Policy and Practice

Global data on visual impairment in the year 2002

Serge Resnikoff,1 Donatella Pascolini,2 Daniel Etya’ale,3 Ivo Kocur,3 Ramachandra Pararajasegaram,4
Gopal P. Pokharel,3 & Silvio P. Mariotti3

Abstract This paper presents estimates of the prevalence of visual impairment and its causes in 2002, based on the best available
evidence derived from recent studies. Estimates were determined from data on low vision and blindness as defined in the International
statistical classification of diseases, injuries and causes of death, 10th revision. The number of people with visual impairment worldwide
in 2002 was in excess of 161 million, of whom about 37 million were blind.
The burden of visual impairment is not distributed uniformly throughout the world: the least developed regions carry the
largest share. Visual impairment is also unequally distributed across age groups, being largely confined to adults 50 years of age
and older. A distribution imbalance is also found with regard to gender throughout the world: females have a significantly higher
risk of having visual impairment than males.
Notwithstanding the progress in surgical intervention that has been made in many countries over the last few decades, cataract
remains the leading cause of visual impairment in all regions of the world, except in the most developed countries. Other major causes
of visual impairment are, in order of importance, glaucoma, age-related macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy and trachoma.

Keywords Vision, Low/epidemiology; Blindness/epidemiology; Vision, Low/etiology; Blindness/etiology; Cataract/complications;

Glaucoma/complications; Macular degeneration/complications; Refractive errors/complications; Cost of illness; Age factors; Sex factors
(source: MeSH, NLM).
Mots clés Baisse vision/épidémiologie; Cécité/épidémiologie; Baisse vision/étiologie; Cécité/étiologie; Cataracte/complication;
Glaucome/complication; Dégénérescence maculaire/complication; Troubles réfraction oculaire/complication; Coût maladie; Facteur
âge; Facteur sexuel (source: MeSH, INSERM).
Palabras clave Visión subnormal/epidemiología; Ceguera/epidemiología; Visión subnormal/etiología; Ceguera/etiología; Catarata/
complicaciones; Glaucoma/complicaciones; Degeneración macular/complicaciones; Errores de refracción/complicaciones; Costo de la
enfermedad; Factores de edad; Factores sexuales (fuente: DeCS, BIREME).

Bulletin of the World Health Organization 2004;82:844-851.

Voir page 850 le résumé en français. En la página 850 figura un resumen en español.

Introduction simplified population-based assessment methodology for

The first estimate of the global data on blindness was published visual impairment and causes (3), with some adaptation in a
in 1995 (1), based on the world population data for 1990. This few instances.
estimate was extrapolated to the 1996 world population, and In several countries rapid assessment of cataract surgical
to the world population and demographic shifts projected for services (RACSS) (4) has been conducted (see for example 5–8).
2020. These data provided the basis for the 1999 launch of the The results of these studies also provide general information on
Global Initiative for the Elimination of Avoidable Blindness, the status of visual impairment in adults 50 years of age and
which is known as “VISION 2020: the Right to Sight” (2). older. In addition to the RACSS surveys, many recent studies
Since the publication of the Global Data on Blindness have specifically targeted older adults.
in 1995, population-based studies on the prevalence of blind- The availability of new data has allowed the update of
ness and visual impairment have been carried out in nearly all the global and regional estimates of visual impairment and its
WHO regions. Most of these surveys have used the WHO causes.

Paper from: Programme for the Prevention of Blindness and Deafness, World Health Organization, 20 Avenue Appia, 1211 Geneva 27, Switzerland.
1
Coordinator. Correspondence should be sent to this author (email: [email protected]).
2
Technical Officer.
3
Medical Officer.
4
Consultant.
Ref. No. 04-012831
(Submitted: 2 March 2004 – Final revised version received: 15 June 2004 – Accepted: 25 June 2004)

844 Bulletin of the World Health Organization | November 2004, 82 (11)

 Policy and Practice
Serge Resnikoff et al. Visual impairment in 2002

Methods Table 1. Studies used for the global estimate of visual

Definitions impairment
The definitions for visual impairment, low vision and blindness
used in the present study follow those given in the International Subregion Studies
statistical classification of diseases, injuries and causes of death, 10th Afr-D Surveys from 13 countries (Benin, Cameroon,
revision (ICD-10): H54 (9) where: Cape Verde, Equatorial Guinea, Gambia, Ghana,
• visual impairment includes low vision as well as blindness; Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Sierra Leone,
• low vision is defined as visual acuity of less than 6/18, but Sudan, Togo)
equal to or better than 3/60, or a corresponding visual field Afr-E Surveys from 6 countries (Central African
loss to less than 20 degrees in the better eye with best possible Republic, Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya, South Africa,
correction (ICD-10 visual impairment categories 1 and 2); United Republic of Tanzania)
• blindness is defined as visual acuity of less than 3/60, or Amr-A Surveys from 1 country (United States of America)
a corresponding visual field loss to less than 10 degrees in
Amr-B Surveys from 3 countries (Barbados, Brazil,
the better eye with best possible correction (ICD-10 visual
Paraguay)
impairment categories 3, 4 and 5).
Amr-D Survey from 1 country (Peru)
Regions, subregions and population estimates Emr-B Surveys from 4 countries (Lebanon, Oman,
The classification of WHO Member States into 17 subregions Saudi Arabia, Tunisia)
was carried out according to the Global Burden of Disease 2000 Emr-D Survey from 1 country (Morocco)
Project (10); for details see Murray et al. 2001 (11). Eur-A Surveys from 7 countries (Denmark, Finland,
Estimates of population size and structure were based Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Netherlands, United
on the 2002 demographic assessment of the United Nations Kingdom)
Population Division (12), as used by theWorld health report Eur-B1 Surveys from 2 countries (Bulgaria, Turkey)
2003 (13).
Eur-B2 Survey from 1 country (Turkmenistan)
Sources of epidemiological data Eur-C No population-based surveys were identified
Recent survey results from 55 countries were selected (Table 1); Sear-B Surveys from 4 countries (Indonesia, Malaysia,
in some countries there had been several surveys. The selection Philippines, Thailand)
criteria were as follows: studies were population-based and rep- Sear-D Surveys from 4 countries (Bangladesh, India,
resentative of the area sampled. They provided: Nepal, Pakistan)
• clear, unequivocal definitions of visual impairment; both Wpr-A Surveys from 1 country (Australia)
WHO and non-WHO definitions of visual impairment
Wpr-B1 Surveys from 2 countries (China and Mongolia)
were acceptable if classifiable within the ICD-10 ranges of
visual loss; Wpr-B2 Surveys from 3 countries (Cambodia, Myanmar,
• cross-sectional design with a description of sample design Viet Nam)
and sampling plan; sample size; response rate; assessment of Wpr-B3 Surveys from 2 countries (Tonga and Vanuatu)
non-sampling errors; and
Afr, WHO African Region; Amr, WHO Region of the Americas;
• a description of ophthalmic examinations and visual acuity
Emr, WHO Eastern Mediterranean Region; Eur, WHO European Region;
testing. Sear, WHO South-East Asia Region; Wpr, WHO Western Pacific Region.

The 2002 Global update of available data on visual impair-

ment (14) was an important source of data. Results from as yet the two reports that had used criteria for grouping of countries
unpublished surveys that met the relevant criteria were also similar to those used in the WHO classification of subregions.
selected. In the case of countries for which data were scarce, In adults aged from 15 to 49 years the prevalences of
national sources were investigated. These included: ministries of blindness were estimated for each subregion according to the
health, national prevention of blindness programmes, academic mortality stratum:
institutions, regional WHO offices and consultants. The data • for subregions with mortality stratum A — 0.1%;
on childhood blindness were obtained from the report of a 1999 • for subregions with mortality stratum B or C — 0.15%; and
WHO scientific meeting (15), as well as from a comprehensive • for subregions with mortality stratum D or E — 0.2%.
review of available data (16).
(See 13 for the current assignment of mortality stratum to the
Estimates of prevalence WHO subregions.)
Prevalence of blindness (ICD-10 visual impairment These estimates were based on data from the studies
categories 3, 4 and 5) selected and on interpolations previously derived from the data
Prevalences for blindness (Table 2) were obtained for the 17 on childhood blindness and data for subjects aged 50 years and
WHO epidemiological subregions using a model based on the older (15).
data from the 55 countries listed in Table 1 and from other sourc- The prevalences for the age group 50 years and older were
es, as described below. The model estimated the prevalence of taken from population-based surveys. Prevalences calculated for
blindness for three age groups: children less than 15 years; adults the age group as a whole, adjusted for sex and age composition
from 15 to 49 years; and adults aged 50 years and older. of the sample and/or of the survey area, were used. For areas for
The prevalences of blindness in children were estimated which no data were available, prevalence was extrapolated from
for the 17 WHO subregions. This was done using the data from areas similar in terms of availability of eye and health care and

Bulletin of the World Health Organization | November 2004, 82 (11) 845

 Policy and Practice
Visual impairment in 2002 Serge Resnikoff et al.

Table 2. Age-specific prevalence of blindness and number of blind people, by age and WHO subregion, 2002a

WHO Prevalence of blindness (%) No. of blind persons (millions)

subregion <15 years of age 15–49 years 50 years <15 years of age 15–49 years 50 years
Afr-D 0.124 0.2 9 0.191 0.332 3.124
Afr-E 0.124 0.2 9 0.196 0.336 3.110
Amr-A 0.03 0.1 0.4 0.021 0.114 0.560
Amr-B 0.062 0.15 1.3 0.085 0.369 0.937
Amr-D 0.062 0.2 2.6 0.017 0.075 0.241
Emr-B 0.08 0.15 5.6 0.039 0.117 0.920
Emr-D 0.08 0.2 7 0.043 0.146 1.217
Eur-A 0.03 0.1 0.5 0.021 0.204 0.713
Eur-B1 0.051 0.15 1.2 0.020 0.136 0.462
Eur-B2 0.051 0.15 1.3 0.009 0.043 0.090
Eur-C 0.051 0.15 1.2 0.021 0.192 0.822
Sear-B 0.083 0.15 6.3 0.102 0.332 3.779
Sear-D 0.08 0.2 3.4 0.390 1.423 6.530
Wpr-A 0.03 0.1 0.6 0.007 0.070 0.315
Wpr-B1 0.05 0.15 2.3 0.162 1.166 6.404
Wpr-B2 0.083 0.15 5.6 0.041 0.120 1.069
Wpr-B3 0.083 0.15 2.2 0.002 0.006 0.017
World 1.368 5.181 30.308

Afr, WHO African Region; Amr, WHO Region of the Americas; Emr, WHO Eastern Mediterranean Region; Eur, WHO European Region; Sear, WHO South-East Asia
Region; Wpr, WHO Western Pacific Region.
a
Blindness defined as in the ICD-10:H54 tables refers to visual acuity in the better eye with best possible correction (see ref. 9).

epidemiology of eye diseases and services for which data were assumed also to be valid for low vision. All-ages prevalences of
available. Population size in different areas was estimated from low vision were calculated as described for blindness. The ratio
national census data; population structure was determined from of low vision to blindness was calculated. The mean value of
the United Nations estimate for that country. the ratios from 15 subregions was applied to the subregions
In other instances, the data from one area were estimated Eur-C and Wpr-B1 because ratios for these regions could not
to be representative of the country as a whole and applied to be calculated due to lack of data.
all the population. Finally, some surveys provided nationwide
results. Causes of visual impairment
For countries for which recent epidemiological data were The causes of visual impairment were ascertained from the
not available, the prevalence of blindness was extrapolated from cause attributions reported in the surveys listed in Table 1. Data
data collected in countries within the same subregion or from were available to determine causes of blindness in all subregions
neighbouring subregions that share similar epidemiological, except Eur-C. Due to scarcity of data, the causes of low vision
socioeconomic, ecological and eye care service characteristics. could not be quantified with confidence either at regional or
Age-group-specific prevalence was used to estimate the global level.
total number of blind people in each country of a subregion.
This number was then used to calculate the subregional preva-
lence of blindness. This method could not be applied to the Results
subregion Eur-C, as no suitable population-based surveys Prevalence and causes of visual impairment by
were available for any of the countries of this subregion: in subregion
this case the prevalences were assumed to be the same as for According to the model presented, based on the most recent
the subregion EurB1. available data, and using the ICD-10 definition of best-cor-
rected visual acuity and the 2002 world population, the
Prevalence of low vision (ICD-10 visual impairment estimated number of people with visual impairment was in
categories 1 and 2) excess of 161 million: 37 million were blind and 124 million
The prevalences of low vision for each subregion was estimated had low vision (Table 3). The ratios of people with low vision
from the same surveys as were used to determine the prevalence to those with blindness, by subregion, ranged from 2.4 to 5.8
of blindness. Owing to the paucity of data on age-specific preva- with a median value of 3.7. The leading cause of blindness
lence of low vision it was not possible to construct a model was cataract, followed by glaucoma and age-related macular
similar to that described above for blindness. Specific preva- degeneration (Table 4).
lences for both blindness and low vision were reported in 43
studies from 15 subregions; additional studies that reported data Distribution of visual impairment by age and gender
on low vision in children were also taken into account (17–20). Although childhood blindness remains a significant problem
The extrapolations between countries made for blindness were (there are an estimated 1.4 million blind children below the age

846 Bulletin of the World Health Organization | November 2004, 82 (11)

 Policy and Practice
Serge Resnikoff et al. Visual impairment in 2002

Table 3. Global estimate of visual impairment by WHO subregion, 2002a

WHO Total No. of Prevalence No. of people Prevalence No. of persons

subregion population blind people of blindness with low vision of low vision visually impaired
(millions) (millions) (%) (millions) (%) (millions)
Afr-D 354.324 3.646 1.0 10.715 3.0 14.361
Afr-E 360.965 3.642 1.0 10.573 3.0 14.215
Amr-A 322.309 0.694 0.2 4.029 1.2 4.723
Amr-B 456.432 1.392 0.3 7.600 1.7 8.992
Amr-D 73.810 0.332 0.5 1.488 2.0 1.820
Emr-B 142.528 1.076 0.8 3.580 2.5 4.656
Emr-D 144.405 1.406 0.97 4.116 2.9 5.522
Eur-A 415.323 0.937 0.2 5.435 1.3 6.372
Eur-B1 169.716 0.618 0.4 2.546 1.5 3.164
Eur-B2 53.130 0.142 0.3 0.590 1.1 0.731
Eur-C 239.717 1.035 0.4 4.219 1.8 5.254
Sear-B 405.313 4.214 1.0 9.669 2.4 13.883
Sear-D 1394.045 8.344 0.6 28.439 2.0 36.782
Wpr-A 150.867 0.393 0.3 1.883 1.2 2.276
Wpr-B1 1374.838 7.731 0.6 26.397 1.9 34.128
Wpr-B2 148.469 1.229 0.8 2.898 1.9 4.127
Wpr-B3 7.677 0.025 0.3 0.090 1.2 0.115
World 6213.869 36.857 0.57 124.264 2 161.121

Afr, WHO African Region; Amr, WHO Region of the Americas; Emr, WHO Eastern Mediterranean Region; Eur, WHO European Region; Sear, WHO South-East Asia
Region; Wpr, WHO Western Pacific Region.
a
Visual impairment defined as in the ICD-10:H54 tables refers to visual acuity in the better eye with best possible correction (see ref. 9).

of 15 years), its magnitude is relatively small when compared • extrapolations of survey results from a specific area of a highly
to the extent of blindness in older adults: more than 82% of populated and diverse country to the country as a whole;
all blind people are 50 years and older (Table 2). • reporting bias in the determination of causes of visual im-
The number of women with visual impairment, as esti- pairment in surveys designed for specific pathologies; and
mated from the available studies, is higher than that in men even • possibly non-standardized definitions of eye diseases, criteria
after adjustment for age. Female/male prevalence ratios indicate for diagnosis, examination methods and comorbidity.
that women are more likely to have a visual impairment than
men in every region of the world: the ratios range from 1.5 to To minimize the bias introduced by the limitations listed above,
2.2 (data not shown). the studies were selected according to the criteria described in
Methods. The extrapolations between countries were made
according to information gathered internally by prevention
Discussion of blindness programmes in the course of their activities
Limitations throughout the world. Country estimates were compared with
The model of visual impairment presented is based partly on the information from national sources to check for significant
population-based surveys and partly on assumptions: both inconsistencies.
sources place limitations on the accuracy of the estimates. Poten- For the age group 15–49 years it was assumed that preva-
tial sources of error arise due to one or more of the following: lences were similar in subregions with the same mortality stra-
• heterogeneity of the survey methods with regard to data tum. These prevalences were consistent with data from surveys.
collection and ophthalmic examinations, despite the use of Though small variations might exist between subregions they
the standardized WHO protocol (3); would not significantly affect the determination of the global
• extrapolations of data from different areas of a country to extent of blindness, because the contribution from this age
provide national estimates; group to the total is less than 15%.
• different estimates of population structure used in the sur- With regard to correction factors to determine preva-
veys; lences according to ICD-10 from different definitions of visual
• correction factors used to determine the prevalences of impairment, there were a sufficient number of studies reporting
best-corrected visual acuity in studies that used non-WHO data with both definitions to enable a table of conversion to
definitions; be calculated.
• extrapolation to present populations of prevalences deter- Most of the available data on low vision were for the age
mined in studies conducted over the last 5–10 years; group 50 years and older. If the ratio of low vision to blindness
• assumptions made in obtaining estimates of blindness for for this age group were applied to the population aged between
the age group 15–49 years; 15 and 49 years, this would greatly underestimate the magni-
• extrapolation of data for countries and regions for which no tude of the problem of low vision, because the ratio is higher in
data are available; age groups with a low prevalence of blindness. The data on low

Bulletin of the World Health Organization | November 2004, 82 (11) 847

 Policy and Practice
Visual impairment in 2002 Serge Resnikoff et al.

Table 4. Causes of blindness as a percentage of total blindness – by WHO subregion, 2002

Region Cataract Glaucoma AMDa Corneal Diabetic Childhood Trachoma Oncho- Others
opacities retinopathy blindness cerciasis
Afr-D 50 15 8 5.2 6.2 6 9.6
Afr-E 55 15 12 5.5 7.4 2 3.2
Amr-A 5 18 50 3 17 3.1 3.9
Amr-B 40 15 5 5 7 6.4 0.8 20.8
Amr-D 58.5 8 4 3 7 5.3 0.5 13.7
Emr-B 49 10 3 5.5 3 4.1 3.2 22.2
Emr-D 49 11 2 5 3 3.2 5.5 21.3
Eur-A 5 18 50 3 17 2.4 4.6
Eur-B1 28.5 15 15 8 15 3.5 15.0
Eur-B2 35.5 16 15 5 15 6.9 6.6
Eur-C 24 20 15 5 15 2.4 18.6
Sear-B 58 14 3 5 3 2.6 14.4
Sear-D 51 9 5 3 3 4.8 1.7 22.5
Wpr-A 5 18 50 3 17 1.9 0.025 5.0
Wpr-B1 48.5 11 15 3 7 2.3 6.4 6.8
Wpr-B2 65 6 5 7 3 3.6 3.5 6.9
Wpr-B3 65 6 3 3 5 9.5 4.3 4.2
World 47.8 12.3 8.7 5.1 4.8 3.9 3.6 0.8 13.0

Afr, WHO African Region; Amr, WHO Region of the Americas; Emr, WHO Eastern Mediterranean Region; Eur, WHO European Region; Sear, WHO South-East Asia
Region; Wpr, WHO Western Pacific Region.
a
AMD, age-related macular degeneration.

vision in children have been used when available. The extent 2002, an increase of 8.5 %. During the same period the size
of low vision worldwide is probably underestimated. of the population aged 50 years and older in these countries
No attempt was made in this study to perform uncer- had increased by 16%. The change in the number of people
tainty analysis. with low vision is more significant: there were an estimated
18 million people with low vision in 2002, compared to 10
Estimate of the global burden of visual impairment million in 1990. This figure represents an increase in unavoid-
The model presenting data by WHO region and mortality able causes of visual impairment linked to an increase in the
stratum, based mostly on recent surveys, is the best available size of the population over 60 years of age. One report has
estimate of visual impairment in 2002 (Table 5 (web version also suggested that older members of the population do not
only, available at http://www.who.int/bulletin) and Table 6). seek eye care (22).
The estimates had the added strength of being based on recent In developing countries, excluding China and India, 18.8
data available from countries with large populations. million people were blind in 1990 compared to 19.4 million
Because of the structure of the model, the percentage of in 2002, an increase of 3%. In China and India the estimated
the population in each of the three age groups weighs strongly on numbers of blind people in 1990 were 6.7 and 8.9 million,
the prevalence calculated for all ages. In 2002, the population 50 respectively; in 2002 there were an estimated 6.9 million blind
years and older, with the highest prevalence of visual impairment, people in China and 6.7 million in India. These figures indicate
represented more than 30% of the population in developed an increase of 3% in the number of blind people in China and
countries and 15% of that in developing countries (12). a decrease of 25% in India.
If the prevalence of blindness is taken as an indicator, all The world population in 2002 had increased by 18.5%
subregions with prevalences above 0.5% for all ages should be compared to that in 1990; the population 50 years of age and
considered for priority action according to WHO objectives older had increased by 30%. In developed countries the increase
(21). The eight subregions concerned (Afr-D, Afr-E, Emr-B, in the population aged 50 years and older was 16%; in devel-
Emr-D, Sear-B, Sear-D, Wpr-B1 and Wpr-B2) are home to oping countries, excluding China, it was 47%, and in China,
70% of the world’s population and contribute 85% of the total the increase was 27%. Taking into account these changes, the
number of blind people. extent of visual impairment in 2002 appears to be lower than
The extent of visual impairment in 2002 is not strictly in past estimates and projected extrapolations. The difference
comparable with the estimates from 1994 or with subsequent could be due to either an overestimate in previous projections
extrapolations, as the models were derived using different meth- or to underestimates in the present model; however, it is likely
odologies (1). While in 1990 there were an estimated 148 mil- that this change reflects the more accurate data now available.
lion people who were visually impaired, of whom 38 million Differences could also be the direct consequence of concerted
were blind, in 2002 the estimated number of visually impaired national efforts such as that made in India (23) and of the
people was 161 million, of whom 37 million were blind. improvements in factors such as political and professional com-
In the developed countries the number of blind people mitments to the prevention of blindness, the delivery of ser-
was estimated to be 3.5 million in 1990 and 3.8 million in vices, patient awareness, and socioeconomic development.

848 Bulletin of the World Health Organization | November 2004, 82 (11)

 Policy and Practice
Serge Resnikoff et al. Visual impairment in 2002

Table 6. Global estimate of visual impairment, by WHO region (millions), 2002

Afr Amr Emr Eur Sear Wpr

Population 672.238 852.551 502.823 877.886 1590.832 1717.536
No. of blind People 6.782 2.419 4.026 2.732 11.587 9.312
No. with low vision 19.996 13.116 12.444 12.789 33.496 32.481
No. with visual impairment 26.778 15.535 16.469 15.521 45.083 41.793

Afr, WHO African Region; Amr, WHO Region of the Americas; Emr, WHO Eastern Mediterranean Region; Eur, WHO European Region; Sear, WHO South-East Asia
Region; Wpr, WHO Western Pacific Region.

Because the above estimates exclude refractive error as a

Fig. 1. Global causes of blindness as a percentage of total
cause of visual impairment, by virtue of the definition used, blindness in 2002
they significantly underestimate the actual burden of uncor-
rected disabling refractive error. The prevalence of blindness 13
when defined as “presenting vision” is higher than when defined
0.8
as “best corrected vision” by about 15%, for all ages. However,
for older adults this difference could be as high as 25–30%, 3.6
as indicated by the results of many studies (4–8, 24, 25). The 3.9
increase in prevalence of low vision in older adults could be up
to 60% (26, 27). Given the significance of the unmet need for 4.8
correction of visual impairment due to refractive errors, changes
in the definitions of visual impairment are being proposed for 5.1
the next ICD revision.
47.8
Causes of visual impairment 8.7
The largest proportion of blindness is necessarily related to
ageing. Although cataract is not a major cause of blindness in 12.3
developed countries, globally it is still the leading cause, ac-
counting for almost half of all cases, despite improved delivery Cataract Chilhood blindness
of cataract surgical services in many parts of the world (Fig. 1).
Cataract is even more significant as a cause of low vision; it is Glaucoma Trachoma
the leading cause of low vision in all subregions.
According to the surveys, glaucoma is the second leading AMD
a
Onchocerciasis
cause of blindness globally as well as in most regions; age-related
macular degeneration is the third leading cause. Trachoma, other Corneal opacities Others
corneal opacities, childhood blindness and diabetic retinopathy
are all of approximately equal magnitude (i.e. all roughly 4–5%). Diabetic retinopathy
It is noteworthy that trachoma has decreased in significance as a
AMD = Age-related macular degeneration. WHO 04.138
a cause of blindness as compared to earlier estimates.
As would be expected given the growing number of
people over 70 years of age, age-related macular degeneration To this end, countries are encouraged to carry out peri-
is increasing in significance as a cause of blindness; it is the odic population-based surveys, particularly densely populated
primary cause of blindness in the developed countries and the countries and countries in regions where data are scarce. They
third leading cause worldwide. Corneal blindness may be pri- are advised to use the standardized WHO protocol (3) with the
marily attributed to trachoma in areas in which this condition following refinements:
is known to be endemic. In other areas it is caused primarily • adding the measure of presenting vision, to include visually
by trauma and vitamin A deficiency (16).
disabling refractive errors;
• in those studies that use definitions other than those given in
Conclusions the WHO ICD-10, visual acuity consistent with the WHO
Periodic estimations of the magnitude and causes of all catego- definitions should also be recorded; and
ries of visual impairment are essential to improve global efforts • diagnosis and recording of the causes of low vision in ad-
aimed at monitoring and eliminating avoidable blindness and dition to those of blindness. Particular attention should be
for use in priority-setting and resource allocation. Disaggre- paid to glaucoma and macular degeneration. O
gated, within-country data are important in ensuring greater
equity in service provision and monitoring. Conflicts of interest: none declared.

Bulletin of the World Health Organization | November 2004, 82 (11) 849

 Policy and Practice
Visual impairment in 2002 Serge Resnikoff et al.

Résumé
Données mondiales sur les déficiences visuelles pour l’année 2002
Le présent article estime la prévalence des déficiences visuelles et les adultes de 50 ans et plus étant de loin les plus touchés. On
de leurs causes en 2002 à partir des meilleures données disponibles relève également un déséquilibre entre les sexes dans le monde
tirées d’études récentes. Les estimations ont été établies d’après entier : les femmes présentent un risque significativement plus
les données de malvoyance et de cécité, telles que définies dans la important de souffrir de déficience visuelle que les hommes.
Classification statistique internationale des maladies, traumatismes Nonobstant les progrès réalisés par la chirurgie dans de
et causes de décès de l’OMS, 10e révision. Le nombre de personnes nombreux pays au cours des dernières décennies, la cataracte
dans le monde atteintes d’une déficience visuelle dépassait en demeure la cause principale de déficience visuelle dans toutes
2002 les 161 millions, dont environ 37 millions d’aveugles. les régions du monde, à l’exception des pays les plus développés.
La charge des déficiences visuelles n’est pas répartie Les autres causes majeures de déficience visuelle sont, par ordre
uniformément à travers le monde : ce sont les régions les moins d’importance, le glaucome, la dégénérescence maculaire liée à
développées qui en supportent la plus forte part. Les déficiences l’âge, la rétinopathie diabétique et le trachome.
visuelles se répartissent aussi inégalement selon les tranches d’âge,

Resumen
Datos mundiales sobre la deficiencia visual en el año 2002
En este artículo se estima la prevalencia de la deficiencia visual dispar entre los grupos de edad, pues la padecen sobre todo
y sus causas en 2002 a partir de la mejor evidencia disponible adultos de más de 50 años. Se observa también un desequilibrio
aportada por los estudios más recientes. Las estimaciones se han en lo tocante al género en todo el mundo: el riesgo de deficiencia
basado en datos referentes a la disminución de la agudeza visual visual es significativamente mayor en las mujeres que en los
y la ceguera, según se definen en la Clasificación Estadística hombres. A pesar de los progresos de la cirugía logrados en muchos
Internacional de Enfermedades, Traumatismos y Causas de países durante los últimos decenios, la catarata sigue siendo la
Defunción, 10ª revisión. En 2002 el número de personas con principal causa de deficiencia visual en todas las regiones del
deficiencia visual en todo el mundo superó los 161 millones, y de mundo, exceptuando los países más desarrollados. Otras causas
ellos 37 millones sufrían ceguera. importantes de deficiencia visual son, en orden de importancia,
La carga de deficiencia visual no se distribuye uniformemente el glaucoma, la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad,
en todo el mundo, pues las regiones menos desarrolladas son las la retinopatía diabética y el tracoma.
más afectadas. La deficiencia visual se distribuye también de forma

References
1. Thylefors B, Négrel A-D, Pararajasegaram R, Dadzie KY. Global data on 5. Limburg H, Kumar R. Follow-up study of blindness attributed to cataract in
blindness. Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 1995;73(1):115-21. Karnataka State, India. Ophthalmic Epidemiology 1998;5:211-23.
2. World Health Organization. Prevention of blindness and deafness. Global 6. Limburg H, Vasavada AR, Muzumdar G, Khan MY, Vaidyanathan K, Trivedi R,
initiative for the elimination of avoidable blindness. Geneva: WHO; 2000. et al. Rapid assessment of cataract blindness in an urban district in Gujarat.
WHO document WHO/PBL/97.61 Rev2. Indian Journal of Ophthalmology 1999;47:135-41.
3. World Health Organization. Coding instructions for the WHO/PBL eye 7. Amansakhatov S, Volokhovskaya ZP, Afanasyeva AN, Limburg H. Cataract
examination record (version III). Geneva: WHO; 1988. WHO document blindness in Turkmenistan: results of a national survey. British Journal of
PBL/88.1. Ophthalmology 2002;86:1207-10.
4. Limburg H, Kumar R, Indrayan A, Sundaram KR. Rapid assessment of 8. Duerksen R, Limburg H, Carron JE, Foster A. Cataract blindness in Paraguay
prevalence of cataract blindness at district level. International Journal of – results of a national survey. Ophthalmic Epidemiology 2003;10:349-57.
Epidemiology 1997; 26:1049-54.

850 Bulletin of the World Health Organization | November 2004, 82 (11)

 Policy and Practice
Serge Resnikoff et al. Visual impairment in 2002

9. World Health Organization. International statistical classification of 19. Dandona R, Dandona L, Srinivas M, Sahare P, Norsaiah S, Munõz SR, et al.
diseases, injuries and causes of death, tenth revision. Geneva: WHO; 1993. Refractive error in children in a rural population in India. Investigative
10. Murray CJL, Lopez AD, editors. The global burden of disease: a Ophthalmology and Visual Science 2002;43:615-22.
comprehensive assessment of mortality and disability from diseases, injuries 20. Murthy GVS, Gupta SK, Ellwein LB, Munõz SR, Pokharel GP, Sanga L, et al.
and risk factors in 1990 and projected to 2020. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Refractive error in children in an urban population in New Delhi.
School of Public Health on behalf of the World Health Organization and the Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science 2002;43:623-31.
World Bank; 1996 (Global Burden of Disease and Injury Series, Vol. 1). 21. World Health Organization. Formulation and management of national
Available from URL: http:/www.who.int/entity/en/ programmes for the prevention of blindness. Geneva: WHO; 1990. WHO
11. Murray CJL, Lopez AD, Mathers CD, Stein C. The Global Burden of Disease document PBL/90.18.
2000 Project: aims, methods and data sources. Geneva: World Health 22. VanNewkirk MR, Weih LA, McCarty CA, Stanislavsky YL, Keeffee JE,
Organization; 2001. Global Programme on Evidence for Health Policy Taylor HR. Visual impairment and eye diseases in elderly institutionalised
Discussion paper N. 36. Available from URL: http:/www.who.int/entity/en/ Australians. Ophthalmology 2000;107:2203-8.
12. United Nations, Population Division. World population prospects — the 23. National Programme for Control of Blindness and Vision 2020. The right
2002 revision. New York (NY): United Nations; 2003. to sight initiative. Cataract surgery rate 2002–2003, Vol. 2. New Delhi
13. World Health Organization. The world health report 2003: shaping the India: National Programme for Control of Blindness-India, Ophthalmology
future. Geneva: WHO; 2003. Available from URL: http:/www.who.int/whr/en/ Section, Directorate General health services, Ministry of Health and
14. Pascolini D, Mariotti S, Pokharel GP, Pararajasegaram R, Etya’ale D, Négrel Family Welfare.
A-D, et al. 2002 Global update of available data on visual impairment: a 24. Michon JJ, Lau J, Chan WS, Ellwein LB. Prevalence of visual impairment,
compilation of population-based prevalence studies. Ophthalmic blindness, and cataract surgery in the Hong Kong elderly. British Journal
Epidemiology, 2004;11:67-115. of Ophthalmology 2002;86:133-9.
15. World Health Organization. Preventing blindness in children. Report of a 25. Nrmalan PK, Thulasiraj RD, Maneksha V, Rahmathullah R, Ramakrishnan R,
WHO/IAPB scientific meeting Hyderabad, India 1999. Geneva: WHO; 2000. Padmavathi A, et al. A population based eye survey of older adults in
WHO document WHO/PBL/00.77. Tirunelveli district of south India: blindness, cataract surgery, and visual
16. Gilbert CE, Anderton L, Dandona L, Foster A. Prevalence of visual outcomes. British Journal of Ophthlamology 2002;86:505-12.
impairment in children: a review of available data. Ophthalmic Epidemiology 26. National Programme for the Control of Blindness. National survey on
1999;6:73-82. blindness and visual outcomes after cataract surgery. 2002. New Delhi,
17. Zhao J, Pan X, Sui R, Munõz SR, Sperduto RD, Ellwein LB. Refractive error India: Directorate General of Health Services, Ministry of Health and
study in children; results from Shunyi District, China. American Journal of Family Welfare; 2002.
Ophthalmology 2000;129:427-35. 27. Dineen BP, Bourne RRA, Ali SM, Noorul Huq DM, Johnson GJ. Prevalence
18. Pokharel GP, Nègrel AD, Munõz SR, Ellwein LB. Refractive error study in and causes of blindness and visual impairment in Bangladeshi adults:
children: results from Mechi Zone, Nepal. American Journal of results of the national blindness and low vision survey of Bangladesh.
Ophthalmology, 2000;129:436-44. British Journal of Ophthalmology 2003;87:820-8.

Bulletin of the World Health Organization | November 2004, 82 (11) 851