Nicolaus Copernicus

He is a Renaissance man that has knowledge in the nature of the universe. He also resembled the Greek ancient philosophers
or thinkers and he did not do anything extensive such as observing heavenly bodies or inviting people to test his ideas. His ideas were
example of presently know as thought experiment.

Copernicus was strongly influenced by a book entitled Epitome published in 1496 by Johannes Mueller. Copernicus's idea and
model of the universe was complete in 1510. He circulated a summary in a manuscript called Commentariolus (little commentary).

His book entitled De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) in 1543 cited as the start
of scientific revolution. In his book, Copernicus placed the Sun to be the centerpiece of the universe but the moon still be seen orbiting
the Earth.

The model also outlined two kinds of planetary motion: 1. The orbits of Venus and Mercury lay inside the orbit of the Earth,
thus closer to the sun; 2. The orbits of Mars, Saturn and Jupiter lay outside the earth's orbit.

He also works on the length of time it will take for each planet to orbit once around the Sun and the result was Mercury with the
shortest year, and the remaining planet with longest year.

One great problem in his model was the position of the stars because it cannot be placed in a fixed position like crystals in a
distance sphere.

He is famous of his theory of evolution. He spends time taking long walks to observe his surroundings while collecting
specimens. He studied medicine and ministry as what his father wants to imposed to him but one of his professors recommended him
to join a five-year voyage through the HMS Beagle on the Islands of Galapagos.

He published his book The Origin of Species in 1589. This book presented evidence on how species evolved over time through
traits and adaptation that differentiate species. His extraordinary observational skills moved beyond the realms of plants and animals
into the realms of humans.

-HMS Beagle

Charles Darwin

His book The Descent of Man was so impressive and controversial that introduced the idea of all organic life, under the realm of
evolutionary thinking.

Darwin's major contributions in this field was evolutionary biology and philosophy of science done by observation and
experimentation.

Sigmund Freud

He is famous in the field of psychology. He gathered reliable data to study human's inner life through observational method,
known as method of psychoanalysis. Through this method he studied human mind and neurotic illness.

His method was unorthodox- focusing on human sexuality and evil nature of man. He has also contributed his knowledge in
human scene, including art, literature, philosophy, politics and psychotheraphy.

Cradles of Early Science

Mesoamerica includes the entire area of central America. The region is rich in culture and culture brought by the European
colonizers.

Maya civilization is one of the famous civilization lasted for approximately 2,000 years and known for their works in astronomy
and incorporated it in their temples and religious structures.

The example is Chichen Itza in Mexico that is situated at the location of the Sun during spring and fall equinoxes.

Mayan knowledge and understanding results to have knowledge in predicting eclipse and astrological cycles in planting and
harvesting.
Development of Science in Mesoamerica

-Chichen Itza in Mexico

They are also known for using two complicated calendar systems in measuring time. They also built hydraulic system with
sophisticated waterways to supply water.

The Mayans built looms for weaving cloth and devised a rainbow of glittery paints made from mineral, known as mica.

They are the first civilization to use a writing system known as Mayan hieroglyphics. They are also skilled in mathematics and
created number system based on the numeral 20 and developed concept of zero and positional value before the Romans did.

The second civilization is the Inca civilization. The following were scientific ideas and tools that helped them in their everyday
life:

Roads paved with stones Stone building

Inca textiles Calendar with 12 months

The first suspension bridge Quipu - system of knotted ropes

Irrigation system and technique in storing water

The last civilization was the Aztec civilization that contributes substantial in science and technology. The following are their
contributions:

Mandatory Education – early form of universal and inclusive education.

Chocolates – used it as currency so they give valued to cacao beans and this serve as tribute to their gods.

Antispasmodic medication – prevent muscle spasms and relax muscles.

Chinampa – technology used in agricultural farming.

Aztec calendar – enable them to plan activities, rituals and planting season.

Intervention of the canoe – light narrow boat used for travelling water systems.

Development of Science in Asia

Asia has the biggest continent in the world and home of many ancient civilizations. There are three great civilizations exist in
Asia: India, China and Middle East civilizations.

India

They are known for manufacturing iron and metallurgical works and iron steel is highly regard of the whole Roman Empire.

India also famous in medicine and one example is Ayurveda as a form of alternative medicine. They discovered medicinal
properties from plants and develop it cure for various illnesses. The Susruta Samhita, describes surgical and medicinal procedures.

They are also notable in the field of astronomy. They developed theories on configuration of the universe, spherical self-
supporting Earth and year of 360 days with 12 equal parts of 30.

The first 12 chapters of the book Siddhanta Shiromani covers topics such as: mean longitudes of the planets; true longitudes of
the planets; three problems of diurnal rotation; syzygies; lunar eclipse; solar eclipses; latitudes of the planets; rising and settings; the
moon’s crescent; conjunctions of the planets with each other; conjunctions of the planets with the fixed stars; and the paths of the Sun
and Moon.

They also tried to standardize measurement of length to a high degree of accuracy and designed a ruler, known as the
Mohenjodaro ruler.
 Indian astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata in his book Aryabhatiya, introduced algorithms of algebra, number of
trigonometric function, tables and techniques.

Brahmagupta, suggested the gravity was force of attraction and explained the use of zero as both a placeholder and a decimal
digit along with the Hindu-Arabic numeral system.

Madhava of Sangamagrama is also considered as one of the founder of mathematical analysis.

China

Chinese are known for traditional medicine. An example is the practice of acupuncture.

In technology, they developed compass, papermaking, gunpowder, and printing tools. They also invented iron plough,
wheelbarrow, and propeller. And also they designed different models of bridges and invented the first seismological detector and dry
dock facility.

In the field of astronomy, they made significant records of supernovas, lunar and solar eclipses, and comets.

Middle East Countries

This region dominantly occupied by Muslims. The Greeks texts create innovations and develop new ideas. But the Muslim
placed greater value in science experiments that plain-thought experiments.

Muslims scientist named Ibn al-Haytham is regarded as the Father of Optics because of his intromission theory of light.

Mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi gave his name to the term algorithm while the term algebra derived from
al-jabr.

Jabir ibn Hayyan a muslim chemist and alchemist is considered to be the Father of Chemistry.

In the field of medicine, Ibn Sina was the first physician to conduct clinical trials with two notable works in medicine, the Book
of Healing and The Canon of Medicine. He also discovered contagious nature of infectious disease and introduce the clinical
pharmacology.

The decline of this golden age of Islam started 11th -13th century due to the conquest of Mongols and destroyed their libraries,
observatories and other learning institutions.

Development of Science in Africa

The region is blessed with natural and mineral resources. Development of geometry was a product of the layout and ownership of
Egyptians living along the Nile River.

Egypt is the center of alchemy which known as medieval forerunner chemistry. They studied human anatomy and
pharmacology.

In astronomy, they used three types of calendars; lunar, solar and stellar.

Metallurgy is also known in the African region especially in building their homes, in agriculture and architecture purposes.

They also have Lebombo Bone which have been a tool of multiplication, division and simple mathematical calculation or a six-
month lunar calendar, the oldest mathematical artifact. They are good in four fundamental mathematical operations and have
knowledge in basic concepts of algebra and geometry.

Lebombo Bone in between Swaziland and South Africa