany point can be expressed by means of a law determined experimentally by Biot and Savart and it is called Biot-Savart law. If AB is any conductor of an arbitrary shape carrying current i and P is any point in vacuum at which the field is to be determined. Here we divide iced by the conductor if magnetic the conductor into infinitesimal current element. Let di be the length of one such element, Let 7 be the displacement Yector from the element to the point P. Then according to Biot-Savart's law, the magnetic field induction dB at P due to the current lement di is given by dB id XT _ Xt. r aif ais a Scanned by CamScannerwww -wisionias.nmet a ai 4s ig a dimensional proportionality constant, Here, constant 7 led permeability constant: srmeability, The value of pe > ___weber or, 72 = 10-7 —_weber _/ i a ema ampere ~ metre” 4n ampere ~ metre. cone ° og ser GB -107M99® where, @=angle between dT ang > Sede = dB= 2 atta’ r i ctor (® Magnetic field due to a long atedeh condu . 7 ie : ‘ oi 7 1. weber y Magnetic field induction (B)=5* R =2x10" R Weber/ meter 7 we) } F t through the conductor a whee ibtance from the current element to the magneticfieg) ii) Magnetic field due to acurrent carrying circular coil: The ma am field induction due to a circular coil of radius r at point O (centre of te ; an coil) ity na : cor = fot weber/me i Its where, i=current through the coil, zee . ; A vo r= radius of the coil 8 (Gi) Magnetic field due to a solenoid : If there is a long solenoid of i radius r meter carrying a current of i ampere in which n be the no. of tans Perunit length then magnetic field induction at the mid point. 8 ~B=1,in, weber/ meter? _ th Where, 1, = permeability constant Ww 4x 107 weber/amp-m oF i =current be 1 =no. of turns per unit length Pp Ampere's law: Ampere’s law is the counterpart of the a 'ss'S law in magnetism, Itstates that the line in: itegral a cance 8 Cawal to 1, times the net current { through the # a d it Halong solenoid is wr: a lled a toroid. Thus poe g rend in us a toroid acts like Calvanomet. £ on OF Measurement of the lee the el « tran facilitated by the torque iS CUTTERS. The action of these f ttle field of a current loge, Perienced by amagneticneedle « Of this el, *, . iI FS* B8lvanometer is q tangent 1 8alvanometer consisting of me centre. The frame containing lots Pivoted oom Re compass box consisting ofa At Tight angles 9 Get Of the col. long aluminium hich moves over the | coi : revolve abou ™Pass needle at its needle, wl Scanned by CamScannercal www visionias.nmet tk Physics mh Say, irculs ale. The ss \ uated circular scale. The scale is divided j h grade to 90". The needle and scale acc enclosed man uadtants reading jop 50 that the scale need inten sitt casing provided with a glass top So needle and pointe be outset : Shunt is an electrical sti ime Shunt : Shut ical system of i ~ ee conductor or wire of small resistance. Sometime ateN oF the electric Ammeter: Ammeter is a current measu: i a ting device ar high current. Basically itis a low resistance mou Smee Moving coil galvanometer. It is Ptic fig ways connected in series in the electrical cise. Magn at er anared. An ideal ammeter is one which has sere nea eo ingete, Te of ‘etic ammeter of low resistance is more accurate although it is less sensitive. the Voltmeter : Voltmeter is a potential difference (pd) measuring device and basically it is a high resistance moving coil galvanometer. It i alwars % connected in parallel to the resistance across which pd. is to be meseret, = Its reading is not accurate because it draws current so the p.d. across the resistance decreases (since the current through it decreases). Hence a voltmeter of high resistance is more accurate. In fact an ideal voltmeter is noid of one which has infinite resistance and it measures accurately, although no current is passed throught it. Potentiometer : Potentiometer is a device > to measure the emf of a cell or p.d. between vy, the ends of a current-carrying conductor a ~ without drawingany current from the circuit.It 4 operateson the principle that an emfor p.d. can be balanced against another emfor p.d. which produces a zero current. Ina potentiometer the emfof a battery D (called the driving battery) is distributed over a long uniform wire AB of high resistivity and p.d. between osed any two points of it (one fixed at the left end A and otherissliding)is applied + the against emf or p.d. to be measured. The sliding point J is then moved over the wire, until both are balanced to each other. A sensitive galvanometer indicates whether the current in the circuit is zero or not. When there is no deflection in the galvanometer then p.d. between A and] = emf of the test cell. Electromagnetic induction : Faraday in 1831 discovered that whenever the magnetic flux (number of lines of induction) passing through a circuit fe anges, an emf is produced in the circuit. If the circuit is closed, a current ‘se flows through it. The emf and current so produced are called induced He emf and induced current, while the magnetic flux regularly changes. This nomenon is called electromagnetic induction. Bi ois te L_@4 Scanned by CamScanner w eseRywww -wisionias.mct 136 General Science ircuit be changed in a num The magnetic Mux through a circuit may be changed i 6 hu ss ways, e.g. by moving a magnet relative to the i i ‘it, ina neighbouring circuit, by changing current in the same circui HH KH} Current started Current stopped P. if $ Induced current @- S Faraday's laws of electromagnetic action a i : When the magnetic flux through a circuit is changing a, snail enti sctupwhose magnitude atany instantisequal tothenegative rate of change of magnetic ux. This is also called Neumann's law, Thusit g, be the magnetic flux linked with the circuit at any instant ang e the induced emf, then en AOA) _ _ By dt dat where, B= magnetic field, 1 = length of the conductor. velocity of induced charge. Second law : The direction of the induced emfof the electric current ig such as to oppose the change that produces it. This is called Lenz's lave, s Induced current The phenomenon of electromagnetic induction is frequently used in various devices like in artificial pacemaker, Dynamo, transformer ete, Self-induction : When an electric current flows through a coil, it produces a magnetic flux which is linked with the coil Ifthe currentthrough the coilis changed, the flux linked with the coil alsochanges, An induced emf Fis therefore set up in the coil. By Lenz's law the direction of the induced emt is such as which opposes the change of the current. i es increasing decreasing, 7 E=<—' =i i > Flux linked with coil 5 Thus, theinduced emfisagai ir it . nduce igainst the current when the currentis increasing and it in the direction of the current when the current is decreasing. This Phenomenon is called self induction and the induced emf is called back Thus, when the current in a coil is switched on, the self induction poses the growth of the current, and wh currer i len th is switched off, the self-induction opposes the decay of the cu rent sets vi Scanned by CamScannert i 5; 137 % If, be the magnetic flux (flux linka, ne i 8) of the ey inthe cilis directly proportional to it. ‘soil then currentind cee > bpti begga Li Here L is a constant called coeff. of sett, sf unit of self-inductance is henry. Also anoth : jg volt-sec/amp- Omer Unit Of self-inductance utual Induction : Whenever th 5 és , nk a coil changes, the magnetic flux due to hs ES : which may be linked also with a neighbouring coil, chanen’ | Hence aninduced emis set up inthe neighbouring seq ges jenomenon is called mutual induction. The co runes fre current changes is called primary coil, whilethoae | oe (which the emfis set up is called secondary coif, = Also for the two given coils situated in a fixed relati | yao te Secondary on 4 tn tin. i primary. | Thus N,¢,%% ie, N, by = Mi Here proportionality constant M is called coeff. of mutual induction, SI unit of mutual induction is also henry. Another $1 uni i induction is volt-sec/amp. FSF anit of mutual \Ckemical Effect : Pure water is a bad conductor of electricity, but if some metallic salt, acid or alKali are dissolved in it thet-water ee good conductor of electricity. Thus, those solutions in which electric eument can passare called electrolytes, Thereby, whenever in any aqueous solution of salt, acid or alkali an electric current is passed and if these solutions decompose into +ve and -ve ions then this is called chemical effect of the electric current and the phenomenon is called electrolysis, The equipment in which electric decomposition occurs is called voltameter, Two metallic conductors which are kept at the entrance and exit of the voltameter are called electrodes. The electrode through which electric current enters inside the voltameter is called anode, while the electrode through which electric current comes out is called cathode. Thus +ve electrode is anode and —ve lectrade is cathode. Whenever an electric current is passed through the any electrolyte, cations flow towards the cathode and anions flow towards the anode during the electrolysis. _ Accumulator or secondary cell : In accumulator cell electrical energy isstored up in the form of chemical energy and when this accumulator cell ‘s connected through any circuit then the stored chemical energy is being Start to transform into electrical energy, slowly and steadily. The accumulator cell is of two types— () Lead accumulator cell (i) Alkaline accumulator cell jal Lead accumulator cell : There are two lead ~~ which are kept inside a dilute H,SO,. On pPiying electric current the water is decomposed 4 ‘2 accumulates on the cathode and O, at the Hso, dil.) *- Oxygen (O,) on being mixing with the lead ae Scanned by CamScannerVvisionias.nct rae General Science re ee cc onda fa to ic current is stopped an: y. moment: ‘After sometime the electric ci p.d. is of 2 volt. When this cell is is electrified (charged) at in the external circuit current flows f, n ith any conductor then .s towards the plate of lead Peroxide ( cathode. Consequently H, salde into lead monoxide (PbO) which Sad it transforms lead (forms lead sulphate and water. By the f° with sulphuric out Svea is decreased, That's why cells of water the specific grav: discharged. lue of emfas 2.2 volt while di. charged cell has the value o 2 char ohne eee ral oh positon of the discharged cel sel Iphating. 7 : . “ “i Alkaline accumulator cell : In this cell ree Thea tee CKO li aS caper Nickel hydross inted holes frame of s } sears ra sae steel in which powder of Iron-oxide is kept and this plate acts it the athode. This cell Paice called Adison's cell or Nite (Ni-Fe) cell, Whenever an electric current is passed through, an external source they an electric decomposition takes place and finally K* is accumulated ‘On the cathode while OH“ is accumulated on the anode. Thus, cell is liquefied and an oppositely produced emf becomes effective and stable. Now ifthis cell keptinside an electric circuit then the current flows and K* an OH liberate on the anode and cathode respectively. A fully charged cell has the value of emfas 1.35 volt while a discharged cell has the value of emfas.0.9 volt The value of the internal resistance of the cell is 0-102, Efficiency of acell: The efficiency of acell is defined as the ratio of total beneficial work and total work done. ie. efficiency of a cell = ‘Thus if in any cell the value of emf is E andi ina closed circuit if p.d.of the terminals of the cell is V then efficiency of the cell = V/E Applications of electrolysis BS ‘of anode forms beneficial work/total work, porodes are made of these metals and when an electric dopant ' Passed through the salts Of these metale deposited on the cathode, tals then pure metals are basic principle of electrolysis some Structure and chemical composition Care investigated, basis of the principle of electrolysis tal is coated on another metallic body) @ cathode. Thus ectrolysis occurs. When Scanned by CamScannerium, ss of etric ‘are ome sion sis dy) nd us en ~_— weil is coated. For electroplating (coatin metmum, nickel, zinc, chromium ete are Sed (iv) Electro-typing : Today ina large Printing press by the use of 0 voltmeter on behalf of the cathode printing papers are k time a thin layer of copper is coated. Thus excellene prices Sua alietagioct copper coated papers. 'PPear on these {v) Electrolytic capacitor (condenson : In such =0 i.e. p= 2 (90°) lating Thereby, current will be wattles if the current and voltage differ in phase by or 90°. thas In pure inductor the current lags behind the voltage by 5 or 90°, that's ined why average power absorbed in a pure inductor is zero. Similarly in pure capacitor the voltage lags behind the current by * or 90° and so in a pure capacitor average power absorbed is also zero. an Comparison of an alternating current (A.C.) with respect to a direct current (D.C.) or (i) The phenomenon of electrolysis cannot be performed through an ac. current, so for the extraction of metals in metallurgy and other works in the industrial workshops are not to be done by a.c., and only d.c. is used, ! ; (ii) In electroplating a.c. is not used and it can also be done by d.c. only. (iii) The a.c, cannot be stored like dc. in accumulator cell. (iv) Electromagnets can only be prepared through d.c. and through an Ac. no electromagnet can be prepared. Scanned by CamScannerwww wisionias.nmct a bad General Science resistance in the circuit. Although there is a wastage of energy (FR pg, second) in the form of a Joule’s heat. In an a.c. circuit the current can jy alternatively be reduced by inserting a coil of thick copper woung closely in a large number of turns over soft-iron laminated core. Such a coi, offers a large reactance (Lw) and contributes to the impedance (resistance a.c,) of the circuit, Hence it reduces the a.c. appreciably. Such a coil is catjay Choke-coil. The average power di and the power factor is cos pated in the choke coil is P = 3 V, 1, cosp R L Here the inductance L of the choke coil is quite large on account of its la; number of turns and the high permeability of iron core, while its resistance R is very small. Here cos@ is nearly zero. So the power absorbed by the coi} is extremely small and thus choke coil reduces the strength of the current without appreciable wastage of energy. The only waste of energy is duetothe hysteresis lossin the iron core. The loss due to eddy currents is minimised making the core laminated. The choke-coils are used in electrical appliances like in tube light, radio, electric fan etc, Preference of a choke-coil over an ohmic resistance : The current in an a.c, circuit can also be diminished by using an ordinary ohmic resistance (rheostat) in the circuit. Butsucha controlling method of a.c. isnoteconomical as much of the electrical energy (Rt) supplied by the source is wasted as heat. Hence a choke coil is preferred over the ohmic resistance, Transformer : A transformer is an electrical device which converts a jernating current (a.c.) into a smalll alternating current (a.c.) at high .c.Jand vice-versa. The transformers which convert a low voltage intoa higher ones are called step uptransformers, while those which convert ahigh voltage into a lower ones are called step down transformers. A simple transformer consists of two coils— called primary and secondary, which are insulated from each other and which are wound ona common soft-iron laminated core. The alternating voltage to be transformed is connected to the primary, while the load is connected to the secondary. In a step-up transformer the primary coil consists of a large number of turns of thin insulated copper wire, while reverse is the case ina step-down transformer. When an alternating voltage is applied to the primary, an alternating current (a.c.) flows in the coil. This sets up analternating magnetic flux in the core. This magnetic flux is linked up with both the primary and secondary. Hence an induced alternating emf is produced in the primary as well as in the secondary. If in a transformer, the no. of turns in primary and secondary coils are N, and N. and V,, V, are the induced emfs in primary and secondary coils then for an ideal'transformer. VON 7 ~ N=" ay), called transformation ratio. rn Obviously, IFN, > N, (r>1), then V, > V,, scar by CamScanneriti 5 Per yin t ca, ¢ this position transformer is called step, ‘core, spon putifN, >, (<1) then V, > UMP“ transformer, 1€e (resign {At this position transformers called step hacoi Pon Also, if?,2 I the induced shernatisn omen Net geconday 3 ©) in primary and Vad, 0% Cosy Energy The “We anita por ae tt tne There are three to fOUur types of losses le energy losses (i) Copper losses: As an alternatin, Ig current flows ; and secondary, heat is developed inside the cop through the primary energy is called copper losses, per turns, This wastage of mini chin ther, ins hae agihin besitos instead of making it from resis; Gi) Hysteresis losses : During each cycle of ac, the coreis take nome a complete cycle of magnetisation. The energy spent in thi aa oa Vasted converted into heat and so wasted. This loss is minimised by being using as the core of a magnetic alloy for which the area of the hysteresis loop is he minimum, a fiv) Losses due to flux linkage : In an actual transformer all the flux igh linked with the primary doesn't pass through the secondary, but some Voltage returns through air (that part of the flux which links both primary and Fonvert secondary) is called mutual flux. The part linking the primary only is the primary linkage flux and the part inking the secondary only is the secondary ¥ and linkage flux. The loss due to this is minimised by eliminating the air gaps dona in the magnetic circuit, by using core of a particular shape, and by having, ormed special forms of coil windings. dary. Uses of transformers : er of (i) The step-up and step-down transformersare extensively usedin A.C. electrical power distribution for domestic and industrial purposes. ) An audio frequency (20- 1600 Hz orcycles/sec) transformer whichis essentially a step-up transformer is used in radio receivers, radio telephony, ithe radio telegraphy and in television. ary. (iii) A radio-frequency transformer is used in radio-communication at hia frequencies of the order of mega-cycles. (iv) Impedance transformers are used for matching the impedance = (resistance of a.c.) between two circuits in radio communication. ils (v)Pressure transformers are used for measuring very large alternating stetts. The current to be measured is passed through the primary of “€p-up transformer, the secondary being connected to an AC amit (i) Current transformers are used in measuring a very Faker «Voltage to be measured is stepped-down by means of the tr. Secondary of which is connected to an A.C. voltmeter. te Scanned by CamScannerItage transforme d constant voltag : (vii) The constant er euipat caveat and voltage Tespectivey, = lesigned to give a iderably. ; iat ous voltage varies consi rh) Sy cel . ee eee verted taveloatteal energy and it a is conv reloet scat a (ron) on th pile of seem ton indica (works) on t magnetic field, ti anen| f 2 Fede Theda suppl aerating rent (55) tthe exten Cea in yaaa (AG. generator) eee the eer Sica used, then it acts ke a De generator ire ‘current (de) flows out. Hea dev which fr ii ustical device Insfor Microphone : Microphone is mace erly voce oF some sound energy into electrical Loewe the pried fee ert one toanother vin ia baie composition carbon granules of electromagnetic induction. In its bo ite Tn two meta ana attached in the middle of oe aoe Pl sea diaphcan, Weak is i another is exible and it is cal . Whe Sandpaper Cached coil with itself which is kept inside a magnetic field . Consequently an electromotive force (em/) produces and the va lue of this feeble emf is strengthened by a step-up transformer. Now this electrical OF ae fue te strengthen emi) is converted into sora energy by the help ‘Speaker or telephone receiver at the suitable Places wherever Loudspeaker: Loudspeaker is also an a. the electrical energy is compreseat and ind is converted into the sound 2 loudspeaker there is a coil and this field is generate is attached wit] luced by the microphone which sohey in amplified and loud foren, Simply in which is kept in the Starts to vibrate sharp sound. iBNetic field a electric motor iS armature i ithe magnete to’ Menever an elecere 0 Sides up a, dk Cor ield forcibly Pushes the rote Ot dea irectional, “oil rotates towards rotation after completinns Se © coil c] inecti Sides of the coil ane revere Poation, DOW forces opertiee as and electric motor ins ¢ . o Moment of be electric motor doesnt nt atte ‘Orce) is eNnerated KON the prine sd: Thus, hore reo) is romag, Netic induction, Scanned by CamScanner © observed that ~~ Tew somone .—Fiver? ay oe ly ee Blectrie power plant : At an electric pow, een ety te to Sane Power itn a, fydro electric Power plant to rotate the tars in CP eray on the blades of the turbine th ahs OF yates aro thermal Toush sto; our porrage. Ina thermal power plant and in nuclear (oc ‘ erent : farbines are rotated by vapour. In wind power Blot rintt?nal the atmospheric pressure. In thermal power plant wap 1 BS ate ning the coal or natural gas. But in atomic pow, rt di prepared by nuclear energy. Through the ari Geer DIAN tached which on the rotation of turbine (ina pene °Sforn, Saris torotate and electricity begins to be genemted >ung At primary electric power plant alternating « ‘ncipie and it has alternating voltage of 22,000 volt or i bene des Pe current (a..) i sent to the consumers through the taosecio ®S ong grid sub-station step-up transformers are installed which ont T any Atternating voltage up to 132000 volt. At this order of than, ama during the transmission less amount of electrical energy is lost Ute ates at various sub-station this alternating voltage is decreased by ston wee, f this transformer and normally 220 volt (a.c.) is supplied to the dames Tical ET help Domestic power supply : The power is supplied for the domestic use of 2ven 220volt (a.c.) which has the frequency of 50 Hz. This implies that ite polarity inench second changes 100 times. Thus, ina complete cycle the altematiny ich current (a.c.) changes its direction two times, Domestically supplied current ich iscalled main line, and the wire through which this current is passed out is . called mains. Domestically supplied power has two types of current sone x isof Sampere and other is of 15 ampere. The current of 5 ampere is called Z domesticand the current of 15 ampere is called power line. The current of radio etc. But the current of 15 ampere is used in electrical appliances like a 5 ampere is used in electrical appliances like electric bulbs, T.V,, tube light, 7 electric heater, electric iron, refrigerator etc. 1 Domestic wiring :In domestically supplied current three typesof wires are utilised which are live, neutral and connected to the earth (earthing). F the live wire electric current is Passed, while throught uutral Wire current goes back. In home usually two types of circuits are installed in which one circuit is for 5 ampere appliances and another for 15 ampere appliances. Earthing wire directly 80es to the earth and it is a means or way of safety. In every circuit the electrical appliances are attached between the live wire and neutral wire. For the regulation of every appliance (equipment) there is a switch which ‘Sattached in every circuit from the live wire. In home the distribution of power is made through an electric meter electric meter measures the power in kilo watt hour (kWh) which is “xpressed in unit, The power distribution through the meteris: done by abe Pairs of wires grouped in parallel combination. In every pair of wires a fuse eee The all wires are attached at one place on the switch rd “Thekome clectial appliances like fan, bulb eateretaareaNaciedy ne Scanned by CamScannerwow wisionias.met 148 General Science with parallel combination of wires, while switches of these appliances attached in the series combination of the wires. fe Electric fuse : For the safety point of view electric fuses are utilised ; various electrical circuits and thus electrical appliances are safeguarge For the electric fuse those materials are used which have less melting po, and easily melt on passing high electric current in the circuit. Whenever overloading or a short circuiting occurs anywhere in the circuit, the cure” of a very large magnitude starts to flow in the wire and the wire of electric fuse melts so that the concerned appliancesare prevented to dama, Always electric fuse is attached through the live or hot wire. Norma; electric fuse is made of tin but good quality of fuse is made from the si” of copper, tin and lead. Usually the electrical circuit from where the currer) of 15 ampere is permissible to flow then thick wire is used for the fuse ang through it maximum current passing capacity is of 15 ampere. Similar} the electrical circuit from where the current of 5 ampere is permitted to pass, a thin wire fuse is used and its maximum current passing capacity is of $ ampere. Socket ; The socket is a three cylindrical holes fibre structure device from where three wires pass. In the socket, the uppermost hole is large from which earthing wire passes and from the lowermost right small hole live wire passes, while from the lowermost left small hole neutral wire ‘passes, Plug : In the plug there are three cylindrical needles which can be completely enclosed in the socket. When any plug fits directly witha socket then corresponding appliance is connected to mains (circuit) directly. Regulator : The regulator acts (works) like a current controller in the electrical circuits. This is used normally to increase or decrease the speed of electric fan. Whenever the knob of the regulator is rotated then the electric resistance of the wire increases or decreases by which the quantity of electric current decreases or increases. Electric switch : Through an electric switch the current in the circuit ‘er stopped or surpassed. With the electrical appliances like bulb, fan ete. switches are connected in series. While the switch is always connected between the phase wire and the appliance, but the neutral wire is directly connected to the. appliance. Since the voltage of the phase wire is about 220 volt and during the off time or when appliances be not in action, phase wire must be detached from the appliances. If this is not to be done then appliance even in the absence of its action can provide a sharp electric shock to anybody who will touch the appliance. This detachment of the phase wire with the appliances are completed by installing the electric switches at suitable places in the electric circuits. Important units of electricity : (A) Electrostatics Physical quantity Units (SD Symbol Electric charge Coulomb c Electric potential Volt v Potential difference Volt Vv Electric field intensity Newton/coulomb N/C Electric capacity or capacitance Farad F i scaly CamScannerDPF www ewisionias.net PP, m Physics : ag .. & (p Carrent electricity : a tiliseny jeical quantity Units (Sp elena a peetriceurrent Ampere (amp) ieeteet Reece oa : theee Fay fic resistance OF resistivity Ohm Metre Q vire org flectric conductivity Obn” or Mho or simen ph Odamagr® specific conductivity or Ohm"! Metre"! or Mths mie ermal, Conductance Metre ot Simen Metre“ ae he Alloy Plectric power Watt rs Fucgtent section-C Magnetism ilarly About 600 century B.C. anatural substance (mineral) was found i ito met Miner which had the characteristic to attract its iron pieces, Schade co Visors was called magnet and its characteristic (property) to atimet ees 5 magnetism. As magnetite occurs naturally, that's why ik wee called Nn des, magnet: The chemical composition of magnetite iy FeO, and wee efron” definite shape. Ifa magnet is suspended freely then it rend confined in oe North-South direction. Also it is observed that natural magnet hee anna weet power of attraction. Today artificial magnets are constructed which have Ses, alarge power of attraction. The materials utilised for the magnet are neve an be cobalt, nickel ete. andl various shape of magnets like bar magnet, horse shoe ocket magnet, magnetic needle etc. are designed artificially, Properties of magnet : the @ Property of attraction : Pieces of iron, steel are easily attracted by a od of magnet and this power of attraction is found to be sharper near the ends of ctric the bar magnet which are called poles of the magnet. In the middle of the ctric magnet the power of attraction is very weak (feeble). . (ii) Property of directionality : If any magnet say a bar magnet is cult suspended freely, then the magnet remains confined in North-South fan direction. Here the end of the suspended magnet pointing towards North 2 is aalled North pole and similarly to that South is called South pole. The ¥ imaginary straight line passing through both poles is called magnetic axis. oe The distance between both the poles is called magnetic length. If a freely & suspended bar magnet is at rest, then the plane passing vertically upward Hy from the magnetic axis is called magnetic meridian. (ii) Property of attraction and repulsion of poles : Two unlike poles (North-South) attract each other while two like poles (South-North, South- South) repel each other. An isolated charge has its existence but an isolated Pole of the magnet has no existence. If any magnet is broken then poles me Magnet do not become separate but a new magnet (broken part)is d. GY) Property of magnetic induction : The magnetic induction is Produced bythe magnet in the magnetic substance. Ifa rod of soft iron is ht near the pole of a powerful magnet, then this rod also becomes or attt- Also a pole of the opposite nature is induced in the rod of that po ‘he powerful magnet. This is called magnetic induction. Scanned by CamScanner1 Vvisionias.net ! ~~ 150 magnet through wi Magnetic field : The region or space aroun i ei ee ction os oe fer magnetic material Se i manne nel oF any mage any other mee field. The direction of the mag) le, is called magnetic field. Th 's determined by a magnetic cca field induction: Inany magne, ield i ity or mi verse inside it fetd te hocged conduc a unit lengtivis Wecuae condicte, : 7 it is pa ee * th tee er mt le Seepesient z i 1 be the len wn ene oa induction, If Fhe a magnetic fates |b Be the tener ay or magni ductor, i be an electric current and B be the magnetic field induction conductor, then Fail xB =aBsinon ‘Thus mathematically if i=1amp }=1 metre @=90°; then F=B Obviously magnetic field intensity § is B is Gauss. $.1 unit of jis N/amp-m or we Magnetic lines of field by drawing imagi @ vector quantity. C.G.s eber/metre* or Tesla, force : There is a way of interpretation of ma UNit of etic inary lines which are hypothetical field anditis, simple indication of the direction of field and these lines are called magnetic lines of force, The characteristic of the magnetic lines of force : (i) The magnetic lines of force always originate from the North Pole of the magnet and terminate at the South Pole by tracing curve and return back from South pole to North pole internally, are closed toeach other, ‘agnetic field is represented by magnetic lines of force far apart, G) A uniform magn lines drawn in the space Magnetic Permeability: Ifa ma, magnetic field then more and More in comparison to the ai like iron, cobalt or nick characteristic of the m. ctic field is represented by equi-distant parallel 'gneticsubstance Say iron is kept, in any mieenetic lines of force cross through it *- In other words we can Say that magnetic sub: le are good cond, Se ie Of magnetic lines of force, This agnetic substance j an Iron sf “called magnetic permeabi lity. on slab is keptin.a Magnetic field then very sharp ‘d magnetic lines of force appear to be confined within the Wee Pe8entation of the Pemeability existence. The symbol © Permeability is wand it, value for air or vacuure is 4x = 107 weber/ P-m. and concentrate,' throups, www wisionias-.mct ©n or - , aENUC 1INes OF for, 2 i Pept ch yp is the mi roe of any Pil, WP nit area of the magnons — mai ma, snroveh “ind His the magnetic lines SS tS , Magnetic substtney cough unit area in air, then et 'any ma, f force arty is defined as; se} Vinsiegg Bey of Mneability 5 a nda cto ang permeability (1) = rs ean eld intent Ananother unit of the permeability ig henry /metn len Magnetic susceptibility -Itiscbservedexpers.) Bth oy ily magnetised in comparison tosteel, then it ne eat Softiron can d indy, oftironismorethan thatof steel. But thesia i that susceptbiiny of ty ascompared to the steel, Thus, Susceptibility ofa substance oe {laeined in such a way in which a magneticeaeye oe be rater) put the retentivity of the soft iron is less ag compared to the steel betas the retaining power of the magnetism of soft iron isless as compared tothe Ifthe intensity of magnetisation developed in a material is J, then the h ‘i < " a Susceptibility () = T*SAsity of magnetisation 1) Nit of Magnetisin g force (H) Types of snagnetic substances : Normally every substance in a strong 1agnetic magnetic field has some magnetic effect thus, broadly on the basis of ssimpe etising behaviours it is categorised into three classes ic lines (i) Paramagnetic substance : The Paramagnetic substances are those which, when kept in a strong magnetic field, become weakly ™Magnetised in the same sense as the external field. Platinum, ium, manganese, copper sulphate, liquid oxygen and solution of the salts of iron ary nickel ‘ole of are examples of paramagnetic substances, ' back When a bar of paramagnetic substance is k Pt in an external magnetic field, then the flux density (field intensity) of it is slightly greater than the ux density in the free space. Thus, relative permeability #,(=11/ 41) becomes ore slightly greater than 1. ited Characteristics (@) Ifa bar of paramagnetic substance is suspended between the poles Nel of a magnet, it shows poles at its ends which are Opposite to those of the ‘magnet and turns until it lies along the field. ny (b) Inanon-uniform field Paramagnetic substances tend to move from it Aweaker to a stronger parts of the magnetic field, Ifa paramagnetic liquid P 'Skept in a watch glass resting on two pole-pieces very near to each other, liquid accumulates in the middle where the field is the strongest. If on “ther hand the Pole-pieces are far apart, the field is the strongest near the Poles and the liquid moves away from the centre producing a depression inthe middle. ) When a Paramagnetic gas is allowed to ascend between the pole- Peees ofa magnet it spreads along the field, othe tng o) The Susceptibility of a paramagnetic substance decreases wil “in temperature. Scanned by CamScanneruf Scanned By Canis err, isi i —Wisionias.met 152 General Sciéhee (ii) Diamagnetic substance : The diamagnetic substances are which become weakly magnetised in a direction opposite to that oj fie applied field. Bismuth, antimony, gold, water alcobol, quartz, hy, ete are the examples of such substances. Paogen When a bar of diamagnetic substance is kept in an external field, fy, density of it is less than the flux density of the free space. Thus, relativs permeability , for diamagnetics is less than 1. Characteristic (a) If a bar of diamagnetic substance is suspended between the poles of a magnet, it shows poles at its ‘end which are similar to those of the magnet dnd turns until it is at right angle to the applied field. (b) Ina non-uniform field a diamagnetic substance tends to move from a stronger to a weaker parts of the field. If a diamagnetic liquid is kept in a pieces very near to each other, the liquid is watch glass resting on two pole- ides where the field is weaker, producing a depression accumulated on the si in the middle. The reverse effect is observed when the poles are far apart. (c) A diamagnetic field shows a depression in the limb of a U-tube kept between the pole-pieces of a magnet. (d) When a diamagnetic gas is allowed to ascend in between the poles ‘of a magnet across the field it spreads. (e) The susceptibility of the diamagnetic substance is independent of temperature. (iii) Ferromagnetic substance : The ferromagnetic substances are those which are strongly magnetised by a relatively weaker magnetic field and it has the same sense as the applied magnetic field. Iron, cobalt, nickel, godolinium and their alloys etc. are the most important ferromagnetics. Ferromagnetics show all the characteristics of a paramagnetic toa much higher degree. The ferromagnetic substances have relative permeabilities of the order of the hundreds and thousands. The flux density in them may be hundreds and thousands times as great as that of the free space due to the same magnetising force. The flux density B in a ferromagnetic substance is hot directly proportional to the magnetising force H. Thus the permeability u(- 3 ) is not constant The permeability (j) of a ferromagnetic substance decreases with rise in temperature and becomes practically equal to 4, ata certain temperature, hch ss called curie temperature. Above the curie temperature the ferromagnetic substance becomes paramagnetic. The curie temperature for iron is about 770°C. Ifa ferromagnetic subst (j) is inversely proportional ance is heated then its magnetic soil oe ese here C ~ a proportionality constant and T is calied cure Ti canal thisrelation iscalledcurie’s law The valueof the magnetic tera ty (decreases with the rise of temperature, Ata point and ata se ar temperature which i called curie's temperature a ferromagnetic aac ae cegmverted into.a paramagnetic substance. The values of curie's ggg tov cal nickel and ieon ae 373 K, 673 K and 1043 K.eability ith rise rature, re the are for bility UT. Curie Netie tata Netie e's * wow wisionias.met of magnet : Normally the magnet; 15a BNEt is Of ty Temporary Magnet:Temporary ma, ee inet nagetines ey and degop SeeS2E ho chang sabstteare also called electromagnets. Usuaite (ekWy. That's where magne soft irons are used. ly for construc oY Electromagnets (temporary Magnets) are used . jamin the core of transformer, in the Ayame nl i the electric sragnetised Soft irons are Permanent Magnet : Permanent magnets ic substance magnetises by slowly and steadily an, i in which mifdemagnetisesalso noteasily. The stainless steel ion eng SPANOF time ainstruction and in order to obtain a good ‘quently used for its Inloudspeaker, needle indicator, Galvan the steel are used. Domains : In ferromagnetic substance every ati tini magnet and this substance has a large Tamer of mone ae mee whichis called aeonain. Hnevery: domain about 10" to 102! atone tga tothe collective contribution of these atoms a ferroma; oe p magnetism. ignetic substance has Terrestrial magnetism : When any magnetic compass (needle) is : is freel suspended through its centre of gravity (c.g.); then the compass remaing confined in the North-South direction. Thus, magnetic compass to remain static in a particular direction tells us about the presence of magnetic field onthe earth's surface. This is called terrestrial magnetism. By the study of magnetic lines of fore the behaviour and character of — Ce0graphical_N Magnetic South the earth appears like a great magnet, os in which the magnetic North pole is oriented towards the geographical 8 temporary ‘ometer etc. permanent magnets of South poleand the magneticSouth pole Magnetic is oriented towards the geographical Egat North pole, MagneticNorth Ifthemagneticneedleissuspended ‘Geogsaphiical south freely through its c.g. and which is bye to rotate in a vertical plane, then Cc oO itdoesn't remain horizontal but makes [ 4 some angle with the horizontal. a it Also if the freely suspended en see needle is taken away from <{— Magnetic 'o South, then there are two meridian flees Wherethe directionof theneedle atl wa a Vertical. Of thesetwo placesat B ne lace the North pole of the vertical Je of the earth. diene towards the earth is called magnetic North pole a nds ‘er place the south pole of the vertical needle also leans ee vn ‘ i then called magnetic South pole. If an imaginary straig «and magnetic ite" the centre of the earth joining magnetic North pole Arn nr the Pole of the earth, then this straight line is called mag” Scanned by CamScannerwisionias.nmet Are 154 General Science le between the magnetic axis with the geographical idieg oaented Ultimately we can conclude that the magnetic andl Beogranhet les are different and separate. 7 Here two terms become significant to understand the terrestiy magnetism in some more specific way. : / Magnetic meridian : It is a vertical plane containing the dire magnetic force at a place of a freely suspended magnetic needle. Thus Plane OABM represents magnetic meridian. Geographical meridian : It is a vertical plane through the, Beopgraphicg, north and south direction at a place. Thus plane OACG Tepresenis geographical meridian in the figure. Atany place of the earth, the magnetic field of the earth depends On the three parameters called magnetic elements. These are— (i) Angle of declination ; At any place of the earth the angle bety, the geographical meridian and the magnetic meridian is called angle a declination. Obviously from the figure a is the angle of declination. (ii) Angle of dip or angle of inclination : At any angle between the direction of the total earth's magnetic field intensity ang the horizontal line in the magnetic meridian is called angle of dip or angle of inclination. Obviously from the figure 0 is angle of dip. Also at the po} of the earth angle of dip is 90°, while at the equator the angle of dip is (, (iii) Horizontal component of earth's magnetic field : The horizontal component of the entire magnetic field of the earth has different values at different places of the earth, but its average value at any particular Place is assumed to be 0.4 Gauss or 0.4 x 10° Tesla. ction of place of the earth the ‘ibutions of all are relevantand significant only upto very small extent. ilbert in 1600 stated that the earth is is generated inside the earth due t the equatorial region, and moves t regions and get electrified, In 1870 daily variation of variations in the a t mosphere, Thus, the magnetic character of th. tained cl ‘enany above ground and all the = earth cannot be explain make ; us abov. sand Scanned by CamScannererr we ow Physics 155 yu > Nise a off's laws : Kirchoff in 1842 gave two laws which enable-us to Je ithe distribution of current in any electrical network of conductors. god ON echotf’s laws are the consequences of two fundamental principles; Jaf’ jciple of conservation of charge and the principle of conservation of ihe Pre ge two laws are : Sn an electric circuit the algebraic sum of the (i) OY necting at any junction in the circuit is zero. Thus the total current flowing toward a node (or junction) is equal to fpetotal current flowing away from that junction. This is simply the charge the'ervation principle. When the currents in a circuit are steady, there can no accumulation of charge at any point in the circuit. In any closed loop (closed conducting path in the circuit) of a circuit, the algebraic sum of the products of the current and the ance in each “tof the loop is equal to the algebraic sum of emfsin that loop. yiR=ZE where & (sigma) is the notation used for the sum. “Thus, itis simply a statement of the law of conseryation of energy. Application of Kirchoff's laws B Wreatstone bridge : Wheatstone bridge is an arrangement of four resistances P, Q, Sand R, which are joined in a closed chain ABCDA. A A galvanometer of resistance G_is connected across the diagonal BD and a cell E of emfe and internal resistance ris connected across AC, This whole arrangement is called 4 Wheatstone bridge. Condition for a balance in Wheatstone bridge : A wheatstone bridge issaid to be balanced, when no current through the galvanometer is passed out. PLR At the balance position & == Usually the wheatstone bridge is used for a rapid and accurate Measurement of resistance. The post office box (RO. box) and the meter bridge are the practical applications of the wheatstone bridge. schug, Internal resistance of a cell : The resistance offered by the chemical fall eg between the electrodes of the cell is called internal resistance of the Brn of the nature of the solution, and upon the current which i: veulo the cell. The car battery consists of an accumulator whose internal whee? Yery small (about 0.019) and resistance can not be measured by tone bridge, because of occurrence of insensitiveness. That's why ‘meter bridge to measure such small resistance. be Scanned by CamScannerwow wisionias.met 156 General Science i / jome more devices (instruments) 7 peu! \s/Van de graph generator : It is an instrument to produce a Seah re? voltage (in million volts) and itis designed on the basic principlein whet so whena charged conductor is brought into the internal cause orth hollow, &N conductor, then all of its charges transfer.to.the hollow conductor, and Gi) Cyclotron: compact machine deviced by Lawrenceand Livingstoy in 1992 to accelerate the positive ionslike protons, deutronsand a-particlesi, let called cyclotron (orcyclicaccelerator). Butby thismachine (device negative cha charged particle (electron) cannot be accelerated because relativistic mas, call starts to increase abruptly with increase of velocity. ; oft Gi) Betatron : The Betatron is a device through which a negatively charged particle (electron) is accelerated and gets sufficient energy even ele! higher than the electrons (B-particles) emitted from a radioactive substance, sta! Thebetatron-acceleratedelectronscan produce X-rayssoshortin wavelength and so penetrating in character as to surpass the gamma rays (y-rays) from is a radioactive substance. ith (iv) Thermopile : It is one of the best known applications of the thermo- 16 electric effect and it is a device through which small amount of thermal isi radiations are detected, (vy) Bolometer : The basic principle and function of the Bolometer is ne the same as that of a thermopile but it consists of a piece of resistance wire of forming one arm of a bridge. When it receives energy its temperature rises, Ne sonsequently its resistance rises and the balance of the bridge is disturbed of The current so flows through the galvanometer and a relation between sit this current and the rate of the absorption of energy is usually formed by calibration. sp 4. Some more terms related to the electrical circuits : is ) Load : Load is a device or element which draws the current from pe a voltage source and thus the connection of a load reduces the voltage. A 1s short circuit between ‘wo points has a direct connection and to shortouta ra nmponent a thick wire is connected and is parallel with it. Load has an ar infinite resistance for an open circuit. (i) Impedance : The impedance is the quanti i a tity us ‘i {Ssimilarto the ohmic resistance used in d.c circu anne sn ee teu and “€ circuit and itis represented by T Admittance : The reciprocal f the impedance in ace. circuits admittance and itis represented by. This eet ae cient israllt tk i - Thus, plays the same role ina. circuit as conductance plays in the dic dita i a Vi Modern Physics (Atomic & Nuclear Physics) ol ‘Omposition of matter : Sin, imitiv. i that every matter is the item oe etimitive days it was assumed a Foe at tposition of small particles b n sag mental evidence at that time regardine to gees Out there was no 5 and propounded that vig tation hia ing toit. In 1803 Dalton asserted Doate Rs ate Said to be atoms. Dalion alee sre nace OF small particles t basic constituent ofall 7 reg 2180 Speculated that the atom is the 5 ‘ ne matters and cannot be divided by hysical or a chemical means, But later atom was also div is y any physical ‘as also divided into electron, proton and nm Scanned by CamScanner- wwrw-visionias net Physics as nd these are called fundamental (elem, 3 svigo aseumed to be made from quarks, Some meer ee, OF lately eeppoared A108 with the research and development activitiesetAgene alsoapper physicsvhich have been kept inthe clas of elementary paren uf present there are nearly 30 elementary particles. an Gy Electron: Firstly invented fundamental particle iselectron.tn1897the sn was invented by J.J. Thomson. The electron is basic: ati elect article which rotates around the central massive Sesaniaticste ich g ciarnucleus and its distributed in various energy levels and sub-levele Sfthe atom. ; ‘The electron has @ negative charge of 1.6 x 10 coulomb, while ri stearonie mass (mass of the electron) is 9:1 x 10" kp. The electron is a Waves “gable fundamental particle, s) fen Proton : The proton is another fundamental particle which was 7 vented by Goldsteinin 1919. tisbasicallya positively charged particle and 5 ofthe th, jthasa positive charge of 1.6 x 10" coulomb and the mass of the proton is Unt of (u™ 1.4 10 kg, The proton is confined to the nucleus of the atom. The proton Mo another stable fundamental particle. yo ite © Bolomey (ii) Neutron : This was invented in 1932 by James Chadwick. It is a “esistance ye neutral fundamental particle (no charge) confined to the nucleus. The mass erate ofthe neutron is approximately equal to that of the mass of the proton eiedign Neutron is a unstable fundamental particle whose half life period is nearly Wtign RtUPbel of 17 minates. tis used in life sciences and medical sciences frequently lly for ween Since it has no charge it is used in nuclear fission. 2 SEE (iv)Positron:1tisa fundamental particle whichhas thesame mass, anti- spinas that of the electron and oj site charge of the electron, Thus positron is also called positive electron. Also positron was’ the first fundamental current fron _ particle in the form of anti-particle of the electron which was discovered in re voltage A 1932 by Anderson in a cloud chamber experiment exposed to the cosmic to shortouta rays. When a positron comes to rest in matter, it is quickly annihilated by Load has an an electron resulting in two gamma photons (y-photons) ° + co o> by ». circuit and (positron) (electron) (photon) >mresented by (v) Neutrino: This fundamental particle was invented in 1930 by Pauli, This is a massless and chargeless fundamental particle. The antiparticle of the neutrino is called antineutrino which has anti-spin, (vi) Pi-meson (x-meson) ; It was invented in 1935 by H. Yukawa a Japanese physicist when he was propounding, Yukawa's meson theory of nuclear forces. The mechanism responsible for the strongly-attractive, ‘ational, short-range nuclear forces between cuit is called re same role ‘al and non-gravi ssumed I 5 assum) —_ftudeons (protons + neutrons) remained a mystry for along time, In this are was. gard Yukawa predicted the existence of a new fundamental particle called MT particles Pemeson (x-meson) whose rest mass is about 230 times the rest mars, of Ut pare he electron (9.1% 10 kg). He proposed a theory of nuclear forces which atom is involves these P ete eckeasand itor selvesthese aemesons. According tothis theory all nucleons (P l ica trons) consists of identical cores surrounded by a cloud of one oF more an Pi-me. aie i a proton, ™esons, The mesons may be neutral or may carry either a positive oF a Scanned by CamScannerwow wisionias.met 158 General Science 5 desi ative charge equal to the electronic charge and are ignated ag xo, and x Tapeciwl, But x-meson is also a unstable fundamental pay whose average life time is 10% second, Aes attiely (vii) Photon: The photon isa basic constituent of all the electroma, wave and hasa alserete energy of tv ineach quanta and each photon mmo with velocity of light whose rest mass is zero. Miscellaneou: Elementary particles : These are fundamental particles whose in, structure cannot be described as a combination of the other particles" Anti-particles : Fermi-Dirac’s relativistic quantum theory of electzy. icted the existence of an anti-particle. The anti-particle of a givgn particle has exactly the same mass, spin and life time (if unstable) pi) of the opposite charge if any. Further, the alignment between the and magnetic moment of an anti-particle is opposite to that of corresponding particle. Also when an anti-particle meets its particle, thay mutually annihilate (destroy). Bectron-volt : The electron-volt is a unit of energy in Atomic physicg (or particle physics) and it is expressed as below, TeV (electron-volt) = 1.6 * 107" Joule. Cosmic rays : Cosmic rays are highly penetrating radiations consistin, of high energy atomic nuclei which are continuously coming from ouics space. Every second about 10'* cosmic rays reach the earth's surface ang they have a wide range of energy from 10° to 10" electron-volts, Elster and Geital in 1899 and Wilson in 1900 firstly detected the rays. They found that the charge on very well insulated electroseo, always leaked away in time although there was no ionising agent nearey which could make the air conducting. It was then thought that the leakage of charge was due to the ionising radiation from the radioactive minerals in the earth. Victor Hess, in 1911 sent an electroscope in balloon and found that intensity of the unknown ionising radiation was la, at high altitudes of the surface of the earth. He therefore proposed thal radiation has originated from somewhere outside the earth's atmosphere ‘The radlation was finally called cosmic rays by Milikan is 1925. Until ¢ piper bas pees Sustained about the origin of the cosmic rays in the Planck's Quantum theo: idea to explain the distributi black body (cavity) radiatio: cavity radiator behave like ry : Planck in 1900 introduced a totally new ion of energy among various wavelengths of the seh sense that Be atoms of the walls of the y i K ‘ators, each with a characteristic frequen stveacillatien: Tees oscillator emit electromagnetic radiant cenaeny ia e cavity and als i intail i eee ty and also absorb the same from it and maintain an equilibrium Thus assumptions in this regard are — (i) An atomic oscillator can have E=nhv where, only descrete energies given as ¥ = frequency of the oscillator. Scanned by CamScannercOnSisti OM outer "face and te cosmig troscope tne: that the ioactive balloon s larger ed that sphere Until a in the ly new softhe s ofthe juency y into brium Physics constant called Planck's mv integer called quantum ore This implies that the ae can have only energies, hiv, 2h between any of the two. Here th Scilla Re ney pent we energy of the oscillator ig i) The oscillators do not emit or absorb en injamp and in descrete way in the form of a cach packet carries an amount of energy hry. So the energy of a single quanta (photon) = E = Iv=he/d (-: where, c= velocity of light in vacuum , A = wavelength of the photon h = Planck's constant = 6.625 x 19-4 joule-second. Photoelectric effect Theemissionofelectronsfromametallicsurface Light iy h light (ph i if illuminated with light (photon) of appropriate Photocathode , wavelength or frequency is called photoelectric I 159 effect. ‘Anode In other words photoelectric effect is a phenomenon in which, when the light (photon) v of appropriate wavelength or frequency incidents G@ Potentiat onthe metallic surface called photo cathode, then Gan, due to the production of photo electrons, photo ¥ current is generated. By the use of visible light, only certain alkali metals like sodium, potassium - etccanexhibit the phenomenon ofthe photoelectric effect but using high frequency electromagnetic radiations (X-rays or rays) almost metal can show the photoelectric effect. The photoelectric effect can also be exhibited by liquids and gases. But in liquid it is called electrolysis, while in the gas it is called ionization. It is also observed that the number of photoelectrons emitted per second (photo current) varies directly with the intensity of the incident light, but the energy (maximum) of the photo electrons is independent of the intensity of the incident light. The maximum energy of the liberated photo electrons only depends on the frequency of the incident light or its wavelength. Also this energy varies linearly with the frequency or inverse linearly with the wavelength of the incident light (photon) Some terms related to photoelectric effect : 4) Work function (g) : The minimum energy of the incident photon ‘equired to liberatean electron froma metallicsurface is called photoelectric Work function (9), Thus for a photoelectric effect— Energy of radiation of photon = work function (¢), (i) Threshold fre ): The minimum frequency of the incident : ‘quency (v,) le minim 7! 7 = lation of the photon which is just sufficient to liberate an iecieat from Metallic surface is called threshold frequency (v,) for that met MF ai y of the we fit threshold frequency is nothing new but the frequency of the ion, Scanned by CamScanneron nencanancan i offect— frequen” me PRS So for a photoelecir oh emcee -The wavelength corresponding 5, O) i i, threshold frequen) te which the phenomench fF meee longest wave not possible, ‘Thus, for the oounans a ctength ()- / radiation of Photon ai (V,): That negative Pee peliase whi just eT eT cre (through ee onode To Pho ee be rea cs ema an Co vee mand moe a pt ee a kinetic energy. “Thus, this K.E. of a repelled electron is f the BV. m { og Ww .wisionias.met hotoclectric effect, the wavelengy, tt 6 given by 5 =v... =maximum velocity of repelled photo electron = where: ¢ =electronic charge (1.6 x 107” coulomb) ‘m =mass of the electron (9.1 * 107! kg.) V, = stopping potential GH Frequency Einstein's theory of photoelectric effect : Before Einstein's theory rs >\ various attempts were taken by the scientist to explain the phenomenon oi Stopping Pot (V.) photoelectric effect on the basis of the wave-theory. But the predicted time- lag between the light exposure and emission of electrons was not confirmed experimentally and so these explanations of wave theory were rejected. After the failure of the wave-theory Einstein propounded his theory # with the help of Planck's quantum theory. ov He explained that when a photon of appropriate frequency (ot wavelength) incidents on a metallic surface (photo cathode), then the energy of the corresponding photon is completely absorbed by the electron of the metallicsurface in which the partial energy is utilised in ejecting the electro" from the rest of surface and rest e Seung ieee photo electron. nergy appears as kinetic energy of the Thus, Einstein's photo electric ex ion i: planation is totally based upon the quantum theory and the phenomenon of Photo clectric effect cannot be explained by the wave-theory. Mathematically, Energy of incident photon (hy) = work function (energy needed to eject the electron) + maxim! K.E. of the elect = bv=o+) mo? 2 2 may = 1 IV + > mv. “Scanned by CamScanner ri et test wre rh i sour ares nighwisionias.nmet Are 161 met, =hWwv,) 2 Mma pis equation called Einstein's Photoctectrc equation q here: vy, = threshold frequency . - V_ = frequency of incident photon @ = work function = hy, = he/2,, ic cells : The device which converte 1 otoclectric cells, ich converts light e y nie Saal energy through the phenomener'¢ Pee ma is called photo electric ecue 5 cell or photo-cell. Dependin i & Upon dif oy electric effects employed, the Photo cells are Mainly of fous ome (i) Photo-emissive cells, (ii) Photo-voltaic cells. (iii) Photo-conductive cells. (iv) Photo-multiplier tubes. Applications of photoelectric cells ; frequently utilised in the reproducti sound in the cinema and TV. Pr ion of (i) In the street light vapour lamps photoelectric cells are used which are automatically switched off during the day and switched on during the right. (ii) Automatic doors in the modem multiplexes and Palatial complexes operate through the photo cells. (iv) In the strong room of banking instituti installed to identify the unwant ted person. (v) In the space satellites photo cells are used which are charged in the day by solar energy, while at night the charged electricity is used up. @ monochromatic (light or wav frequency and constant phase difference) beam of photon scattered by a substance, then the scattered X., ions the photo cells are e having same (say X-ray) is rays have the radiation of not inal rays but also the radiation modified radiation, Compton gave asatisfacto for the Modified radiation. Process, the inthe ry explanation on thebasis of quantum theory ‘ompton assumed that during the scattering incident photon collides with a free electron (initially at rest) Scattering material. Incident | piectron Scattered Photon Scanned by CamScannervwisionias.mect wre —_ oO Incident photon transfers some of itsenergy tothe elect, with a velocity v in a direction making an angle with the diy en incident photon. The photon itself wi reduced ener, eat, * direction @ with the original direction. This seatterea! ployee matin scattered modified radiation. in X-rays: X-raysare the short electromagnetic waves Which, Are Drag, when rapidly moving electrons are stopped by the heavy Metallic ta, 7 tungsten, molybdenum, platinum etc, The metallic targets are eg those which have high melting point, high atomic number and high, then conductivity. me X-rays were firstly observed and produced by Prof. WC. Rewny, 7 1895. X-rays were also referred to as Roentgen rays. Within thee mise alter Roentgen’s discovery, X-rays were being put to use in a hospint, | Vienna in connection with major surgical operations. The device through which X-rays are Produced is called Xray wy, There are two main types of the X-rays tube— (@) Roentgen X-rays tube ; This is also called Bas filled X-ray, yy, designed by Roentgen himself. Roentgen X-ray tube is the oldest and th, » first-made tube. (i) Coolidge X-rays tube : Almost all the defects of Roentgen tube hay, been successfully removed in Coolidge-tube designed by W.D. Coolidge iy 1913. At present practically all the X-rays tubes used for surgical works and others are of Coolidge type and that's why Coolidge X-rays tube is called | | modern X-rays tube. Intensity and Quality of X-rays : The intensity of emitted X-rays is directly proportional to the number of electrons striking the target, This in turn depends upon the filament temperature, which can be controlled by the heating current. Thus by the variation of heating current, the intensity of X-rays beam can be controlled. The quality or Penetrating power of X-rays dey . ‘ * Cepends upon the energy z of the electrons bombarding the target. This energy (eV) ic Saha ie the applied potential difference (V) between the cathode and the target. The larger the applied voltage, the larger the energy of bombarding etetrom and hence the larger the Penetrating power of X-rays, Origin of X-rays : X-rays are Produced by bombarding high energy electrons on some heavy metals. Due to ory large velocity, electrons Penetrate well inside the atom of target metal and knock out one of the | tlectrons of its innermost orbit like K, L- orig The vacant spot one ofthe the electron from the neighbouring outer shel} and the mana! les emitted out as X-ray photon, Such X-ray, are called characteristic X-rays, since these have discrete wavelengths depending on atomic ete Morar target atom. X-rays are also produced due toa son ite ROAR (deceleration) of be electrons which give rise to continuous or white Xa ii » Whose Wavelength i uM) to varies from a certain minimum (4 minimum) to ai, Possible values up to i= 250A. Scanned by CamScannerWhich www -wisionias-net Firectig . s ~ = On gy ies: Seaton nt iN Properti rays arvelectromagneticway . Thus, the wavelength of Ves of vey nd travels wit © place on py (it) X-rays photon is electrically cht (2 10* m/second), as no deile a electric and magnetic field, eutral th the speed of fon taki of assing through TY prominently, '¥ CAN pass through her. wood, metal (wi) Although X-rays are strongly absorbed by the atorption of X-rays increases with increase inthe thick in the atomic number of atoms in the mecium (wit) X-rays show optical phenomena like i refraction and polarisation etc. very easily like the visible light. (wit) X-rays are used in the research work and in the study of the structure of the crystals, arrangement of the atoms and molecules of the matter and their general behaviour. Moseley’s law : It states that the frequency of the varies directly to the square of the it lead and bones, ssand the increase IMterterence. dilfraction, characteristic X-rays atomic number of the element emitting, : Thus trequeney (v) & (Z- bP trolled bs teva (Z-bF intenss where, Z is the atomic number and a, b are constants. Bragg's law: A very specific study of X-rays, we endte dutfraction from the crystals of the solid was nined t done by British scientist team of father and son, ryet The ind Sir Lawrence Bragg. They Puinted out that atoms of the crystalline solid are arranged in a regular pattern and that a set fequidistant planes can be drawn through the vlectres os Srestal. Such planes are called Bragg’s planes - dlectre end their separation as Bragg’s spacing. en iti 7 scxpstils fil ‘ Bragy's law explains the condition for X-rays reflected by the crystal tilled ‘Cause constructive interference. Applying the usual condition for constructive interterence Bragg obtained the relation; 2d sind = nk. ; where 4~ separation between two consecutive planes. + wavelength of X-rays beam 6. glancing angle. sur "order of interference maxima. Scanned by CamScanneral 164 General Science ing the X-rays production nearly 99.8% enerpy of the jy Bete ckeecre ts fhe target is converted into the heat which init tothe metallic target, and only 0.2% energy appearsas X-rayn. Rog pV the unit of X-ray dose. j hy Broglie hypothesis of matter waves : The wave theory gy sccesatat alnined the phenomena like tntetfenane diffraction wat failed to explain the phenomena like photo electric effect, compton « ete. These phenomena although explained on the basis of Mlanck's gay theory. According to the quantum theory a beam of light of frequency y™ composed through the tiny discrete packets called photons, each jy an energy itv, where hi is Planck's constant. ‘Thus, light poss character, behaving as a wave as well a particle (photon). Similar to the dual character of light, de-Broglie in 1924 introduced ty hypothesis that all the material particles in motion possessia wave charncj, also. According to de-Broglie micro subatomic particles like clectron, prota! neutron etc. can be associated or interpreted as waves. These waves wn called matter waves or de-Broglie waves. A de-Broglie wavelength of matter waves is expressed as. « where, it = Planck's constant Pp = momentum of the photon If an electron is accelerated through a pd V from rest, then velocity aquired by the electron say, » (non-relativistically) = 1 mn,u? = eV jm, = rest mass of the electron 2 ie ov = [2 my But de-Broglie wavelength, 4 ~/! Pp Vv . *peritnene Bave the direct fication of Ve nature of the moving particles in ple: Thic «3 ny peieiple: This Principle was described by t casure either the posit nwo a ete with any desired degree of aah ‘within Position ang i nenlal equipment) but itis imponsity reasure bot Po fea momentum simultaneoy A Gel eTe leisenberg said that if we design o i He simultaneously the position s seein eal experi i acl th es imental device to Scanned by CamScanner“a www wisionias.nect yun ma partiole, there with p MiLAN UNETAINLY OF AP. AN the w Meyanek = constant here aneeetainty principle ata rhe fot the uncertainty Ay in thy rhe pants ion ot Hof momen uncertainty AP IN bs conrpon ater Wan t/a a body at oa nLite at the fer be my ul view Vers cj models : Maller denpite i apt Atoms definite particle structure on we particles of 1 alter are called atoms, va ited through prot. a first information about th awery Gnvention) of electron in 1807, wher it by deer antain the negatively. charged ele aoe it was inferted thal atoms must alone Me ai. Alyo.an vlectron was found ta be ties fhe entire atom, This implies that the positive drone quan pone Wetedy uncertain tured Vy, then other will be CHOMCOpIC level Joday an atom is anv ns and neutrons, nd the: dito bee OM came from the me known that all IK Mnatter is electrically iN ponitively charged ands of times lighter than charge of atom nearly the entire mass. The radius of the atom was estima id to be « ‘der of 10!” meter trom the kinetic theory of matter Thus, @-know the en pmpounded as given below : aspect of the atom, various models were (i) Thomson's atomic model : Thomson in 1904 suggested th isa uniform sphere of a positively charged mat: aw embeded in such number as to balance OPK Electron and neutralize the positive charges. The model oe = Sane though was soon discarded as it was in complete (0:9 5,4 ee disagreement with experiments on the large-angle oF 5, = OF material scattering of a-particles by the matter, jalan atom lin which electrons ii) Rutherford's atomic model : Rutherford suggested that in the entire positive charge and nearly all of its m ventre of the atom in a small volume The electrons revolve around the nucleus in the planetary orbits at a larger distance compared with the size of the nucleus. The orbital motion was assumed be ause without it the electrons will 6 % {allinto the nucleus under the electrostatic attraction and the 2 ¢ Oe, an atom aos are concentrated at the known as the nucleus of the atom atom will collapse. ‘oO po Nachos This model was in fact based upon the resulis of a 2 Particles. se attering, experiment. Most of the c-particles 14 {allingupon the metallic foil go through the atoms practically i “ndeviated because the atoms are largely hollow and the electrons due ir little mass do not appreciably affect the motion of the incident Particles which pass close to the (positively cherged) oi sh lence strong electrostatic repulsion and are scattered t wever experi “latge angle, Scanned by CamScannery Vvisionias.nect \ ” ~~ . General Science 166 But Rutherford's model despite the strong erent pe ey certain difficulties. The revolving sleaert needa, seca : (centripetal) towards the nucleus. Su adiate energy in‘the © sig electromagnetic theory will constantly ath be cian 2s form electromagnetic waves. Hence the electron: iN collages. Bae led an and will fall into the nucleus and the atom wit cimece. 5m Prac atom doesn't collapse. Also in Rutherford) gemodel th Sterne salt in orbits of all Possible sade sn . ; ee igtharatone le ne ls son ofa frequencies. But the & i like hyqs eri ee aed of radistion ae nly conta fixed frequencies in discrey, form. Thus this model was also discarded. , (iii) Bohr’s (Quantum) atomic model : In ints, peta Boks: fave 7 and bold idea of atomic structure in order to explain sak ity the at and the emission of sharp spectral lines, He proposed the followin, modifications in Rutherford's model which were contrary to the cla electromagnetic theory. : ; (a) The electrons can revolve around the nucleus only in certain fixeg orbits and they do not radiate energy while they remain in these permitteg orbits, and the atomis stable. The permitted orbits are thosein whichangula, momentum of the electron is quantized and this angular momentum (mor) ; h of the electron is an integral multiple of sical UeGs, mor =. where n= quantum number h = Planck's constant (b) The emission (or absorption) of the radiation place when an electron jumps from one quantized (permitted) orbit to another. The radiation is emitted (or absorbed) as a single photon (quantum) whose qheray Hy is equal to the difference in energy AF of the electron in the two orbits involved, Thus, AE = hy, where, v= frequency of emitted or absorbed radiation Hence. the spectrum of the atom will have certain fixed frequencies. The main objection against the Bohr's model was that its assumptions ‘trary and could only be justified by the experimental by the atom takes were entirely arb; results. Z r Zeeman in 1 Providing line spectrum is kept in lines emitted by components. This effect oy called Zeeman effect, 896 observed the atoms of the sours: 74! Magnetic field, the spectral that when a light source urce are split ints larised F magnetic field Pit into a number of pol on the atomic spectral lines i8 ‘Scahned by CamScannerPhysiey feet: Whenastrong beam of visibje tesa gas, a liquid oF a transparent sight isseatteredin all directions. Theapery the, actior ‘iphave the lines of the same frequencea ino seateredightis h lines) and also certain weak lent beam (called Ramat El ian nit The Pen i eee oGt, the lines ate independent of the aequencies of the hier. If an another light source with & ifferent tine: spirum is weeds then another Raman fines are obtarcy at the same scattering substance, However, the displacements from the exciting lines arethe same, For different seattering substances, the displace have first magnitudes. Thus, the Raman displacements aye aharactettane Af the scattering substance, Pauli's exclusion principle + ina definite way among various sl i governed by a. principle given by Paull in exclusion principle. This states that no two electrons inan thesame quantum state. This concludes that no two elech same set of the four quantum numbers, There are eccter specification actually explains i il and sub-shel atom can exist in rons can have the in numbers whose: mineral uranium kept over it for some time. Some rays were thought to be Saited by the uranium piece which could pass through the black paper and subsequently affected the plate. Intensive research work were carried itty Becquerel, Madam Curie and Pierre Curie which confirmed ther * type Of radiation was not only limited to uranium but a number of sf anents like thorium, radium, polonium etc. and their salts also emit similar Penetrating radiations. Such elements are said to be radioactive and Sug onlaneous emission of the radiation is called radioactivity (natural). subsjgrotl#neous invisible radiations also penetrate through the opaque tances Which ionise the gases and affects the photographic plates. Radia OPEMY associated with the emission of this types of penetrating ay on Ate called radioactive rays or Becquerel rays (a, B and ean) transfon*® the first to suggest that this type of radiation is a renult atte sud ed nition of a unstable nucleus to a more stable nucleus. Bulle “etfect of electric and magnetic fields on the radiation emit Mie " ‘adioactive substances, He observed that the radiation has Scanned by CamScannerliom (i ae first fs simply just a matter of chance. qa) The rate of disintegration of a particu jaintexgrating persecond Jat any instant is proper ed present at that instant Prowortl “coms Saw GW Ny ope the number of atoms present ina radioactive substance at any insta x instant be the number that disintegrates in a si hand AN UN auinteprates in a short interval dl. Thom the i Which is proportional to Nice. AN. where; A is called decay constant, (ve sign indicates that ov with time). —hadt © (On integration and simplification, Di where, Ny = number of atoms in the begining. Ye N= number of atomsat the time t. This equation shows that the qumberof atoms ofagiven radioactive z No. of atoms left over —» Z| 2 |,2 2 qubstancedecreasesexponentially with e time(ie. more rapidlyat firstandslowly 2 : a afterwards). This is called Rutherford- °o a ar a Saddy law of the radioactive decay. me eae ras Time —> Half life period : The atoms of a radioactive substance undergo continuous decay so that their number > goes on decreasing. The time-interval T in which the mass of a radioactive substance or the number of its atoms is reduced to half its initial value is called the half-life period of that substance. The half life period of a radioactive substance is constant, but it is different for different substances. As by Rutherford-Soddy law; Y= Ne where, 4 is the decay constant. Now, let T be the half life period of any substance then N > AT=log2 (2 1=T) log,2 9.693 hk “Scanned by CamScannerwow wisionias.met Vhynten 169 sho oni spontaneously Wirby the phy IH veanis sae and cannot be speeded up or MANKEOF pressure, temperature i) al aneh yen 2 qhye atisinteyyeation aceune at random and wl ee oeerieat ix AUMILY fUSE A Matter of el hich atom would grate? ation of a nil) atany: ovat that instant. Particular substance (.¢, instant is proportional tet number of henumber sents ; ~*ytethemmmber of atoms present in a radioactive substance atany instant u Naan be the number that disintegrates in a short interval dl. Then the ‘ aie ‘ awl dlisintegration is =") which is proportional to N ie. EN AN. whore; A is called decay constant. (-ve sign indicates that dt jromns Hesay’ with tim 4 nt = A -hdl. Oa integration and simplification, N= Ne where, Ny = number the bey of atoms in ing. 2 numberof atoms at the ef N time f. 3 5 = This equation shows that the ‘6 3 yy numberofatoms of agiven radioactive gg 4" ]-..--- substancedecreasesexponentially with yy ime(iemorerapidlyattirstandstowly atterwards). This is called Rutherford~ io Saxidly law of the radioactive decay. Half life period : The atoms of a radioactive substance undergo continuous decay so that their number gees on decreasing. The time-interval T in which the mass of a radioactive substance or the number of its atoms is reduced to half its called the half-life period of that substance. ‘The half life period of a radioactive substance is constant, but it is ditferent for different substances. Asby Rutherford-Soddy law; We Ne where, 4 is the decay constant. ce T #2T #3T 4T Time —> al value is Now, let Tbe the half life period of any substance then N = N, ‘Thus 2 =Nyew = Scanned by CamScannera wee wisi -Vvisionias.net Physics . "1 hus 2X aVA+ Bee, (parent nucles) (daughter nucleus) Cu NM +B +0. mila om. B bs THY + g POM +B + 0. _javing excess neutrons (high val clei having ex igh value of 1/, iy remission. p ratio) are found to e .; When a parent atom emit sai) 1-day ‘its gamma rays, ve ) ethese are neutral rays, SO NO change in mass meter ate ise during y-decay takes place. In fact y-rays are electromagnetic siaver eT the form of photon and its emission changes the nucleus s 5 erg 2 cited state (high energy state) toa less excited (lower energy state) povingere oman es gate F ioacti * gabove mechanism of radioactive transformations (a, land y-decnys) veal Soddy-Fajan’s group displacement laws Radioactive series : Practically all the natural radioactive elements lie aquhe range of atomic numbers from Z = $3 to Z = 92, The nuclei of these ‘temonts are unstable and disintegrate by ejecting, either an a-particle or a nt ay ejection of a, B-particles new atoms are formed and if these He paso unstable nuclei then further emission also takes place, until arom so ‘ stable nuctel is not to be found and a series of radioactive elements are 3 pained called radioactive series. ‘There are four radioactive series (UTAN)— (i) Uranium Series: In this series the parent element is uranium- gm and he end productof this series after the the emission of six e-particles and fuef-particlesis obtained as radium lead (qP0™) whichisindistinguishable the ordinary lead and it is a stable isotope of the lead. chemically from ii) Thorium Series : The parent clement of this series is Thorium - ,Te®. Itgoes through a series of transformations in many respects similar he uranium series and ends with a stable isotope of lead (,,P™). i) Actinium Series : The parent element of this series is an isotope of Uranium called Actino-Uranium- ,,U?™ and its end product is againastable isotope of lead (,,Pt™”). | liv) Neptunium Series: With the discovery of the unstable transuranic | cenents (the elements of atomic number greater than 92 are called | transurenic elements), another radioactive series wat traced out. This is | Glled Neptunium series after its longest-lived member Neptunium. crigin is traced back to plutonium and it doesn't end ina stable isotope of lead but in the stable isotope of Bismuth (.,B"”) Activity of radioactive substance and its ‘units + The activity of 8 Smpleof any radioactive material is the rate at hich its constituent atoms saegrate. “Thus if dN be the number of atoms which disintegrate during ‘interval dt, the activity of the sample will be given by itv. 4 Scanned by canttahierwisionias-net y wre ot negative sign indicates that the number of atomsig decay he time. ’ The traditional unit of the activ isintegrations/second. , pean unit of the activity is Rutherford : 4 a “a disintegrations /secon S1-unit of the activity is the beequerel (Bq) and 1 becquerg| ) disintegration /second. Thus 1 Ci=3.7 x 10" Bq. ' icial radioactivity : The idea of artificial radioa, Artificial radioactivity : The idea of CIVIty Wag conceived by l. Curie and F. Juliot. Hence I. Curi & F. Juliot were fv, to be the real inventor of artificial radioactivity. The Tadioactive gp. ™ in which natural disintegration of nucleus occurs are Rutherford took the attempt and became successful i nucleus of ordinary nitrogen by the bombardmentof fast Movinge-par This phenomenon of making a stable nucleus into an unstable Ducleus py the artificial means is called artificial radioactivity or induced red s curie and 1 curie (cy) <3), ey and 1 Rutherfory ctivity wy, in maki * lioactivig, or man-made radioactivity. ty Thus, when a nitrogen nucleus GN") is struck by an a-particle (Hes, @ proton (,H") is ejected leaving the recoili ing oxygen nucleus (017)? we + He = ov it Nitrogen a-particle Oxygen isotope proton Rutherford thereby transformed ordinary nitro, of oxygen. This was the first artificlal nuclear trane! sp eebon dating : The idea of the carbon dating gen into a rare isotope formation, isotopes are produced. One of, which is produced by the bombarden energy neutrons. NM + gn Cy yah _ Radio carbonis unstable an, these radio isotopesis carbon-14( cu ‘ent of atmospheric nitrogen with high e dies, it stops takin, CM §, Present in mace ‘Particle scattering am atom is concentrated within wntre which is called nucleus of the Senany scattering experiments, using th "attering particles, have beenato determine the size of the ‘only through the electrical fore a: he acl forces. Thus, the clean tion of the charge ina nucleus ‘bution of the nuclear mass, Those oe scattering tel sbout the ; riments own that number of nucleons ithe nuclear radius of any nucleus id so Re wil Be proportional to A, SReR tes 1 R=R,A3. eof the constant R, is expe 12:10" Ht 15 oi Here, the length 10°" m is described as : cribed as 1 femtometer (fm) or 1 fermi So R=R, 43 = 1.2 A¥ fin, for the all nuct ii from nucleus to nucleus but their order is of 10 me ee purpeses aromic nuctei are assumed to be spherical Seon inn For mst Packing fraction : The masses of the all atomic is ferween the actual atomic mass M of an isotope and its wad UMN defined as the packing fraction P of the isotope. Sass numbers thus, p= MOA A volume will be 4 /3nR? Fimentally found which is given by The packing fraction is positive for the isotopes of very low and very high mass numbers and negative for the rest. [tis zero for ,C". Mass defectand Binding energy : The massesof all the stable nuclei are less than the sum of the masses of their constituent particles (protons and neutrons) in the free state. This means that when the protons and neutrons Combine to form a nucleus, a loss of mass results. The missing mass is ‘leased in the form of energy when the nucleus is formed. If Am be the missing mass in the formation of a nucleus, the energy released AE will be given by Einstein's mass energy equivalent relation AE = Amc’. where, cis the speed of light. Themissing mass (Am)is cal led themass defect anditsenergy equivalent (42) is called binding energy of the nucleus. Here AF would is the actual energy that must be supplied to the nucleus to break into its constituent particles, More binding energy means the energy required to break the nucleus is larger. Thus binding energy is 4 measuring parameter of the Stability of the nucleus. om units for mass energy aqjatwalenee 7 of el rary) particles is & Sn Guinea oneal 1/120) 9 ofthe normal carbon atom (,C"")- . Also 1 u = 1.67 10° kg. Scanned by CamScanner + In nuclear physics the erally expressed in f the massArar i ot -wision Sones Taquired by an electron in falling, wagers joule. _ Be BS he 1 unified mass unit is expressed ay ™ ivalent energ} ctt9) SI a re 3315 MeV. (@X y mi Cae two German scientists Otto Hahn Nadlee fission: In 19 type of nuclear reaction. They foung ca Eereseren scorer a 05) is bombarded witha eutege then, theny, cle any uranium nucleus rial fragments with the release of orn fee Devt splits up into almost eq} 1 of energy (about 200 MeV) per,,, mec den cernsied i called nuclear Résion, a nuclear reaction isc hich a heavy nucleus splits up into the two nig Thus, the process in wl i with a tremendous release of energy an, dca arly comparable masses with 2 fe neutrons is called nuclear fission, : One of the typical fission reaction is— O78 + gn! — (U2) — Ba" + Kr? Syt! + AE (200 Mev) Inthefission processof,, U™"slow neutrons take Partand their oducts are not always barium and krypton, so many possible pairs of the fragmens occur, The average number of neutrons which are released in the uj fission is 25, and ranium Nuclear chain reaction : As 2.5 ne ugh each uranium atom fission under the favou rable undergo utrons and these neutroy are produced thro MS produced in on cause further Per fission the nuclear atoms of uranium to The ratio of the disappearance chain feaction y and is caller’ Of Production of is called the Teproduction fa, vill not besustained, atk if Kis greater than Lt neutrons to the rate of their ctor (k). If k s less than 1, the =Lthe Teaction will just be sustained Pla he reaction will Sustain, " ama PCS OF nuclear fission : The fission ch, i se 2m reaction is of two types '9) Controlled ¢ cnet 2d in batoncar e8StON: A Fs, ion whi ; a in reactio, eeds “MetBY released can be co fout any explosion a aie hich the 7 leis we and in whid oa — react Sera eon this tolled ¢} ‘iN reaction, = a rinci, i Fhe po and in wy ae "ple, which are the main sources tor th nucle, i peta a be ar chai ke + Benerate ely nergy "88ed thro, fear Te © “Bh the fission is used TANS for the generacr af 8 UNtries of the world. Scanned by CamScannerwow wisionias.met a x " cece, reactor: The elements Pr Pea erene common fueloareuraniten noe in a reactor day me ‘and plutonium isotope P:2"_ Opes UB, [yas jor : Moderators are used to slow down the tahn ease high velocity range. Some common mode Ung pM py (ich PET, beryllium, beryllium oxide and nodes n, 1a Tit en of neutrons is also called thermalisation ofa eos - then free, nets ‘clog, : Acoolant removes the tremendous amotn ntof heat developed a lant: Fucla;. tn, cote reactor core, Through a heat exchanger the erga transfers Such st fesecondary thermal system of the reactor 1 try, es : 0, int, i he control rods are used in initiati wen ce trol rods = ‘used in initiatin; and stoy id rey on reactions of the nuclear reactor. Due ie large aida seection area, : - e inserted in th t control rods are in the reactor unit, they absorb the fast migneutrons and the chain reaction ceases, ° movil tion protective arrangement : In a nuclear reactor Pe sig radiators like yrayain aadingn eee resees ate also eat These radiations pose a danger to the technicians working the reactor. Hencea reactor is always surrounded by a thick dang Jin form of concrete wall many meters thick (lined with lesd) te akon these radiations and prevent them from the leakage to the adjacent arene Types of fission reactors : {) Homogenous and Heterogeneous reactors : Basically both are fission actors but in homogeneous type, fuel and moderator are mixed to form. amixture, while in heterogeneous type fuel and moderator are separately carried out in the steel tubes. {i Fast breeder reactors : A nuclear reactor that breeds (produces) more ioe fisile material than it consumes is called breeder reactor. These reactors ine ad ae much more economical than other type of reactors as they consume ‘aw fuel like TH? and U™, Th is not fissionable but through a fast hmeeder reactor it is converted to U® which is a very good nuclear fuel. types Smnilarly U™* is converted to Pu? (Plutonium) which is very useful fissionable material. Owing to a very high temperature about 9000°C in eeds thecore, a molten metal is used as coolant. the ) Uncontrolled or Explosive chain reaction : A nuclear chain iniction in which fission neutrons keep on increasing until the whole of sees ‘ssionable material is consumed is known as explosive or uncontrolled kes in reaction, = fee th # action proceeds very quickly with thetiberationofhugeamount 2ai.8Y 0a short time. An atom bomb works on this principle and it Practical ample of the uncontrolled / explosive fission. Scanned by CamScannerisicocnias.net a | err, joa two or more ligl pr so fe ogter ts fornaaa ntc colic acter fasion: The masa of te Product nucle Sisiunee orton which are fused. Th an hich is released in the form 01 At nucte; Ss, e lost mass Pry then, 7 One, MeV w} Nucleus whic, |? % weaker energy jon BY Stn, number of deutrons (reactants of the Fusion ction of heavy hydrogen is much larger than the number of [3 Nuclej Leki) it fal nt Bhs uranium. Thus, the energy output per Unit mass of the Materia, is much more in the case of fusion of the light nuclei than inthe fission of heavy nuclei. The energy output in a fusion reaction is a 28 6 Jess than energy released in the fission of a U: MeV. But this doesn't mean that the fusion is a the fission. The ase og! fasion of Tight in Se together directly to form 4 heliuy 2 Bs 4 Ak (24.6 Mev) "ery difficult to carry out, as the go they will repel one another st ught very close together not only by the the high pressure but ay with high kinetic energies of about (0.1 MeV a; wae LO” kelvin is required. Such h ita temperature of the igh temperatures are available on the fiedand stars. On earth fusion may be produced by exploding a nuclex ‘ission bomb. Thus, 4 nity high temperature is needed for the fusion of the processis ¢ alleda thermonuclear reaction and the ‘Correspondi TBY as therany nucte “PeTRY. Also at the temperature of 10°K fusion Is (hy drogen, 'ritum etc) become ionised and the electrons “ripped and along nuclei, these materians behave like an ionised Bae which is urth state of matter), ent and control {sion : The 7cisMO material container Plasma within self, but ifan alternating magnetic Benerated by Mega ampere current and if wt Plasina can © Confined. The tonus- Poh the pp ee Ris called tokamak. Such ON Of the container the side and compels NORV and se ne % TF (vessel) ment towards the fore OF iuteENative Ways, the path & Wairniche eacton sear fision reactors was by found ab VY water (DO) yy ich " ute Do,, could “ The research and a Prototype of “ath ted byt France Scanned by CamScannermb o _ oo - ON extr required. Thus fortheachiev ‘of a hydrogen bomb, an hom bon eae aie i ite MThe hydrogen bomb has no limitation Me on Com) is sed aq pever explode unless it is ignited as uncontrolled nacho poe ane it ic the source of stellar energy (Le. the enerpy released ep fasion Fe The temperature of the sun's core io cory ene Oy ne Bun tars) The ter ore is ver cS an fy sing the four hydrogen nace into halter Ata ee ne ote erent processes BY which reactions occur in th Se “4 rdteproton cycle and a carbon-nitrogen cycle tithes ee th Prgh the cases comes out to be the same (about 24.6 Mev}. ane tn is radiating energy at the ? ay sun is 1a B ao BY fate of 10° J sec-'. Thus, the . hes * se s, the loss of aie ja matter occurrence from the sin is 4 = 10° tonnes per second. But the iin has a very large mass (10 kg) which will continue for several billion 2e “Fluorescence = There are various types of substances occurring it fe and ona few of them if a ultraviolet light of smaller wavelength ger frequency incidents, then it is absorbed by them and emit a Tight ' wavelength (shorter frequency) this incident or Phenomena is Xe. natu My fut la Sof of Loe prescence and the correspond ‘ong falled fluorescence ponding substances are called fluorescent Yulee substances. ion The examples of fluorescent substances are fluorspar, petrol, quinine ant gaiphate, wsani etc. To detect X-rays we use barium platino cyanide ‘ugg’ —_whichisasensitive fluorescent substance on passing X-rays, through which ion sLabsorbs the X-rays and emits green light. Today in tube-light, the inner coating of fluorescent substances are laminated to get a fascinating and = decorative flavour of the light. Phosphorescence : As from the basic characteristic of fluorescence, a substances which emit light until they are in absorbing position of suitable dif light oflower wa’ velength. But thereare alsosome substances whichnotonly emit the incident light at glance but is also remain emitting for some more a longertime,evenwhileitsincidenceisstopped. Thisiscalled phosphorescence ‘ and the corresponding, substances are called phosphorescent substances. : On heating, the ability and quality of the phosphorescent substance is completely destroyed. § The examples of the phosphorescent substances are zine sulphide, i cakium sulphide, barium sulphide ete. Today in the needle of watches and d in various hoarding boards employed for the advertising and marketing h purposes the lamination of the phosphorescent substances are used. These t needles and hoarding boards absorb sunlight in the day and shine in very i slzy and fascinating way in the night. Sdperconductivity : The phenomenon of superconductivity te fie 7 er rimentally y invented in 1911 by a Dutch physicist K.Onnes. He ep observed that the electrical resistance of somemetals, alloys ‘and compounds drops suddenly to zero when the specimen is cooled down below a peat Scanned by CamScannerMV ww tstontas nce Scanne: - of power. The 1 General Seichee transition temperature (T). This phenomenon ig en ES rent the specimen cooled down is called Superconduct’ He alo observed that resistance of the mercury vanishes completely te The critical (transition) temperature (T..) below which a material unde, a transition from a state of normal conductivity to @ superconductiigy different for different materials. The normal good conductors like Cy," ‘Au, Li, Na, Kete, donot exhibit the phenomenon of superconductivity, ont at more and more lower temperature. Thus, these are called normal meta This implies that in general not all materials are superconducting, Since the superconducting state of a material is characterised by the zen, electrical resistance even in the absence of an applied voltage and the cu, can persist for years without any detectable decay. A bulk superconduc in a weak magnetic field acts like a perfect diamagnet with zero magni, field into the interior. Ifa super conducting material is kept in a ma; field and then cooled down below its critical (transition) temperature (T ) 4 expelsalll the originally present magnetic flux from its interior and itis eae, Meissner effect. In fact this phenomenon was observed by W. Meissner anj R. Ochsenfeld in 1933. Also scientists from all over the world have been trying to devel the new materials that are superconducting at high temperatures, A breaj through in this regard come into existence when a hot superconductor was obtained in 1986. When Karl Alex Muller of IBM'S Zurich Lab made a substance of metallic oxide of lanthanum-barium-copper called ceramics that lostits electrical resistance at30 Kand it was called a hot superconducter, In 1987 the value of transition temperature (T_.) raised up to about 90 Kwhen Paul Chu and his team discovered a ceramic copper-oxide superconductor, called cuprate consisting of Yttrium, barium and copper oxide. Applications (i) Large scale application of superconductor are in the transmission ables made from superconductors can save 30 to 40 percent power which is lost the conventional system of transmission. The solenoid ‘of a superconductor can trap a large amount of electrical energy endlessly in itself. ) Extremely sophisticated electronic devices such as Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) scanners, superconducting Quantum Interference Devices (SQUIDs) ete. are today utilised frequently. Theory of relativity Michelson-Morley Experiment : According to the wave theory of ligt a light source sets up a disturbance transporting in all directions through? hypothetical medium called ether which fills up all the space and penetzales inside all the matter. But the assumption of ether created a problem. Do= ether remain stationary in space when material bodies (including ¢*" move initor isitdragged alongwith the moving bodies? But the observa? of the aberration of light from the stars had indicated that the ether be stationary in space, there is a relative motion between the body “ie ether. A number of experiments were performed to detect a relative Mog between the earth and the ether, Michelson-Morely experiment yy CamScannerwow wisionias.met Physics -Morely by their. 1» pent ’theirexperiment, 4 ‘ether is mean observed methcoush meaninglessand, it(ether}eouta uatthe motion ofthe perected ‘Perimentally Bey ginstein’s jal theory a“ = Se er oLelalivity Sttelativity : tn 1005 Einste ve ay h is ex in Nave the ~pstein propounded Arie laws of Physics have the Sagat ning with a constant Velocity relative to ene atthe Ne of relativity. This postulate also conte eet paepeey the universal reference frame, Sonfirms the at inertial frames This is called 4 bsence of any ty 7 y Ta) The speed of light in free space irate gna reference. Ths is called principle of cot ert ' (rt This postulate follows directly from the result of Of the speed of ic experiment ichelson-Morely it ‘An Inertial frame of reference : Any space-ti i andinate system in which a body totally ea Tal ae coranelis Gee I omfed an inertial frame of reference. The Newton's laws of eae & defined in this frame. laws of motion are But if a body is not to be found to remain in the rest ~ motion, then the frame of reference is called movin ee frame Newton's laws of motion are not defined and applicable. ih VIL. Electronics The area of electronics has become very extensive in which broad and various electronic devices are frequently operative and through it agriculture, communication, medical sciences, defence, industry, space pewarch, engineering, education etc are extensively studied. During the carly time under the electronics vacuum tube diodes and triodes were used and that's why the equipments earlier than thenineteenth century like larger radiogrames ete. were noisy and inconvenient. Afterwards these vacuum tubes were replaced and discarded by the semi conductors and transistors and now solid state electronic devices have been fabricated and designed whichare compact, cheapest, convenientand efficient. Now apart from these {When a stone piece is brought from the moon's surface to the earth B then { the mw (a) its mass will chan; F ge (b) ity weight will change but its mass would remain constant @ 4° (c) the weight and mass both will change | (d) neither mass nor weight will change [BPSC (Pre) 2004] es 45 The person sitting in a lift or elevator will experience more ier P 'B ‘1) when the lift is accelerated downwards 22565 ‘b) when the lift is accelerated upwards ii yctoad 7 {) when it is cor y downwards with equal velocity ase a (4) when tis going aprile with eoual teloity LPACS re) 190 ec ‘« itis going upwards w ea Elsa ian hap i teal Wika 7 A Cigahparent weight ofapersonsitting inalitisl sthan its nes? nn the lift moves. 4 melt 2nB! Fe Scanned by CamScannerwww wisionias.mct $ General Science ~ om rds with an acceleration dbtenwards with an acceleration (©) upwards with equal velocity atts (d) downwards with equal velocity Ree ; ch : %, we 47. The time period of a pendulum wat: e fred (a) depends on the mass (b) depends on the lent 1D (©) depends on the time (@) depands'on ‘he tame @? PSC gate 48. The pendulum watches become slowed down in summer bee the ane (a) oftongersummerday Fa (b) the weight of the pendulum is increased in the summer ont (©) pendulum becomes elongated and correspondingly ip elongated at per unit oscillation + #: (d) of appearance of friction in the coils 10?PCS 49. If the length of a simple pendulum is increased by 4% then jo! period will be : ba (a) increased by 3% (b) increased by 2% he vele (©) increased by 4% (d) None of these (a) writ IRRBASM/CG 254 (v) uni! 50, qheratioofthetransversedeformationand thelongitudinal deforma, () non is called : (a) nor (a) Poisson ratio “ag, (0) Bulk modulus of elasticity «0. The vel (©) Rigidity modulus of elasticity (d) Young’s modulus of elasticity * (a) 33€ IRRB Assist. driver 2003 51! The raindrops are spherical due to: * Cound (a) surface tension Daren (b) atmospheric friction of air molecules oe () gravity of the spherical earth © a + (A) viscosity of the raindrops [RRB GG2009, UP! 4, UPPCS, 82. Ifa ship moves from fresh water into seawater, it will aes ies (@) sink completely (©) sinkalitie bit @) le (©) rise a little higher @uauee ©n 53. The unit of viscosity is : Munaetscted (Cha ail 63. Infra: (a) poi a ' : poise @) pascal (€) poiseuille (a) none ofthese a 7 - [RRB ASM 2003] 54. The scientist associated with floatation is: : ' ea Tes (@) Archemedes(b) Newton (6) Ly; : ©) Louis Pasteur (a) All of these | 8 1 55. Satellites used for tele-communicati IRRB CC 2005 ©) Hi A ccoan tunication relay are kept j oat (a) orbit. satelite said tobe in such aren Whee a geostationary 1. The orbit is geosynchre 2. The orbit is circular &. The 3. The orbit lies in the plane P (a) 4. The orbit is at an altinade co ee Se Lt? equator ® | Select the correct answe fates | (a) 1,2and3only "8 tM codes given below © | (©) Zand 4 only ©) 1,3and only. ao ) 12,3and 4 all CSAT (re) 011) e i Scanned by CamScannerwow wisi i -_visionias.net height the ground with ay, Ay ; &) 10m slostty 19.8 mi | (here, © 49m a ay, @) 49m \ kee, " ss apn ver jones waves in SA rd range is (BSC (Pre) 2008) g Par} He — 20: OSHz—She Peran, @ Mh 10H (2) 20000 Fie 3 BS | @ He— damous at) qarepecd of a whirlwind in a tomado toware 20 205 eps The eases raply {b) increases, "aT the centre ’ be seas cons (d) slowly becomes time, | © 'y becomes zero (COS 2011] ‘i % ne 2ty i Stine B | oS vetocity-time (0-1) graph shown above illustra Yee. Te gniform acceleration of an object iil ey 1) eryorm retardation of an object tin () Romaiform acceleration of an object 7 j vaniform retardation of an object icity (d) non-uns a anti, | a Thevelosty of sound the air (vacuum) is: (esa) ‘vera Tre epm/aee (b) 220m/sec (<) T10m/sec (a) 252 m/sec [RRB Assist. Driver 2008] sound is az ‘rse mechanical wave (b) longitudinal mechanical wave {@) transverse non-mechanical wave 1) 205 {@) longitudinal non-mechanical wave 42. Ultrasonic wave has its frequency : (a) less than 20 Hz (b) more than 20 Hz (©) more than 20,000 Hz (d) 20 Hz— 20,000 Hz 6. Infrasonic wave has its frequency = ‘these (a) less than 20 Hz 4200 (0) less than 20,000 Hz 64, The noise of 100 db is assumed to be = (@) aproperly listened sound —_(b) anordinary conversation (c) anoise of the street (@) anoise produced by neighbour's place 6, The focal length of a convex lens is — (a) the same for all colours (b) shorter for blue light than for red/ () shorter for red light than for blue (d) maximum for yellow light es, 2011 ati] (6. Ifthe door of a running refrigerator ina clo Will be the net effect on the room ? (@) transve' 'S 201) (b) more than 20 Hz (d) more than 20,000 Hz hese 72005) onary the machine of a shop and listened at another [IAS (Pre). 2000] sed room iskept ‘open, W! Scanned by CamScannerwisionias.nmet wre General Selene heat the me (p) Ie will Toor onthe average ; (3) oe, Mo ele oe ap and own ‘ © TEM make the temPe tity used for: 2 oe eoautel physical 43° Y the intensity of heat 67. Decibel ist of light (@) the frequency oF adi, (2) the satensty of sound SSC rag (c)_ the int sound waves due to : duced by the 54.) the scattering of ~ ee reflect ea None of these (reg & the reflection elses (@) Non Oth {@) the refraction F500 ‘es 69. SONAR is frequently 0 (©) Engineer ) Navi G) Astronauts (b) Doctors _ PS ; frequency of the siren of a coming Peary oy 8 70. The Pl pecause of (b) Doppler’ effect (a) Big-bang theory ‘d) Archemedes's princip) & Ce's aw ‘ IRRB ASM si the human body is 71, The normal temperature nee) 300 K @) 310 (a) 280K @) HAS a} to the floor it bounces. Why does it bounce) drops ont i aie i 7 Wie a ball doops Taw implies that for every action (drop) thereig, : t (b) nee ae force on the ball during the impact (c) The floor is perfectly rigid (d) The floor heats up on impact (05 he lowe sible temperature is 7p ore a) Oe (©) 300°C (@) ve ERRBTCany 74. Which one among the following will you put into pure water in ou to pass electric current through it ? (a) Kerosene (b) Mustard oil (c) Lemon juice (d) Sugar (CDs, 2m} 75. The temperature of the body of a healthy man is: (a) 37°C (b) 37°F (c) 98.4°C (d) 98.4°K [Uttrakhand PCS (Pre) 206) | 76. A tefracting telescope consists of : | {e) one concave mirror and one convex lens {b) two convex lenses of equal focal length (©) twoconcave mirrors of different focal lengths | . « D {wo convex lenses of unequal focal lente INDA 2 i ie a min ei: is the best conductor of heat : ater (c) leather (d) benzene 8 | j 78. Garments keep : Pe (@) provide heat” “"™ i" the winter season because they : | () (>) donot radiate heat | Scanned by CamScannerPhysics ass of water'doesnottum into ice the 8 7. AB eater does not solidify at Orc at aS it reaches } certain amount of heat must be PCIe bec of adi, ‘as to solidify supplied toy SC, eats at meine ue iyater s0 as to solidify taken out from the gt fSotng MY (a) water solidifies at 0 K only bi RB. Da, geceynsenics are used in: INDA, 2012) a {@) space journey, surgical works and magn, Nay () surgical works, magnetic resonance and meee, ow) tslrapie ema iy app, {a) space journey, magnetic resonance and sane. ty 4 41: The dew doesn't form in fast wind blowin dures HAS 1909) : & (a) the rate of vaporisation is fast i during the night because ine ® there oe of mostra inthe wing si ) the temperature remains high (4) the sky is not el in power su ia Meade 0 rr eet rt ac 3t0 x Which one among the following statements in this gerd eon an (a) 110 V is safer but more expensive to maintain BS Oe oy (}) 110 Vis safer and cheaper to maintain Ounce? {@) 110 V leads to lower power loss ) there, a (d) 110 V works better at higher latitudes (NDA, 2012) For ast t floatii ewi ji sai 6. Forastel boat owing ona lake, the weight of the water displaced by (a) less than the weight of the boat 1208, ny) (b) more than the weight of the boat (c) equal to the weight of the part of the boat which is below the water c level of the lake RB TC2my (d) equal to the weight of the boat INDA, 2012] er in onder $4, The torque on a rectangular coil placed in a uniform magnetic field is large when the — {a) number of turns is large (b) number of turns is less gar (c) plane of the coil is perpendicular to the magnetic field FDS, 2011) (@) area of the coil is small INDA, 2012] °K 85. Twometallic wires A and B are of same material and have equal length. (Pre) 206 Ifthe cross-sectional area of B is double that of A, then which oneamong the following is the electrical resistance of B ? (a) Twice that of A (b) 4 times that of A (9 Pthatof A (a) } that of A INDA, 2012] DA, 202) 86. Two thin convex lenses of focal lengths 4m and 8 em are separated iy . adistance of 4 cm in air. The combination will have ie fea length ? cm 2 (a) 4em (b) Bem (c) 12cm (a) NDA, 2012] ‘e) 2005) a4 ‘i is te y i remains constant : In the isothermal process which of the following aay density Uh ome c) pressure lemperature (b) heat © p jins constant : 8% In the adiabatic process which of the following rema 2! (a) temperature (b) heat (©) pressure (4) volume aa Scanned by CamScannerGeneral Science H ). For the adiabatic process ideal gas equation is exp, ” (@ p¥"= constant (b) pyr-t “PP88ed ag, (©) ptr" = constant (d) any of these 90. For the isothermal process ideal gas equation is expresseq { (@) PV=RT—b) Bert (©) PV=RT (a PV ap 91. A fan produces a feeling of comfort during hot weath, ij (a) ous body indiotes sioce heat in air NF Decatne @, (b) fan supplies cool air (6) conductivity of aie a! (d) our perspiration evaporates rapidly [ e, 92. Which one of the following statements is correct ? “my gy! (a) Only electrons reside inside the nucleus of an atom ! (b) Both electrons and protons reside inside the nucleus of wh (©) Only neutrons reside inside the nucleus of an atom e881) (4) Both protons and neutrons can reside inside the nucleus ofan, ) i INDA, @ 93, Gases have two specific heat capacities : uy ps Whi (2) oneat the constant volume and another at the constant pre @ (b) both at the constant volume = (©) both at the constant pressure (a) none of these o | The Carnot's engine takes heat : ; ® at constant temperature ® at constant volume @ (©) at constant pressure none of these 95, The Otto engine takes heat : # (a) at constant temperature (b) at constant volume alan (c) at constant pressure (d) none of these 5 9%. Entropy is the measurement of : () (a) disorder parameter (b) state of matter ®) s () molecular configuration (a) none of these @ The light is a: (a) transverse wave (b) longitudinal wave With 5 o both (d) none IRRB ASM/CG204) a 8. The ratio of velocity of X-rays to that of . (a) is<1 ist wees {) (@) depends upon the ratio of their frequencies INDA. 200 99. The velocity of ight in vacuum or air is i He oa m/sec {b) 3 10" m/sec” ¢) 3x 10° m/sec (d) 2x 10* m/sec (7PSC (Pre) 2005) wn, 100.On raising the temperature of the medium velocity of light: ay (a) increases (b) dec 4) (c) remains the same ene, 2m) (4) suddenly decreases [S5C: 101. Which one of the following pairs of raysis electromagneticianawe? | “Th @ Aes ‘gamma rays (b) Cathode rays and X-rays (c) Alpha rays and beta _ Y y rays (d) X-rays and gamma eal hy, 102. The magnetic lines of force due to ab: (a) intersect inside the body of the Tinea oe : Lu. a Scanned by CamScannerwow wisionias.met oPhysics rat neutral points only eee only at North and South [ses Gatespect at all Poles 8) Or gc resistance of a conduct; me Actis i IND, sett Eoeth ‘of the wite, area of cross. Secure S¢Pends tppon 7? the wire - SOF the wire and material of the wire and area of c i ” vnc of the wire FOSS-Section of the Wire but not on jal of the wire only bu (0 Mater rea of cross-section Of the et oP the length ofthe wire nor (4) Length of the wire only but neither on the area of the wire nor on the material of the wine Of cross-section of When X-rays are produced — INDA, 2010) 108 i ied at th heat is generat e target (b) heat is Yara, | Botonpertirc the pena ea abot atthe ” 201g) {g) biilliant light is seen at the target ie Which one of the statements given below is not ean TeSsute 15. (a) A vertical plane passing through the axis af hee su magnet cle the aerate ‘meridian ly Suspended ) Avertical plane passing through the axi ‘io © eilled the geographical meridian = 75° Fotation of the Earth is ic) The degree to which the magnetic field tees © Towns the relative permexbility of the median Sees (4) The relative permeability is not a dimensionless quantity a INDA, 2010] | 106.lfan object is placed at the centre of curvature of a concave intro te | position of the image is : (@) at the principal focus (b) between the principal focus and the centre of curvature (0) at the centre of curvature (d) beyond the centre of curvature ENDA, 2010] 107-The radius of curvature of a plane mirror 3.2004) (a) is zero (©) is infinity (c) can be anywhere between zero and infinity (d) none of the above INDA, 2010] 2010) N8The rainbow appears due to : (a) reflection (b) refraction (©) scattering (d) both reflection and refraction 2008) IRRB CG 2005] 'O®-The sky appears blue : (a) due to dispersion (b) due to refraction 2004) 7 (9 due to scattering (a) due to reflection [RRB 2004) we? “ae difasion of light in the atmosphere is due to: carbon dioxide @) dust particle is iC) helium (d) water vapour [JAS (Pre) 2003] ol a ina beaker filled with water appears raised. This phenomenon f) ts because of the property of son of light a reflection of light (b) refraction o! of light [NDA 2010] {otal internal reflection light | (d) interference Scanned by CamScannerwisionias-nmet wwe General Science 208 i s lass plate. a ; of ight falls ona transparent glass p Partoty ne pn vanfectedl The reflected.and refracted rays cq ipa, towach other for — mat (a) angle of incidence equal 10 90" (b) angle of incidence equal to zero (©) only one angle of incidence (d) more than one angle of incidence 113, A man with a dark skin, in com Parison with a man with, meta i ence whi itis and less cold (b) less heat ang Mote coig (c) more heat and less cold (4) more heat and more td INDA 114. Which one among the following denotes the fimallest temperane (a) 1"on the Celsius scale {b) Ion the Kelvin sen () 1° on the Fahrenhei (2) 1" on the Reaumur seq ISDA, 2 115.For shaving which type of mirror is used : " (a) concave mirror (b) plane mirror (©) convex mirror (d) none of these TBPSC Up boyy 116. When a body moves with simple harmonic motion, then the phoe wre between the velocity and the acceleration jg — F (b) 90" (©) 180° (a) 279° ‘ INA Zn U7 Anair bubble in water acts like a: (@) convex mirror (b) convex tens (©) concave mirror (d) 118. A body is throw; eoneave lens (UPPCS (Pm) x00) 'd then falls back on theywang {ts Potential energy is maxima (a) on the ground {) at the maximum height (ce) du ng the return journey (4) both on the ground ane atthe maximum height INDA. 2) 119. te the power of a convex lens is +2 diopter then the focal length of the lens is (9) 200m (6) 100cm © 50cm (4) 2em IBPSC (Pre} 194) Object is due to that colour which ) is not reflected (@) is scattered 14s ir) 194l not have the same dimension ‘ngth and height IDA. 200) "tS Of heat are respectively ? Al ind (b) copper (Cu) and aluminium ( Sand gold (au) (g) copper (Cu) and sold (A Scanned by CamScanner a whid at (3 1Z.Hair watet @v ft 13.Whic 1 1 61 ' WE \ (d) "3.Who (a) ¢ "Oho (ayywee wisi i -_vWisionias.net anon ~ 29 ental colours are: dred (b) blue, 0h yellow = fa (a) bie Bee and red a Mow. Bree" IMP CaN, ad green (Pre) 2004, RRB TC 2005) «rest on the surface of the earth, Which is is correct regarding this ? emen' owns is meting on the body ) No Oi “at of the body acts on it ) only award force is equal to the net upward force 0 ee fof the above statements is correct fa, 2009 @ een peats faster than a standard pendulum. In order to brin, apenatindard beat, the length of the pendulum is to be : 8 iio the ed (b) increased rete andthe mass ofthe bab increased @ Cad gnd also the mass of the bob reduced INDA, 2010) @) ger the following, statements acon sky appears blue due to poor scattering of blue wavelength | Gfvisible light. fed part of lig osphere- atmospnernce of atmosphere, there would be no scattering of light the a ae gky will look black ich of the statement given above is/are correct ? one among the ht shows more scattering than blue light in the we only (b) Land 2 only (o) 3only¢ (d) 1,2and3 [€Ds, 2010} wrHairof a shaving brush cling together when the brush is removed from water due to fa) viscosity (b) surface tension (@ friction (d) elasticity ICDS, 2010] insWhich one of the following statements is correct 2 the angle of contact of water with glass is acute, while that of mercury with glass is obtuse (i) The angle of contact of water with glass is obtuse, while that of mercury with glass is acute {o) Both the angle of contact of water with glass and that of mercury with glass are acute {d) None of the above [CDS, 2010] {S.Who was the inventor of telescope ? (a) Galileo. (b) Gutenberg (c) Edison (q+) Graham Bell [UPPCS (Pre) 1994) TLWho was the inventor of radar ? a Robert Watson (b) Fleming () Bush Wall (d) Austin [BPSC (Pex) 2008) luman eyes are : {) converging lenses of variable focal length « aeeteing lenses of fixed focal length Vt ta) gectBing lenses of variable focal length iii rging lenses of fixed focal length } Scanned by CamScannerVvisionias.nect re = General Science clear rea, of heavy water ina nui Sein raeraon eed of neutrons ee eS cool down the & atop the nuclear reaction 'ctOr isto : (Sarg py! between a CFL and a LED tang 5°47 hy wns fer ies se iment mercury vapour an} Pho % a * BE D lamp uses acanleonductor material or % j a The averse life span of a CFL is much longer than tact, 3 nee t as compared to an LED @ CEL is less energy-efficient as co i @ Which ot the statements given above is/are correct 9 lamp 2 (a) Lonly (b) 2 an 3 onl wl (©) 1and 3 only . (4) 1,.2ana3 (CSAP py ay 0 the following statements : ® ee are tin falls frequency are actually produced LoUgh te wue| op . length. — vex 2 Soul through the rocks only transmitted in the form tong 3 i ves. Whichone oft the following of the above statements is, /are true. © (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 (©) Land 2 both ( (4) Neither 1 nor2 1 eta * 135.Consider the following statements : A person with myopia can see distant objects distinctly Butcaryg ATR see nearby objects clearly, a) 2. A person with hypermetropia cannot See distant objects clearly, @ A person with preshyopia con Seenearby objects without conti, it glasses. Which of the statements given above is/are not correct ? 15.” (a) 1,2and3 (b) Land 2 only @ () 2and 3 only (a) 3 only [cD 29 ( 136. The phenomenon of interference can be obtained by Mert (a) two independent sources of light fa (®) two virtual and coherene sources of light « (©) any two sources whatever be the wavelength or frequency of he WA light waves ‘A (d) None of these (a 487.The visible range of solar tadiation is ; (« (2) 100-400 nm (©) 400-700 nm () 740- 10000 um (@) none of these (psc (relat! Ugg 138.The electrification ina body takes place due to: o (a) electron (b) Positron (c) proton (d) neutron & 139. Be force acting on Particle execu ting simple harmonic motions a (a) directly Proportional to the displacement and is directed away fo" ( the mean Position nits « (0) inversely Proportional to the displacement and is directed tow & @ @ mean Position rom? T ‘) directly Proportional to th rected away & mean poereee '¢ velocity and is direct : Scanned by CamScannerwow wisionias.met Physics, Re 1 i a inversely Proportional to the ye} ‘ To, j (0) rrean position Ocity and is directed towards he hy the sunlight passes through the atm, (CDs, 2010) Pha! |e at particles of dust, pollen, soot and one Taysare scattered Mh | resent there. However, when we look Up, the she Paticular matters oF, | Prd-day, because he SKY appears blue during ue light is scattered most : hp, @ Ss lightis reflected most © Me lights absorbea most {@) ultraviolet and yellow component of sunt MILA passenger in a moving train tos behind him, then the train must b | (a) acceleration F sunlight combine (cps 2010) Ses a five rupee coin. Ifthe coin falls © Moving with a uniform ‘ (b) deceleration Pa (©) speed £0 vektcly ¢ 142.Non-metals are bad conductors of electricity because : balay (a) they lack free or mobile electrons (b) they have light atoms (c) they have high melting points (4) All of these 49An object weights the maximum in : 2am (a) air (b) water (©) hydrogen IDs, 2010] (d) vacuum UPSC (Pre) 2011) tring 'a.The pressure exerted on the ground by a man is greatest (a) when he lies down on the ground y (b) when he stands on the toes of one foot ‘tite (c) when he stands with both feet flat on the ground (d) all of the above yield the same pressure ICDs, 2010) 145.Which one of the following is not needed in a nuclear fission reactor? (a) Moderator (b) Coolant ug (©) Accelerator (d) Control device 146.The shortest unit of length is : (a) micron (b) nanometer (c) angstrum (d) fermimeter /UPPCS (Pre) 2005] 'N7.An endoscope, used by doctors for examine the inside of a patient's stomach, works on the principle of : (CDs, 2010] (a) reflection of light (b) dispersion of light _ ; (0) refraction of light (d) total internal reflection of light [PSC (Pre) 2011] M8.1f two conducting spheres are separately charged and then brought in contact : {a) the total energy of the two spheres is conserved io the total charge on the spheres is conserved fi (c) both the total energy and charge are conserved | (4) the final potential lealways the mean of the original potential of the two spher NDA, 2010] "The electrolyte is y is: lyte in a car battery is: smart ) hydrochloric aci (b) sulphuric acid © ae lore acid (a) distilled water (BPSC (Pre) 1998] ~_ Scanned by CamScannerinventor of voltaic cell : 1 ciguedn Franklin (®) thomas, 8 Alizendro Voltas ‘ (da) nae i ic wire having equal length ang Te ee dea Gale The wo wine yl % Pl have different cross sections (b) have differe, tempers, (© beofdifferent materials (€) be of same densi Trai 152. The process of zinc lamination (coating) on n the iron is calleg. (a) galvanization (b) electroplating (c) ionisation (gy None Uharkhand poo ae ison i, The ‘absolute zero of temperature’ is ne starting point of any scale of temperature / (b) the lowest temperature that is theoretically Possible (©) the temperature at which the vapours of all liquig Stag, reeze (a) the temperature at which all substances exist in the Vapour, : PSC te) ‘One astronomical unit is the average distance between ne the Sun (b) the Earth and the Moon (©) the Jupiter and the Sun (d) the Pluto and the Sun DPSC Prey), 155.Fish can survive inside a frozen lake, because (a) fish are warm-blooded animals (b) fish hibernate in ice (©) water near the bottom does not freeze (A) ice isa good conductor of heat IPSC (Pre) 21 156. The S.1. unit of electric flux is : (9) Nm?/coul. (6) N coul/m? 157.Ahollow metal ball carrying an elec at points ? (a) outside the sphere (©) inside the sphere 158.The filament of an electric bulb is (©) Nm*/coul? (d) Noneotthse triccharge produces no electric felt (b) on its surface (d) only at the centre INDA 2 made of ; (a) copper (b) iron (c) lead (d) tungsten IRRB ASM/GG 2008, 2005, UPPCS Pe) 28) 159. The coil in a heater is made of ? (a) Nich chrome (6) Tungsten (©) Copper (a) trot a 160.Stephen Hawking is a: (a) Pianist is ; x (b) Guitarist (©) Scientist (d) American politician ai) 161. The ome 6 | Mos! familiar formof radian insunti ad ‘adiant enerpy in ¢ hat causes (aati oF human skin genet Snght hal (2) ultraviolet radiation () visible radiation (©) infrared radiation (d) microwave radiation Kb a, "pal Scanned by CamScanner wisionias.nmet Are y General Scfonce "aE each of 100 watt remain switched a3 ©n fo) sf 10 electricity consumed ee) 1OOKWh Ceo amn or Thour days then | ‘i u : me (d) 10 kWh My swho was ota of the lightning conductor 9 4SY/0G 2004 ON Cait yO Lotter . insteis saittingonarotating stool withhisarmeeutst eee oe / Oo 20047 , arm the angular Velocity of the men wane et suddenly | N pce (b) decrease me 2er0 (d) remain constant ponies ‘of the following is a paramagnetic? (a) nickel (b) cobalt (©) chromium —(d) cop; per Ny hich one of the following is diamagnetic ; eee . Reon (b) bismith (©). nickel (€) cobalt HAS (Pre) 1998] | g-The magnetic effect of electric current was firstly ob yi ty Henry (b) Oersted (6) Paredsy’ (a) vn IRRB ASM/GG 2005] NDA, 2010} ty s68Who discovered the electric bulb ? (a) Thomas Edison (b) Alexander Graham Bell (c) William Cook (d) Terry Edison (MPPCS (Pre) 2011] o.Who invented thermoscope an early form of thermometer ? (a) Sir Christopher Wren (b) Charles F Richter (c) Beno Gutenberg, (d) Galileo IMPPCS (Pre) 2011) 17.Who gave the theory of gravity ? (a) Charles Newton (¢) Issac Newton \7].Lenz’s law is directly related to: (a) energy conservation () momentum conservation 12.Cloudy nights are warmer than clo (a) green house effect (©) infrared radiation (b) Charles Babbage (a) John Adams [MPPCS (Pre) 2011 (b)_ mass conservation (d) none of these ad free nights because of ? (b) depletion in ozone layer (d) land surface radiation INDA 2010] 173. Who was the inventor of neutron ? (@) Rutherford (b) Thomson (ce) Chadwick (a) Newton [UPPCS (Pre) 1995, 1996, Jharkhand PCS: (Pre). 2003) 174Fora particle revolving in a circular path, the ‘acceleration of the particle is: 2B along the tangent (b) along the radius ‘) zero. 2010) me along the circumference of the circle INDA, 2010] Thesize ofthe atomic nucleus isin the order ol? iy gS metet 10" meter ¢b) 10° meter (c) IO? MET ep gsns/GG 2004) —_ Scanned by CamScannerwisionias.nmet Are General Science 26 . itron ? Pa Who was the inventor of positron ? ; oft eG Rutherford () Hi Thomson (©) Chadwick » Ang ere i ; Magy 0), 3 177. The antiparticle of the electron is called : AR, oe) it (b) neutrino (c) meson i io Sy (a) positron ; ®) any a 178. Who was the inventor of neutrino ? 6, e) ait’ (a) Pauli (b) Fermi (©) Anderson (a) yyy, 6 wore 179. Microwave oven consumes less power due to : a ve (a) small frequency of radiation (b) short Wavelength of , i o oe (©) large frequency as well as wavelength of radiatios Magy a) fot (d) small frequency as well as wavelength of Tadiation rn a pee 180. The sun is constantly radiating energy and yet is Surface oe By th He is nearly constant at 6000°C. The constancy of solar temperaty peo to: fs, hel (a) fission {®) black hole evaporation gy ful (©) fusion (4) radioactivity Nok an athe ee 181. Metal pipes used to carry water sometimes burst i Yeni Metal pipes ry trst in the winter Ty expeti fa) carb (2) water expands when it freezes eal! (b) metal contracts more than water 16 Teo (c) outside of the pipe contracts more than inside os (a) metal expands more than water ie 13600 whic 182. The mesons are : “— ) a (2) Positively charged particles (b) negativel i (©) neutral (€) Altor thege iB Pati 8 ec 183.If three identical resistors each of resistance + are connected ir ae th uheeguvalen tence of the three resistors will be: (9 ony, fa r (b) 7/3 (c) 3r (a) F INDAm 18¢in summer Feason a fan gives us relaxation because: " id ony @) our body radiat h ively in ai is) ei ty ra ates soe teat comparatively in air area (9) the conductivity of aris increased Mile dita ween ae roe he ve $ i The a ocitis of Krays anid rays is: (0) Radi ‘ = 1 sag, eP ENA on the ratio of theis frequencies ivoantd “The fore The nuclear force exists between. ans (a) proton — ° (2) ruck (©) neutron rots (0) proton — neutron © phot 187.In the following rays 1S Alotinade Alon meee YS Pair which one is found to be naturally elect” 4) a (a) B-rays and y ~ {9 bo © erays and pays (®) Cathode rays and X-ays oth ae nuclear force is ; (©) Xerays and trays NDA 4) mee ‘@) attractive and © bom 1) attractive but gen tePendent yf (©) repulsive and spin necPendent a) hy Pin dependent (d) None of these 0) Radic Scanned by CamScanner—- — MWow.visionias.met | Physics i - as | ' sorce remains influential (effet eT Oe ly sae 9% 107 ric lines of force produced throu; oun 4 16 et F igh a bar magnet : reins tne ae e eutral points of th @) Siay £095 “cross the north pole and south po of every natural radioactive element is : (b) silicon (c) bismuth — (d) sulphur of the following specific resistance of a conducting wire cross-sectional area of the wire and on the matter only nywhere in the cross any W! magnet on ce s si INDA 2010] e ive force (b) ‘ pvative (b) non-conservati con Due £ natural radioactivi 4 nomenon oF ivity was invented by : ott ene acqurel (b) Rutherford ve @ p.curie awit 60 (d) None of these enomenor. of aFETET radioactivity was invented by : igi Bierord (©) Madame 1) Newton (a) Dalton ee clement ‘on which the first artificial radioactive features were oi The Fimented ! . sre rbon (b) nitrogen (@)_ aluminium —(d) None of these actheend element ip carbon (on whi Onin? : Tengthof the wire, oithe wire ; 0) length of the wire, cross-sectional area of the wire but not on the matter of the wire . (@ only oF the matter of the wire but noton the length of the wire and orree-sectional area of the wire {@) only on the length of the wire an f the wire nor on the matter of the wire d neither on the cross-sectional [NDA 2010] area ol 9: The disintegration process of a heavy nucleus into two lighter nuclei is called : (a) Nuclear fusion (b) Nuclear fission (d) Mass loss [RRB 2003] (0) Radioactive disintegration nation of two lighter {the formation of a heavy nucleus by the combi nuclei is + (3) nuclear fission (b) nuclear fusion (a) chemical reaction (©) photoelectric effect {BAtom bomb is based upon the principle of : (b) nuclear fission (a) nuclear fusion 1S Bolliet theny (a) None ofthese /BP5C (Pr) 1998) Pyrogen bomb is based upon the principle of: Bags ston (p) nuclear fission aye neibem (a) None of these “oe types of waves are utilized in the night visionary equipment? oa (b) Micre wave eased wave (a) None of these [1AS (Pre) 2009) Scanned by CamScannervisionias.nect ree General Science laced, then Bee rotced on ihe tract (8) eat aboot by, etre atie target is being constant 34 Ehecinoce light is tobe seen on the target i tor is an example of : Wo, 4} 203.The nuclear reac or (2) uncontrolled figs: f/! (a) controlled fission 2) Racontoled fain | (©) uncontrolled fusion me, 204.The image of an object kept on the centre of curvature of ag = mirror is formed— in focus, (Sixteen main focus anc centre of curvature (c) between pole and infinity (d) none of these INA 205.Through a beaker containing water a coin kept inside it Seems 14) by ifted because of — | i heten of light sony (0), Teftaction of light (c) total internal reflection of light (d) interference of light INDA any 2PS Cobalt-60 is usually utilised is radiotherapy because of emission gf. (a) alpharays (b) betarays — (c) gamma rays (d) X-rays MAS Cre te 207.The fuel used in the breeder reactor is: (@) thorium = (b) uranium (c) deuterium (a) Uuranium-735 208. Atomic pile is used in : (a) the production of nuclear fission (b) the regulation of nuclear fission (c) the regulation of thermonuclear fusion (d) the atomic acceleration ISSC Graduate 200 209. Curie is the unit of : {a) radioactivity (b) temperature (c) heat (a) energy Pn the nuclear reactor, heavy water (D,) is used in the form of: (a) moderator (6) coolant (c) castodian (d) controller [RRB C208} 211. The mass-energy relation ig the conclusion of ; (b) general theory of relativity (2) special theory of relativity SSC Graduate 206] (@) quantum theory (©) arial theory of energy 212.The diode is a de {@) to flow in on, (c) not to flow ij vice which forces @ direction IN any direction the current : (b) to flow in both directions (d) None of these a3) IRRB Assist. Driver? 213-The radar is utilised for eae @ tia detection of Solar radiation(h) the observation of planets ° the detection of aircrafts, ships etc and for the path indicators | (d) the detection of the intensity Of the earthquakes (20) | 214.A three dimensional Photogra, (a) holograph ph is Prepared through : (©) Photochromatic process ) photography (d) radiography ‘ TOPECS (ee 1990 cOsH04 Scanned by CamScanner 24.Wh 26.WE @) WRet &) ©) 2 fa) fa) () a)Physicg swas the INVENtor of cog {a) Brune Rosi (b) Victor Hears? designed and fabricar, ©) Cop, 26) JH. Van Tassel eel the Firgy PE Mie rst Prot {@) PT-Phonsberth (by Wee YPC of Vin Met an ES eta aera ) Edis lewton, al laws 9 Is a araday SSC 200) c Nobel prize started by Ay ttxn!®) None 2 Aira (b) Telepitone | NSP who yet sin a sy Who was the inventor of te levision 2 IRRB Cong DY RaMite Me) WeRamase (b) Rober Mae) re Mee ay ‘The Wright Brothers were the; Bevard (ay Johnson BN) telescope (b) radia’ MMENIOrs of RRC ay {a) telescope io 2 eee ys was invented by : {) clevator piacrays : iS ) Hopkins (©) "Roentgen (6) starony ‘ il) My IRRB Gc % lorse ypWho developed the atom bomb ? RB CG 2003 OPPS ee 2005 (q) Beamor Bon Bron (©) 5}. Robe, ; . Robert . (©) Adberd Taylor } Leber Opa Hema 23.Who developed the missile ? 15SC 202 (a) Bernor Bon Bron (b) J. Robert (c) Adberd Taylor () Samual Cah 24.Who developed the hydrogen bomb ? = {SSC 2002) (a) Bernor Bon Bron (b) J. Robert 0; He " (0 Adberd Taylor (a) Samual Cohen "2 4¢SSC 2002) Z5Who was the inventor of electron microscope ? (a) Nol & Ruska (b) Robert Koach (c) Leewan Hock (4) CP. Swansun 1S8C 2004) 26Who was the inventor of scooter ? (a) Brad Shaw (6) Damlar (c) Einstein (a) Formich IRRBASM/GG 2005) Relative humidity is measured by : (2) Hydrometer (b) Hygrometer (©) Lactometer (a) Potentiometer [UPPCS (Pre) 1996, CPO S1 2003] “Which one of the following is used in measuring altitudes ? ee (2) Barometer (b) Plane meter (c) Altimeter (2) Hina The de ss ‘ wed © through which the intensity of the sunrays is meas (0) Astrometer (b) Chrescograp! [RRB GC2003 © Barometer {d) Actiometer Soar radiation is measured by/. ter (4) Manometer ©) Pyrometer (b) Astrometer (c) Barome Scanned by CamScannerwow wisionias.met General Science 218 231. The device through which the depth of the sea is mea, ie id wave : by o nadar (b) Sonar (©) Altimeter (4), fy "ent Is 232. The use of thermostat is : sco (a) to measure temperature (b) to increase temperaty te (c) tokeep constant temperature (a) to convert temperature into electricity (Pcs, J 233. The radiator of vehicles are used fits heat the engine toprevent the (Se necp coat the engine (4) None of these "lit zy The device to record and to reproduce the detection of the ny called : (a) Audiophone (b) Detectophone (c) Gramophone (d) 14 ; IRRBASM ee 235.The law of floatation was invented by : nN (a) Newton (b) Wright Brothers (c) Galileo (4) Arc ERRB Diset ase 236.In isobaric and isochoric thermodynamical processes : aay (@) pressure and volume remain constant (b) volume and pressure remain constant (c) pressure and temperature remain constant (a) None of these 237.In the adiabatic process, which one of the following remains cons (a) heat (b) entropy —_(c)_ Both of these (d) Nonectttey \ 238.In the ideal gas which type of energy is absent : | (a) Kinetic energy (b) Potential energy (c) Both of these (d) None of these 239.The thermodynamical definition of an ideal gas implies that its only temperature dependent and independent of its volume; itis te statement of : (a) Joule's law (b) Joule-Kelvin's (c) Wein's law (d) Stefan's law 240.In the porous plug experiment which one of the following physic quantity remains constant : (a) enthalpy —_(b) entropy (c) Both of these (d) Noneotthex 241.Which one of the following has maximum energy ? (a) Violet light (b) Greenlight (c) Redlight (4) Yellow! as Pr) 242.The external work done is the maximum for the thermodynsn expansion of which one of the following process : (@) adiabatic (b) isothermal (c) isobaric _() isechowe 243,The energy radiance is maximum for the lowest wavelength Fg (a) Wein's law (b) Stefan's law (c) Planck's law (d) Nonecl tes 244, Temperature upto the order of 10°K is measured through: (a) Thermometer (b) Pyrometer (©) Thermocouple (a) None of these Scanned by CamScannerwow wisionias.met | no | apsorbers are good emitters. This 6 rehhotts law 's the statement of : 1) freon theory of heat exchange fon’ Law (4) Wein’s law © hich one of the following thermometrie sca a empersture messes “ales only positive a remodynamical scale (b) plati i 6) cxisius scale {@) Platinum resistance seal he Bernoulli's theorem is : # 3 energy conservation (wy) | 2) posh these (@) None ofthe” sgcin which one ofthe following is the 9 ea tpe ale of O°C speed of sound the maximum ? a i (b) in the air of 100°C (o inthe water (A) inthe wood jiAs (rm)20 ; a vcolertannel is made along the diameter of thee ak 2 uly released then : rarth and a piece of stone © IM. Pt will execute SH! ©) it will execu (3) thereis no specific motion (4) None of these ns mt ste tne period of the revolution of the geostationary satellite around the earth is ja) equal tothat of the earth ——_(b)_ twice that of the earth (©) equal tothat of the moon (4) None of the above ns constig, 21-The escape velocity of anybody on the earth’s surface is equal to Nonectthee ‘how many times the orbital velocity of the same body on the eart 5 surface: _ (2) 2tim (b) /2 times (©) 3 times (d) No any relations exists fae 382. 1 abody is revolving around the earth's orbit with its usual velocity, its then what would be the minimum energy required to let it escape from me; His be the orbit : (a) double of its orbiting energy (b)_/2 of its orbiting energy (©) tripleof its orbiting energy (d) None of these Newton's formula for the velocity of sound is wrong because of his ng physi consideration about the propagation of sound as: (a) anisothermal process (b) an adiabatic process Toneottes () Both of these (@) None of these Laplace made a correction in the basic formula of velocity of sound given by Newton and evaluated the correct value by considering that sound propagation is : (2) an isothermal process (b) an adiabatic process (©) both of these (d) none of these 355.Inthe formation of a stationary wave which one of the following process does not occur : @) energy transmits from one place to another (6) energy remains confined within the space (©) nodes and antinodes form consecutively (8) None of these Scanned by CamScannerGeneral Science ofthe following is true about thes 256, Whitt Sformed by the superposition of tre ea A ay, a) isso Pee formed by the superposition OF two equal iy Ae ore premeeoae Propagarie’! an wh ~~ 0 fr @ ayo Peabore 5 * © of the (@ None pipes (air columns) are sweater than lose Og 257.Open riot pases ent in open orga \ # nica are present in OPED Organ pipes Gl see present in closed organ pipe! whey “ ti harmonies are present in closed OTB pcs, wh Bint Of ononiaare postert event organ pipes Me ; fen ead spesaremavenens Lo low than dose yh site We of the following effect is also called Eat = g ISOM effec rt (a) Photoelectric effect (b) Thermionic ¢ ‘ ission we (c) Both of these (4) None of these Ne 259-Photoeleciric effect occurs only in the light of . yo ard any wavelet {i Eeshold wavelng, Eee (©) any of these (A) None of these if} $ y i ‘ 5 i The famous photoolectric effect was fully explained on the @ =e Quantum theory (b) Wave theo; be saviich (©) both of these (2) None of these 0) st 261. Which of the following indicates the lowest temperature? @ (a) on 1°C Celcius scale (b) on 1K scale abr (c) on 1°F scale (4) 071° R scale we 262.If a body executes SHM then the Phase difference of the velop, _ a acceleration of the body is— aa (a) o° (b) 90° (ec) 180° (d) 2° a a (rows | , Adit wep abote of the following pairs has not Identical dimension? Adin (2) potential energ duet ; density (c) focal length and hight re (d) Sravitational force ai (3) Bay ind frictional force NO WD 264. Athigh altitudes, Pressure cooker ig Preferable for cooking, because 0 Dit boiling point of water (No fa) reduces due to higher atmospheric pressure eta (b) teduces due to lower atmospheric preseure (han o increases due to teduced Sravitational force 9 bot Teduced increased ozone content in the atmospher ot Tih, fy en a pbiect having mass OF | kg is subjected to a force of IN#% ™ ? Oe (2) Peed of | m/s () a m/s (2) aspeed oft km/s 1, an P Aceeleration oF 19 m/s? (a) an acceleration of Tas by Scanned by CamScanner7 Physies zi «diving off a high springboard can perform a variety of Jet ce aie’ in the air betore entering the water below, Which one of the enero parameters will remain constant during the fall ? "8 i es linear momentum, ay The a moment of inertia ib) we athe 's kinetic energy ©) Theathlote’s angular momentumy IEDS, 2010} id apparent weight of a steel sphere immersed in various liquids is, Ihe or using @ spring balance. The greatest reading is obtained for me theta the smallest density (b)_having the largest density a nchich the sphere was submerged deepest . {iy having the greatest volume asa semiconductor has aM negative temperature coefficient {hy poutive temperature coefficient |.) both positive oF negative temperature coefficient Ah) None of these jwo most popular semiconductors which are frequently used in solid sate electronic devices are (a) Germenium and Silicon (b) Germenium and Carbon {o) Silicon and Carbon (d) None of these one of the following is the purest form of semiconductor (b) extrinsic (d) Noneof these Prin paype of semiconductor the current mainly flows due to : fa) electrons (b) holes (0) both of these (d) none of these PU In type of semiconductor the current mainly flows due to (b) holes (0) both of these (d)_ none of these 2) Aditiraction pattern is obtained using a beam of red light, Which one among the following will be the outcome if the red light is replaced by biue light > 8) Bands disappear ») Dittraction pattern becomes broader and further apart ‘s) Diffraction pattern becomes narrower and crowded together 4) Nochange ICDs, 2010) 4 The transistor acts like + ‘a) an amplifier (b) an oscillator __ (6) both of these (d) None of these *S Which one of the following statements is true ? ©) Temperatures differing by 25” on the Fahrenheit (F)scale must differ 45° on the Celsius (C) scale (es pe correspands to -32°C 1p nperatures which differ by 10" on the Celsius scale must differ iq) bY US’ on the Fahrenheit seale ater at 90°C is warmer than water at 202°F ICDs, 2010} Scanned by CamScanner () orwowew wisionias.mct m2 General Science 276.To operate through any laser it is common to ach, (a) population inversion Da rit? achieve (©) asuper excited state @ Now Stang 277-Which one of the following is marked os thea tubelight 7 * comm, on wa Za (&) 273K (©) 6500 aL 278.Which of the followin, is the math ia) thermodynamics: © athematical Statement 6,8 Ao @) dQ= Td “() d= TQ (~) TU = 4g tt 279. The ratio of the specific heat capacities Of diatomic) Nee," os (a) 133 (b) 1.44 ©) 1.66 mn: My S08, N y ANSWERS Se es g2 2@ 30 4a) 5, rs 20 W@ @ we 13 4 Za, Bee Y-() 18. (4) 19.) 20.0) 37D) 22.) Bw gh “om 25. (b) 26. (c) 27. (©) 28. (b) 29, (©) 30. (6) 3-0) ions tO 34 ©) 35. G@) 36.0) 37 0) aa OMS BO 20) B@ we) eo 7 OO Se) 20 sy So Zo a) oO BO 2) O@ em fo Sah Jie 73, (0) §6. (b) 67. (e) 68 (@) 69.) a o 8 ey Ho! 73. (a) 74. (d) 75. (a) 76 (a) oe (a) 78. (c) 55) May Srverst Si (@) 82. d) 83. () 84 (ay 6 ) BO DG a 89. (a) 90. (a) 91. (a) 99 a 93. @ oe i a a prepout 87. (@) 98. (c) 99. (<) 100. (a) 101, (4) 102. (a) 13, q) AY bist 405. (c) 106. (b) 107. (b) 108. (4) 109, (©) 110. 6) in Md eather 113. (©) 114. (b) 115. (@) 116, (b) 117. @) ia @) 19.) gy istast toa, 2) 222 G@) 125.) 124) aos.) Hee 7.0) ae 129. (a) 130. (a) 131. (a) 132) (a) 133. (a) 134. (b) 135, (@ a study 0 187. (b) 138. (a) 139. (6) 140. (a) 141, (4) 142 (a) 143. (@) yey planets 145. (c) 146. (b) 147, (a) 148. (d) 149. 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(b) 263. ro) Balas” 265. (d) 266. (d) 267. (c) 268. (a) 269. (a) 270. (a) a Sing, 273. (b) 274. (c) 275. (c) 276, (a) 277. (c) 278. (a) D2 4 cues a> Scanned by CamScanner7 wow wisionias.met 02. Astronomy —Zpevelopment of Astronomy; o :Natural sci i Astronomy lence which de; e sttritional features of the celestial eget s various branches ofastronomy like Astro} asirodynamics, Astrobiology etc. Universe or Cosmos : Our earth, space and jw galaxy, sun star, planet, comet etc. Present ine en eestial body like im universe or cosmos, while the study of these 1 curr collectively Our universe is made from billions of galaxies and eva ne tiions stars. These stars may have their own family like our ee gts sihich has eight planets including earth as a member of ees Solar system fa Eminent astronomers and their outstanding. comtsretara i bi Ptolemy's Geocentric theory : In 140 AD Ptolemy, a Grock astro audied about the universe and propounded the geocent tiie (Ea Kesar, theory. According to this theory the earth is confined at the commie ot le tniverse, while the sun and other planets revolve around the earth, Copernicus's Heliocentric Theory : A Polish astronomer Cope \ded the heliocentric (Sun + centric) theory in 1543 AD. Atconding to this theory the sun is confined at the centre of the universe, while re ath and other planets revolve around the sun. Thus Copernicus was the first astronomer who propounded planetary motion around the sun. Kepler's laws of planetary motion : J. Kepler (1571-1630) did rigorous study of the celestial bodies and their motion. He concluded that all the planets revolve around the sun in various elliptical paths. Galileo : Galileo (1564-1642) who was a contemporary of Kepler confirmed and supported the ideology and the comprehensive view of Kepler. The beginning of modern astronomy come into existence in 1609, when the refracting telescope was invented by Galileo. Galileo was the astronomer who discovered four satellitesof the planet Jupiter and sun spots in the sun, Galileo also asserted that the nearest star of the sun is proxima centuari. Sir Isaac Newton : British physicist New! ‘eflecting telescope in 1668 also contributed about the planetary molten the basis of the explained gravitational force-field theory. Later Newton * law of gravitation, which became the most fundamental and basic laws, was found tobe equivalent to Kepler's laws. Herschel : A British astronomer who stu space through telescopes and concluded that ‘enfined upto solar system but it innu! merable isjusta very Belay (a stellar body). There are unlimited galaxies a" infinitely and endlessly extended... with composition, moti ics is called astronomy, Thee Physics (Astronomy + physics), ton (1642-1727) who invented died the entire universe and ‘our universe is not only ry small partofour us our universe Scanned by CamScannerwisionias.nmet Are recession of galaxies: An Am, . ceeiiomeret ‘old that in the universe like oe Balan FE aalaiton. Latar ba 1595 Hubble on yo’ ( TE Oe eiinade, emcexted Gxat ony galaxies are acres (outwardly going) and these are gettin ate re valanees are increasing, This is the lave of on “ me Isac Asimov, an another astronomer did nop agtee he specilated that if the recession continues the. aoe en ae reco ther Gee Bpaed oF Balaxies will bo increase’ ih SS uilton light years later these galaxies wilh become invigipy le. Doppler’ shift : The recession of galaxies and yy. . iverse are the two consequences which were dete ane aa Doppler's effect and it is called Doppler's Shift. In other ty st phenomenon of red shift was accurately detected in the got" wing! ie pean fromthe galaxiesin the Yards ee allthewavetagt ig one light appeared to converge towards the Wavelength of the Ge : ; Wing i" des that our observed galaxy is recessing outwe es froma ae iieciseviolstcun hier isnot tobe detected be then oat obser a would seem to approaching our earth, ay ser Georges Lemiatre's Big Bang Theory (Origin of Universe) sing, 50 : Belgium based astronomer Abbe Georges (Grear+ explosion) gaye sus according to which billions of years ago an extremely Violent ey) ew occurredin whichpreliminary core substances phy pay ton andlept 70% H were seattered randomly. From these substances ouy ‘gal ora wet at along with ita number of galaxies were also formed vehi still cae ebm expanding. This concept of Big Bang theory is the MOSt reliable aur —inaloha and globally acceptable, wee Pulsating or Oscillating Theory of Universe : Thisis.a TW eval (adult) sta theory of the development of our universe. According to this thane i universe has been during expanding and contracting billions oye inthecon« respectively. Dr. Alan Sunddas e speculated that about 120 crore yeanap into tiny Occurred and since then our uriverels Id continue until 290 Crore years Tht and conse an extremely violent explosion been expanding and this wou yt ity i : The heavenly bodies appearing in the fgg falaxies, stars, plane , * satellites, comets etc. are called celestial bare Urinat Galaxy : Galaxy is the la est group of the stars which are bout! Final ¢ appreciable Sravitational forces and that's why a galaxy ise » ty SMunental universe. Also ine galaxy there are unlimited and Cae logs tihich are not visible but a no Of them appear at night inthe dats setae the form of arch In overs BEclony despite the presence of igs ea, 7M St Particles and gases.) also present. Our galaxy i§ ta TS, 2% dust Particles and 1%, other gases. Scanned by CamScannerad wow wisionias.met ‘Astronomy ly from the structural point of aland Irregul View the 2s gpieal, Elliptic ‘gular. Among ; Te are three Pit ptical and 3% are irregular. 'Gall the galaxies gs YPC? Of Bala are spiral, 175% alaxy ~ milky way is a spiral 0B g nearest galaxy is Andromede sot S810%Y. After our ny) 7 Ose it NN. ar Galaxy (Milky way) : Our solar spare Pe aso pak” HY tiscalled Milky way. This milky way isa menu ts 2 Member sat called local group. Our galaxy (mile eee oF Soup OLS Ny ni iver of lowing light in the sky but inean? a ars very fasinaene, swinkling stars. ‘ality itis composed of billy b 2 posed of billion Constellation : Usually there are countless st hom are not distinctly visible, but a few of them men tne SKY and most of ning starswhich havesomespecificshapesandsn ca Sou Of extremely ff aspecial group of stars and itis called constellating ee om POSEN ‘There are various constellations which exist ino Major-Great Bear, Ursa Minor-Little Bear, Orion Grant enny ne Ua Dragon, Cygnus-Swan, Hercules, Hydra, Centaunic oc tte Draeo- ae rtellations have been detected and identified and the iy ea fate {eCentaurusin which there are 94 stars. The Constellation byte eee ice Constellation Hydra has nearly Stars: The starsare those celestial bodies which have thei duce with itecg: like the sun which is asta Moszotiie cae ciel ie with ite-g sun s stars are compose of 70% Hy, 28% He, 1.5% carbon, N, and Ne and 0.5% Fe and othere ber LEFF F 4ae2 ww nee weight. The stars always exist in group and raresareisolated. There are 33%, binary stars, about 42% stars are found to be in group, there are three stars in alpha century and six stars in caster. The stars have various life spans, some of these are adults, some are of moderate life and rest are in mortal stage. Thus stars originate, emit energy and develop theirself in a mature adult) stage and ultimately die. Origin & Evolution ofastar:H, and Hegasesin the galaxy compressed inthe condensed formbegin thelifecycleofastar which ultimately transform into tiny oort clouds. These clouds start to shrink or compress due to their own gravitational pull and a rigorous inner mechanism starts to activate and consequently this gaseous cloud is converted into star. This contracting condensed gaseous cloud is called proto star. Due to the contraction in proto star the number of collisions among the atoms of gaseous cloud largely increases and consequently temperatire is abruptly raised. The process of contraction in a star continues for approximately about one billion yearsand internal temperature isextremely increased. This at this tenaperature a thermonuclear process starts and 1 f : Pine vJeuswhich transforms itinto He. lusion nuclear reaction takes place in H,, nucleus wh ae Ultimately the internal temperature and pressure are extreme ps ate Final stage of a star's life : Whenever aH, nucle transort Oe agate starts to expand which is the basic characteris © possiblity am imately star becomes red, called Red Giant. is 2 Per giant inthe Speculation that our star (the sun) would be converted in! "ext 5 billion years. Scanned by CamScanner