Basic Relational Grammar

-Ven. Paõóita
Pariyatti
Faculty
ITBMU
Preliminaries
1. The function of this topic is to define the word-to-word
relations in a sentence.
2. Relations between words are mono-directional. For
instance, if the word A is related to B, B itself must be
connected to another word C, not back to A.
3. Generally speaking, the main verb is the keystone of a
sentence. Other words may be related to it, but not vice-versa.
4. If two or more nouns have identical contents, they must
be of the same case but may sometimes differ in gender and
number.
5. On the other hand, two or more nouns of different
contents may have the same case, gender and number.
6. Some indeclinables such as ca, tathà, yathà, etc. are not
related to other words.

7. Activity/Inactivity of subjects and objects

When a subject or object is said to be active1;
1. it must be in nominative case if related to a main verb
and
2. its corresponding verb must agree with it,
(a)in person and number if the verb is a conjugated
form or,
(b) in gender, case and number if the verb is a
present, past or future participle.
When a subject or object is said to be inactive2;
1. its corresponding verb need not have any agreement
with it and,
2. an inactive subject may be in instrumental or genitive
case while an inactive object must be in accusative
case.

8. Usage of Three Voices

Active Voice
1. The verb may be transitive or intransitive.

1
vutta
2
avutta
1
 2. The subject must be active and the object, if any,
inactive.
3. The verb is a conjugated form or a present or past
participle.
E.g., puriso sayati = (The/A) man
sleeps.
(Active subject) (Intransitive Active Verb)
Puriso nagara§/nagaràni gacchati
(Active subject) (Inactive object) (Transitive Active
Verb)
= (The/A) man goes to (a/the) town/towns.
Puriso nagara§ gato. = (The/A) man went to
(the/a) town.
(Past Participle Active)

Passive Voice
1. The verb must be only transitive.
2. The object must be active while the subject, if any, inactive.
3. The verb is a conjugated form or a present, past or future
participle.
E.g. Purisena/purisehi nagara§ gamãyate.
(Inactive subject) (Active object) (Transitive passive
verb)
= The town is gone (to) by (the/a) man.
Purisena nagara§ gata§= The town is gone to by (the/a)
man. (Past Participle )
Purisena nagara§ gantabba§= (The/A) town should be gone
(to) by (the/a)
(Future Participle)
man.

Absolute Voice
1. The verb may be transitive or intransitive.
2. Both the subject and object, if any, are inactive.
3. The verb may be a conjugated form or a present, past or
future participle.
4. If the verb is a conjugated form, it must be of third person
and singular number.
5. If the verb is a participle, it must be of neutral gender and
singular number. If it is a main verb, it must have a
nominative case.
e.g.Purisena dhamma§ bhàsãyate. = Dhamma is
said by (the/a) man.

2
(Inactive subject) (Inactive object) (Transitive Absolute
verb)
Note: In the following sections, all sample Pali sentences are
given with English translations. In the English equivalents,
words given in brackets are those that are necessary for
English syntax yet have no representation in the Pali version.

NOMINATIVE CASE
A. Nominal Identity Relation
Here, both relata of the same content must be in
nominative case1 but may differ in gender and number. No
particular tense or mood is expressed here. It can further be
classified into two sub-relations, namely, Nominal Identity
(Ordinary) and Nominal Identity (Denominative) relations.
A.1. Nominal Identity (Ordinary) Relation2 [NIO]
so àcariyo = He (is/was) (a/the) teacher.
so àcariyo (NIO)
Nandà kalatta§ = Nandà (is/was) (a/the) wife.
Nandà kalatta§ (NIO)
cittàni vãsati = The types of consciousness (are) twenty (in
number).
cittàni vãsati (NIO)
Note: The difference of gender in the second example and that
of both gender and number in the last should be marked.
A.2. Nominal Identity (Denominative) Relation3 [NID]
The special feature of this relation is the indeclinable
"nàma" meaning "by name". Otherwise, it is similar to the
Nominal Identity (ordinary) relation.
e.g.saro nandà nàma = (The) lake (is) Nandà by name, i.e.,
called Nandà.
saro nandà (NID)
bhikkhuniyo saïgho nàma = Nuns (are) Saïgha by name, i.e.,
called Saïgha.
bhikkhuniyo saïgho ( NID )
Note: Here note the difference of gender in the first example
and that of both gender and number in the second.

B. Double Active Subject Relation

Here two nouns of the same content are related as Active

1
Only for complete sentences; for absolute clauses,
2
tulyattha-liïgattha
3
sa¤¤in (nàmin) - sa¤¤à (nàma)
3
Subjects to a main verb1 meaning, "To be". The two Active
Subjects must be of nominative case but may differ in gender
and number. This relation is further classified into two sub-
relations.
B.1. Double Active Subject (Ordinary) relation2 [DASO]
This relation is used instead of Nominal Identity (Ordinary)
Relation
(a)to express a particular tense or mood,
(b) to indicate a complete change of a certain state into
another or,
(c)both.
E.g. so àcariyo abhavi / bhåto = He was (a/the) teacher.
so abhavi/bhåto (DASO-P)3
àcariyo abhavi/bhåto (DASO-S)4
In the sentence above, so is the primary active subject
and àcariyo the secondary active subject. The verb
expresses the past tense explicitly.
E.g. sàmanero bhikkhu bhavati = (The) novice becomes (a)
monk.
sàmanero bhavati (DASO-P)
bhikkhu bhavati (DASO-S)
In the sentence above, the change of a certain person
from novicehood into monkhood is expressed. (Nominal Identity
Relation cannot be used in such a sense).

B. 2 Double Active Subject (Denominative) Relation 5

[DASD]
This relation is used instead of Nominal Identity
(Denominative) relation to express a particular tense or mood.
E.g.saro nandà nàma abhavi / bhåta§ = (The) lake was Nandà
by name.
saro abhavi / bhåta§ (DASD-P)6

1
If not a main verb, other cases are possible as in Defining
Clauses (p - 14)
2
pakati - vikati
3
pakati (vuttakattar) - kiriyà
4
vikati (vuttakattar) - kiriyà

5
pakati(sa¤¤in, nàmin)-vikati(sa¤¤à,nàma)
6
pakati(sa¤¤in, nàmin) - kiriyà
4
nandà abhavi / bhåta§ (DASD-S) 1
In the sentence above, saro is the primary active
subject and nandà is the secondary active subject. The
verb expresses the past tense explicitly.
When the Primary and Secondary Active Subjects
(whether Ordinary or Denominative) differ in gender or number,
the verb must agree with the Primary Active Subject. Here the
past participle stem bh|ta is put in neutral gender because the
Primary Active Subject saro (< saras) is of neutral gender.

C. Active Subject Relation2 (ASV)

Here a subject in nominative case is related to the main
3
verb in Active Voice.
e.g. puriso gacchati / gato = (A/The) man goes/went.
puriso gacchati / gato (ASV)

D. Active Object Relation4 (AOV)

Here an object in nominative case is related to the main
verbError: Reference source not found in Passive Voice.
e.g. puriso ha¤¤ate/hato = (A/The) man is killed.
puriso ha¤¤ate/hato (AOV)
puriso hantabbo = (A/The) man should be killed.
puriso hantabbo (AOV)

E. Double Active Object Relation5 (DAO)

Here two objects of the same content are put into
nominative case and related to the Passive main verbError:
Reference source not found. The verb carries a sense of "to
make, to transform". Two objects may differ in gender and
number. This relation is used to denote the transformation of
something or somebody on account of a certain agent
(subject).
E.g, sàmanero bhikkhu karãyate/kato = (The/A) novice is made
(a) monk.

sàmanero karãyate / kato (DAO-P)6

1
vikati(sa¤¤à,nàma) - kiriyà
2
vuttakattar - kiriyà
3
Here also, other cases are possible if it is not a main verb.
4
vuttakamma - kiriyà
5
pakati (vuttakamma) - vikati (vuttakamma)
6
pakati (vuttakamma) - kiriyà
5
bhikkhu karãyate / kato (DAO-S)7
In the sentence above, sàmanero is the Primary Active
Object and bhikkhu is Secondary Active Object.
sàmanero bhikkhu kàtabbo = (The/A) novice should be made
(a) monk.
sàmanero kàtabbo (DAO-P)
bhikkhu kàtabbo (DAO-S)
Note. 1: When the Primary and Secondary Active Objects differ
in gender or number, the verb must agree with the Primary
Active Object.
E.g. rukkho kuñi karãyate = (The / A) tree is made (into a)
cottage.
rukkho karãyate (DAO - P)
kuñi karãyate (DAO - S)
Note. 2: Sometimes a past or future participle is combined
with a conjugated active verb meaning, "To be".
E.g. puriso hato bhavissati = (The/A) man will be killed.
In the above example, puriso is the Active Object of the
past participle hato but the Primary Active Subject of the future
tense verb bhavissati. Therefore, it should be related to both
verbs in different ways.
E.g. puriso hato (AOV)
puriso bhavissati (DASO-P)
hato bhavissati (DASO-S)

VOCATIVE CASE
The nouns in this case are used to address people or
things in fancy. They are considered to be outside the scope of
the sentence syntax and, accordingly, bear no relation to other
words.

ACCUSATIVE CASE
A. Inactive Object Relation2 (IOV)
Here an object in accusative case is related to a verb in
Active or Absolute Voice.
E.g. purise hanati/hato = ... kills (the) men.
purise hanati/hato (IOV)
purise ha¤¤ate/hata§ (Absolute voice) = (The) men are killed.
purise ha¤¤ate/hata§ (IOV)
purise hantabba§ (Absolute voice) = (The) men should be
killed.
7
vikati (vuttakamma) - kiriyà
2
avuttakamma - kiriyà
6
purise hantabba§ (IOV)

B. Double Inactive Object - Verb Relation1 (DIO)

Here two objects of the same content are related to the
verb in Active or Absolute voice. The verb carries a sense of "to
make, to transform". Two objects may differ in gender and
number.
This relation is used to denote the transformation of
something or somebody on account of a certain agent
(subject).
E.g., Sàmanere bhikkhå karoti / kato=... makes the novices
monks.
Sàmanere karoti/ kato (DIO-P) 2
bhikkhå karoti/ kato (DIO-S)3
Sàmanere bhikkhå karãyate/kata§ = (The) novices are
made monks.
Sàmanere karãyate/kata§ (DIO-P)
bhikkhå karãyate/kata§ (DIO-S)
Sàmanere bhikkhå kàtabba§ = (The) novices should be
made monks.
Sàmanere kàtabba§ (DIO-P)
bhikkhå kàtabba§ (DIO-S)
In the examples above, Sàmanere is the Primary Inactive
object and
bhikkhå is the Secondary Inactive object.

C. Spatio- Temporal Continuity Relation4 (STC)

Here words expressing certain measures of space or time
are used in accusative case to denote the continuity of either
factor.
E.g. a. yojana§ dãgho = (one) mile long
yojana§ gacchati = goes (for one) mile
yojana§ maggo = (a) road (one) mile (long)
yojana§ dãgho / gacchati / maggo (STC)
b. màsa§ khãra§ = ... milk (throughout) (one) month
màsa§ ramanãyà = ... pleasant (throughout) (one)
month
1
pakati (avuttakamma) - vikati (avuttakamma)
2
pakati (avuttakamma) - kiriyà
3
vikati (avuttakamma) - kiriyà
4
accantasa§yoga - accantasa§yogavant
7
 màsa§ sajjhayati = ... studies (throughout ) (one) month
màsa§ khãra§ / ramanãyà / sajjhayati (STC)

D. Adverbial Relation1 (ADV)

Certain nouns are used as adverbs or verb-modifiers. They
are generally of neutral gender, accusative case and singular
number.
Sukha§ sayati =... sleeps with pleasure, i..e.., soundly
Sukha§ sayati (ADV)

1
kiriyàvisesana - kiriyà
8
 INSTRUMENTAL CASE
A. Implemental Relation1 (IMP)
Here a noun expressing a sort of implement or means to
perform an action is related to a verb expressing that action.
Pharasunà chindati = ... cuts with (an/ the) axe.
Pharasunà chindati (IMP)

B. Sociative Relation
This relation is used to denote the associative or
dissociative aspects of sense, that is, the notions of " with /
together" and " without/ not having with". It may further be
classified into two sub-relations.
B.1. Sociative (Explicit) Relation2 (SOE)
Here the indeclinables denoting" with"(e.g saha, saddhiÑ)
or those denoting "without" (e.g. a¤¤atra, vinà) are explicitly
used.
Puttena saha gacchati = ... goes with the son.
Puttena saha (SOE)
Puttena vinà gacchati =... goes without the son.
Puttena vinà (SOE)
B.2 Sociative (Implicit) Relation3 (SOI)
Puttena gacchati =... goes (with) the son.
Puttena (saha) (SOI)
In the example above, the sense of saha meaning
"together" is only implied, not directly expressed. This relation
cannot be used for the sense "without".

C. Inactive Subject Relation4 (ISV)

Here an Inactive subject is related to a passive/ absolute
verb.
Purisehi ha¤¤ate/ hata§ =... is killed by (the) men.
Purisehi hantabba§ =... should be killed by (the) men.
Purisehi ha¤¤ate/ hata§ / hantabba§ (ISV)

D. Causality Relation5 (CAU)

Here a noun expressing the cause or reason of an act is
related to a verb denoting that action.

1
karaõa - kiriyà
2
sahayoga (sahàdiyoga) - kiriyà
3
sahatthayoga
4
avuttakattar - kiriyà
5
hetu - phala
9
e.g. Annena vasati =... stays because of food. Annena
vasati (CAU)

E. Adjectival Relation1 (ADJ)

Here a noun is related to another that it modifies.
E.g. Gottena gotamo nàma = ... (called) Gotama by (his) race.
Gottena gotamo (ADJ)

F. Adverbial Relation2 (ADV)

It is also possible as with the accusative case.
Samena dhàvati =... runs (in) unity.
Samena dhàvati (ADV)

DATIVE CASE

A. Receptive Relation3 (REC)

Here a noun expressing the receiver of something given is
related to a verb expressing the act of giving.
rukkhassa jala§ dadàti =... give water to (the / a) tree.
rukkhassa dadàti (REC)

B. Purposive Relation4 (PUR)

Here nouns that express things wished for, or actions
intended, are related to a verb expressing an action tending to
achieve the purpose concerned.
phalàna§ gacchati = ... goes for fruits
phalàna§ gacchati (PUR)
Jãvanàya bhu¤jati = ... eats for living (i.e., to live)
Jãvanàya bhu¤jati (PUR)

ABLATIVE CASE
A. Detachment Relation5 (DET)
Here the nouns expressing things or persons from which a
sort of real or imaginary separation takes place are put in
ablative case and related to a verb (word) which expresses or
indicates the act of separation.

1
nàmavisesana - visesya
2
kiriyàvisesana - kiriyà
3
sampadàna - sampadànin
4
tadattha (tumattha) sampadàna - kiriyà
5
apàdàna - apàdànin
10
E.g. purisà gàmà apenti =... (The) men go (away) from (the)
village.
gàmà apenti (DET)
dhana§ corehi rakkhati = ... protects (the) wealth from (the)
thieves.
corehi rakkhati (DET)
imasmà catuyojana§ dåra§ = ... four yojanas distant from here.
imasmà dåra§ (DET)
tato kàlato rogãÊ = ... (has been) sick since then.
kàlato rogãÊ (DET)
pabbatà jàyati nadãÊ = ... (The/A) river originates in (the)
mountain.
pabbatà jàyati (DET)

B. Contrastive Comparison Relation1 (COC)

When two things or persons have an attributive difference,
the noun expressing the entity of a lesser degree of quality is
related to the other re- presenting the attribute itself.
E.g, so asmàhi pàpiyataro =... He (is) worse than us.
asmàhi pàpiyataro (COC)
aya§ saccamaggà a¤¤o =... This (path is) different from
the path of truth.
saccamaggà a¤¤o (COC)

C. Causality Relation2 (CAU)

This relation is possible here as with the instrumental
case.
pãtiyà na bhu¤jati = ... does not eat owing to delight.
pãtiyà na bhuÒjati (CAU)

GENITIVE CASE
A. Possessor Relation3 (POS)
When a thing or person belongs to another, the latter is
related to the former in Possessor Relation.
bhikkhuno patto =... (The/A) monk's bowl
bhikkhuno patto (POS)

B. Collection -Individual Relation4 (COI)

1
Vibhattàpàdàna - Vibhattàpàdànin
2
hetu - phala
3
sambandha - sambandhin
4
niddhàraõasamudàya - niddhàraõãya
11
 Here, a noun expressing a collection is related to another
expressing one or more individual elements that are to be
spoken on.
ràjà manussàna§ =... (The/A) king, among/of men...
manussàna§ ràjà (COI)---

C. Inactive Subject Relation1 (ISV)

Here a noun in genitive case may also be an Inactive
Subject as those in Instrumental case.
Purisàna§ ha¤¤ate =... killed by (the) men.
purisàna§ ha¤¤ate (ISV)

LOCATIVE CASE
A. Locus - Verb Relation2 (LOV)
Here a noun expressing a point in space or time is related
to a verb, which denotes the action that takes place there or
then. Sometimes, it is related to an entity situated there or
then.
gaïgàya§ nhàyati = ... bathes in the Ganges (river).
gaïgàya§ nhàyati (LOV)
rattiya§ sayati = ... sleeps at night.
rattiya§ sayati (LOV)

B. Motivational Relation3 (MOT)

Here a noun expressing a sort of motive or grounds that
compels an action is related to a verb denoting the action itself.
cammesu ha¤¤ate = ... is killed on account of (for the sake of)
hides.
cammesu ha¤¤ate (MOT)

C. Whole-Part Relation4 (WHP)

Here a noun expressing an integrated whole is related to
another expressing one or more parts which are to be spoken
on.
rukkhe sàkhà =...(a) branch of (the) tree.
rukkhe sàkhà (WHP)

D. Collection -Individual Relation5 (COI)

1
avuttakattar - kiriyà
2
àdhàra - àdheyya
3
nimitta - nimittavant
4
samudàya - samudàyin
5
niddhàraõasamudàya - nidhàraõãya
12
 This type of relation is also possible here as with Genitive
case.
ràjà manussesu=... (The/A) king, among/of men...
manussesu ràjà (COI)---

13
 MISCELLANEOUS
Causative Verbs
Causative verbs are viewed as compound verbs, i.e., they
are seen as combinations of the actions represented by roots
and those by the causal suffixes (the whole verbs). Accordingly,
components of a causative verb have different sets of subjects
and objects.
They can be enumerated as follows:
1. causal subject,
2. causal object,
3. Radial subject,
4. Radial object.
It should be noted here that the Causal Object and the
Radial Subject are
represented by the same word. Causative verbs can also be
classified in three voices---Active, passive and Absolute.

A. Active Voice
Here the causal subject is put in nominative case, the
causal object (Radial subject) in Accusative or Instrumental and
the Radial Object in Accusative.
puriso dàraka§ / dàrakena gàma§ gamayati = (The) man makes
(the) child go
to (the) village.
gamayati = gam + aya + ti
gam = to go, gamayati = make (sb / sth) go
Therefore the word-relations in the sentence above are:
puriso gamayati (ASV)
dàraka§ (dàrakena) gamayati (IOV)
 gam [subject-verb relation1 (SV)]
gàma§  gam [object-verb relation2 (OV)]
Note: A root in itself is neither Active nor Passive, so subjects
and objects related to it will have simple S.V or O.V relations.

Passive Voice
Here the causal subject is in Instrumental case, the
causal object (Radial subject) in Nominative case and Radial
object in Accusative case.
Sometimes, the Radial object is put in Nominative case; then
causal object (Radial subject) is put in Instrumental or
Accusative case.
1
kattar - kiriyà
2
kamma - kiriyà
14
purisena dàrako gàma§ gamàpãyate = ( The) child is caused
by (the) man to go
(to) the village.
purisena gamàpãyate (ISV)

dàrako gamàpãyate (AOV)

 gam (SV)
gàma§  gam (OV)
purisena dàraka§ / dàrakena gàmo gamàpãyati = (the) child
is caused by (the)
man to go (to) the
village.
purisena gamàpãyati(ISV)
dàraka§ / dàrakena gamàpãyati (IOV)
 gam (SV)
gàmo gamàpãyati (AOV)

Absolute Voice
Here the causal subject is in Instrumental case, causal
object (Radial subject) in Instrumental or Accusative case and
Radial object in Accusative case.
E.g. purisena dàraka§ / dàrakena gàma§ gamàpãyati = (the)
child is caused
by (the) man to go
(to) the village
purisena gamàpãyati (ISV)
dàraka§ / dàrakena gamàpãyati(IOV)
 gam (SV)
gàma§  gam (OV)

Identical Adjective relation1 (IAD)

Here a noun in adjectival use is related to a noun it
modifies. The adjective must follow the case of the substantive
but may differ in gender and number.
mahatà purisena =...with (a/ the) great man
mahatà purisena (IAD)
nandà nàma saro = (the) lake Nandà by name---
nandà saro (IAD)
vãsati purisà = twenty men---
vãsati purisà (IAD)
Note: mark the difference of gender in the second example
and that of both gender and number in the last.
1
tulyàdhikaraõavisesana - visesya
15
Infinitives
Infinitives are considered as indeclinable verbal
derivatives of Absolute voice. They are related to the verb they
qualify in Purposive Relation (PUR) and generally have the
same subject as the verb they qualify.
However, they may serve as Active subjects or objects of
the verbs qualified by them when these verbs have no separate
Active subject or object. When used in this way, infinitives are
viewed as third person nouns in nominative case and singular
number, and the main verb must agree with it.
E.g., So bhu¤jitu§ pacati = He cooks to eat.
So bhu¤jitu§ pacati (ASV)
bhu¤jitu§ pacati (PUR)
phala§ dàtu§ kappati = (it) is possible to give (a / the) fruit.
phala§ dàtu§ (IOV)
dàtu§ kappati (PUR / ASV)
phala§ khàditu§ labbhate = (it) is possible to eat (a / the ) fruit.
phala§ khàditu§(IOV) khàditu§ labbhate (AOV)

Gerunds
They are also indeclinable verbal derivatives of Absolute
voice. They can have two senses; (a) real or figurative priority
in time (b) causality. When used in the first sense, they have
the same subject as the verbs qualified by them and are
related to them in Adverbial Relation (ADV).
However, when the second sense is to be understood,
they have subjects different from those of the verbs they
qualify and related to them in causality Relation (CAU).
E.g. * So pacitvà bhu¤jati = He cooks and eats. (real priority
in time)
So (pacitvà) bhu¤jati (ASV)
pacitvà bhu¤jati (ADV)
* So mukha§ vivaritvà sayati = He opens the mouth and sleeps,
i.e., sleeps with
So (vivaritvà) sayati (ASV) the
open mouth.
mukha§ vivaritvà (IOV) (figurative
priority in time)
vivaritvà sayati (ADV)
* tassa sãha§ disvà bhaya§ hoti = His fear arises because of
seeing the lion.
(Causality)

16
tassa bhaya§ (POS) tassa disvà (ISV)
bhaya§ hoti (ASV)
sãha§ disvà (IOV)
disvà hoti (CAU)
*" Hutvā" with Double Inactive Subject (Ordinary) relation
[DISO ]
This relation is used with an inserted or expressed
hutvà ---
a. to indicate a certain adverbial sense OR
b. to indicate a complete change of a certain state into
another OR
c. both.
E.g. Puriso sàmanero (hutvà) vasati. [ hutvà may be inserted
or expressed.]
= He, having been a novice, stays.
[= He stays as a novice (adverbially) OR He becomes a
novice and stays (change of state) OR He stays after
becoming a novice (both)]
Puriso vasati (ASV) Puriso hutvà (DISO-
P)
sàmanero hutvà (DISO-S)
In the sentence above, puriso is the primary
inactive subject and sàmanero the secondary inactive
subject of hutvà. Puriso is in nominative case, singular
number only because it is the active subject of the main
verb vasati; sàmanero follows puriso in case, gender and
number because they are identical in content. As regards
hutvà, they are only inactive subjects.
E.g. Purisena sàmanerena (hutvà) bhatta§ bhu¤jãyate.
= Food is eaten by him, having been a novice [ = Food is
eaten by him as a novice (adverbially) OR Food is eaten by
him becoming a novice (change of state) OR Food is eaten
by him after becoming a novice (both)]
Purisena bhu¤jãyate (ISV) Purisena hutvà
(DSO-P) bhatta§ bhu¤jãyate (AOV) sàmanerena
hutvà (DSO-S) Here also, purisena is the
primary inactive subject and sàmanerena, the
secondary inactive subject of hutvà. Purisena is in
instrumental case because it is the inactive subject of
the main verb bhu¤jãyate; sàmanerena follows purisena in
case, gender and number because they are identical in
content. As regards hutvà, they are only inactive
subjects.
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Exception: Purisena sàmanero (hutvà) bhatta§ bhu¤jãyate.
Here sàmanero, the secondary inactive subject, is in
nominative case
but the relations and the translation is the same as above.
Such usage is only occasional in Pali literature.
*" Hutvā" with Double Inactive Subject (Denominative)
relation [DISD]
The only difference of this relation from the one above is
the usage of the indeclinable nàma.
E.g. Puriso datto nàma (hutvà) vasati. = He, having been datta
by name, stays.
[= He stays with the name
datta ]
Puriso vasati (ASV) Puriso hutvà (DISD-
P)
datto hutvà (DISD-S)
E.g. Purisena dattena nàma (hutvà) ràjà hatà. = The king was
killed by the man,
having been datta by name. [= The king was killed by the
man with the name datta]

Defining Clauses
They are used to define, qualify, or to limit the scope of
the main clause, i.e., the one involving the main verb. They can
be viewed as having three types, namely, (a) Relative Clause
(b) Absolute Clause and (c) Absolute voice Clause.

(a)Relative Clause
(1) There must be a present participle governing the clause.
(2) It must be in Active or Passive voice and follow the case,
gender and number of its Active subject or object.
(3)The case of the Active subject or object depends on its
relation to some word in the main clause.
(4) Every Relative Clause can have two different interpretations
and, accordingly, the participle governing it can have two
different relations.
They are as follows---
a.It is related to the main verb in Definitive Relation
(DEF)1,OR,
b.It is related to its Active subject or object in Identical
Adjective Relation (IAD).

1
lakkhaõa - lakkhya
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(5)If the participle is in Genitive case, it is sometimes
implied that the
action expressed by the main verb is carried out in spite of
the situation
expressed by the Defining Relative Clause.
E.g. puriso gacchanto ratana§ passati = (As / While / When)
(the) man is going / goes, (he) sees the jewel.
puriso gacchanto (ASV) / puriso passati (ASV)
gacchanto passati (DEF) / ratana§ passati
(IOV)
(OR) The man who goes (is going) sees the jewel.
gacchanto puriso (IAD) / puriso passati
(ASV)
ratana§ passati (IOV)
* purisa§ gacchanta§ bhikkhu passati = (while/As/When) (the)
man goes (is
going), (the/a) monk sees (him).
purisa§ gacchanta§ (ASV) / purisa§ passati (IOV)
gacchanta§ passati (DEF) / bhikkhu passati
(ASV)
(OR)= The monk sees the man who goes/ is going.
gacchanta§ purisam (IAD) purisa§ passati (IOV)
bhikkhu passati (ASV)
* purisassa passantassa dhana§ corà haranti = (Even while /
Even as) the man
sees (is looking on), thieves carried (his) property (away).
purisassa passantassa (ASV) / purisassa dhana§
(POS)
dhana§ haranti (IOV) / corà haranti (ASV)
(OR) = Thieves carried away the property of the man who sees
(is looking on).
(Note: in this translation, the sense "in spite of" is left out)
passantassa purisassa (IAD) / purisassa dhana§
(POS)
dhana§ haranti (IOV) / corà haranti (ASV)

(b) Absolute Clause

(1) There must be a participle (past, present or future), OR an
ordinary noun, governing the clause.
(2) It must be in genitive or locative case and must be
related to the main verb in Definitive Relation (DEF).

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( 3) If it is a participle ---
- It must be in Active or Passive voice and must follow the
gender and
number of its Active subject or Active object.
- Its Active subject or Active object must follow its case
and must NOT
have any relation to any word in the main clause.
OR if it is an ordinary noun ---
- It must have a complement --- another noun of the
same case, and probably the same gender and number ---
related to it in Nominal Identity (Ordinary / Denominative)
relation.
- Its complement must NOT have any relation to any
word in the main clause.
(4) When the participle, or the noun, governing the clause
is in genitive case, it may have the same implied
sense as the Relative clause participle.
E.g. Purise gàma§ gacchante / gate dàrako sayati = (As /
When / While ) (the)
man goes / has gone (to) the village, the
child sleeps.
Purise gacchante / gate (ASV) gàma§
gacchante / gate (IOV)
gacchante / gate sayati (DEF) dàrako sayati (ASV)

Pitari kà¯e putto kà¯o hoti = (As / When) (the) father is dark,
(the) son is dark.
Pitari kà¯e (NIO) kà¯e hoti (DEF)
putto hoti (DASO - P) kà¯o hoti (DASO - S)

dàrakassa rodantassa asso dhàvati = (Even as / Even while)

(the) child is
crying, the horse runs (away).
dàrakassa rodantassa (ASV) rodantassa
dhàvati (DEF)
asso dhàvati (ASV)

(c) Absolute Voice Clause

(1)The participle governing the clause is a past or present or
future participle.
(2) It is in Absolute Voice, Genitive or Locative case, Neutral
gender and Singular number. It is related to the main verb in
Definitive Relation (DEF).

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(3) The Inactive subject or Inactive object of the participle may
or may not be related to some word in the main clause.
E.g. Purisena bhojana§ bhutte dàrako marati = (While/ As /
When) food is
(being) eaten by (the) man, (the)
child dies.
Purisena bhutte (ISV) / bhojana§ bhutte (IOV)
bhutte marati (DEF) / dàrako marati (ASV)
Purisena bhojana§ bhutte dàrako diññho = (while/ as/ when)
food is (being)
eaten by (the) man, (the) child is seen (by
him).
Purisena bhutte (ISV) / purisena dittho (ISV)
bhojana§ bhutte (IOV)/ bhutte dittho (DEF)
dàrako diññho(AOV)

Usage of the Indeclinable iti

Quotations that end in iti

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 A quotation can be defined as the citation of a word or
words, spoken or thought of. It can be recognized by the
indeclinable iti, which is added to the end of it.
A. It can be dealt in two ways.
A1. The whole set of quoted words is viewed as a single
noun and related
to "iti" in Quoted Speech Relation1 (QUS) and "iti" itself related
to a corresponding verb in Quotation Marker relation 2 (QUM).
The quoted speech itself may be translated or not.
Ex. puriso gacchati iti so vadati / cinteti.
= He says / thinks as, "puriso gacchati" (untranslated) /
"He goes"
(translated).
" Puriso gacchati " iti (QUS) / iti vadati / cinteti
(QUM)
Ex. so datto iti ¤àyate = He is known as Datta.
datto iti (QUS) / iti ¤àyate (QUM)
A2. The set of quoted words may be viewed as a single
noun stem which is combined with iti to form a compound. The
result is an indeclinable noun. Its case may be one of the seven
cases (the Vocative is excluded) and should be inferred from
the context.
Ex. puriso gacchati iti so vadati / cinteti.
= He says (the words) / thinks of (the words), "puriso gacchati"
(or), "He goes".
" Puriso gacchati " iti vadati / cinteti (IOV)
Ex. so "datto" iti ¤àyate = He, who is (named) Datta, is known.
so ¤àyate (AOV) / "datto" iti so (IAD)
B. Sometimes, the initial part only, one word or more, of
the whole speech is quoted. In this case, the quoted portion
cannot be translated.
Ex. "Puriso magga§ gacchati" may be quoted as "puriso
iti". Then it can be translated only as "puriso, etc." or "the
words 'puriso, etc'."

Enumeration
When items belonging to a class are enumerated, each
noun denoting an

1
nidassetabba - nidassana
2
nidassana - nidassanavant
item is related to "iti" in enumerative relation (ENU). And "iti"
itself is related, in enumeration marker Relation (ENM), to
the numeral that qualify the noun denoting the class.
E.g. Buddhassa, Dhammassa, Sanghassa ca iti tiõõa§
rattanàna§ aha§ namàmi= I pay homage to Three Gems, that
is / namely, Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha.

Buddhassa/ Dhammassa/ Sanghassa iti (ENU)

Iti tiõõa§ (ENM)
The nouns denoting enumerated items generally carry the
case of the numeral qualifying the class. But they sometimes
carry the Nominative case.
Sometimes, iti is not expressed but to be known by
implication.
E.g. Buddhassa, Dhammassa, Sanghassa ca tiõõa§ rattanàna§
aha§ namàmi= I pay homage to Three Gems, (that is / namely)
Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha.
Buddhassa/ Dhammassa/ Sanghassa (iti) (ENU)
(Iti) tiõõa§ (ENM)

Causative particle
E.g. putto gacchati iti matà rodati = Mother cries because the
son goes.
Iti rodati (CAU)

The marker of the end of a theme, a topic, a chapter, etc.

E.g. Kim putto gacchati iti? na gacchati. So ghare hoti iti = Does
the son go? (He) does not go. He is at home.
---Compiled and commented by
Ven.Paõóita

Pariyatti Faculty

ITBMU.
--- Revised edition at PA-AUK Tawya,
Mawlamyine.

APPENDIX

1. English-Pali Glossary of Relational Terms

Active object = VuttaKamma

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Active subject = VuttaKattar
Activity = Vutta
Adjectival = Nàmavisesana
Adverbial = Kriyàvisesana
Causality = Hetu
Collection-Individual = Niddhàraõasamudàya-niddhàraõãya
Contrastive - Comparison = Vibhatta Apàdàna
Definitive = Lakkhaõa - Lakkhya
Detachment = Apàdàna
Double Active Object = PakatiVuttakamma - Vikati
Vuttakamma
Double Active Subject (Denominative) = Pakati (sa¤¤in ,
nàmin)-
Vikati (sa¤¤à,nàma)
Double Active Subject (Ordinary) = Pakati - Vikati

Double Inactive Object = PakatiAvuttakamma-

VikatiAvuttakamma
Enumeration Marker = Saråpanidassana
Enumerative = Saråpa
Identical Adjective = TulyàdhikaraõaVisesana
Implemental = Karaõa-Kriyà
Inactive Object = AvuttaKamma
Inactive Subject = AvuttaKattar
Inactivity = Avutta
Locus-Verb = âdhàra-âdeyya
Motivational = Nimitta-Nimittavant
Nominal Identity (Denominative ) = Sa¤¤in ( nàmin)- Sa¤¤à
(nàma)
Nominal Identity (Ordinary ) = Tulyattha-liïgattha
Object - Verb = Kamma-Kriyà
Possessor = Sambandha-Sambandhin
Purposive = Tadattha / Tumattha
Quotation Marker = Nidassana
Quoted Speech = Nidassetabba
Receptive = Sampadàna
Sociative (Explicit) = Sahayoga ( Sahàdiyoga)
Sociative (Implicit) = Sahatthayoga
Spatio-Temporal Continuity = Accantasa§yoga
Subject-Verb = Kattar-Kriyà
Whole-Part = Samudàya-samudàyin

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2. REFERENCE BOOKS
a. tajcjyKo'´g(tajcjyKpmpyf)--- t&SifZeumbd0Ho
b. Sanskrit Syntax ----------------------- R.S.Speijer

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