DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The system which consists of the structures associated with intake of food (ingestion), its
digestion, and absorption of digested food and finally removal of indigestible residue is
called digestive system.
FUNCTIONS OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
 Ingestion and digestion of food.
 Movement of food.
 Absorption of necessary nutrient materials.
 Excretion of unwanted or harmful substances.
 Secretion of several kinds of juice and mucus.
 Regulation of acid base balance.
 Maintenance of water balance.
ORGANS/PARTS OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
A. ALIMENTARY TRACT
 Mouth
 Pharynx
 Oesophagus
 Stomach
 Small intestine
 Large intestine
 Rectum
 Anus
B. ACCESSORY ORGANS
 Salivary Glands
 Pancreas
 Liver & Biliary tract
 Gall bladder

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 MOUTH
The starting and upper expanded portion of the alimentary tract is known as mouth. It is
also known as buckle cavity or oral cavity, lined throughout with mucous membrane
consists of stratified squamous epithelium tissue. The roof of mouth is formed by anterior
hard palate and posterior soft palate & the floor of mouth is formed by tongue and side by
cheeks.
1. Tongue: - Tongue is a voluntary muscular structure. It lies at the floor of mouth and
base is attached to hyoid bone. The superior surface of tongue consists of stratified
squamous epithelium with numerous papillae. These consists sense of taste. There are
three varieties of papillae:
 Vallate papillae
 Fungiform papillae
 Filiform papillae

Note:- Tongue has four taste areas like sweet,salt,sour and bitter.Area of sweet and salt
are overlaped.Sour taste is located at sides whereas bitter taste is found in posterior
middle region of tongue.
Functions of tongue
 It helps in swallowing and chewing of food.
 It plays a role in speech.
 It helps to find the taste.
 It acts as a brush to clean the teeth.
2. TEETH:-Teeth are very hard structures embedded in the alveoli or socket of
mandible and maxilla. Each tooth of individual develops two sets of teeth. The milk
teeth appear first, and are progressively replaced by the permanent teeth. Teeth have
different shapes and sizes and possess uneven biting surfaces.
Types of teeth
 Incisors-8
 Canines-4
 Premolars -8
 Molars-12

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Permanent teeth: - They are 32 in number and 16 are present in each jaw. Each half of
the upper and lower jaw contains 8 teeth. They are 2 incisors, 1 canine, 2 premolars and 3
molars.
Temporary teeth:-They are 20 in number and each jaw has 10 teeth .each half of the jaw
has 2 incisors, 1 canine and 2 molars.
1st permanent tooth is 1st molar appear at the age of 6-7 years.
3rd molar is wisdom tooth appearing by age between 17-25 years.
Functions of teeth
 Biting off pieces of food.
 Grinding or chewing food.
PHARYNX
The pharynx is a wide muscular tube, situated from the base of the skull to the level of 6 th
cervical vertebra. It lies behind the nose, mouth and larynx.
Length: 12-14cm
Width: upper parts widest 3.5cm
Parts of pharynx
The cavity of pharynx is divided into:
 Nasopharynx
 Oropharynx
 Laryngopharynx

 Nasopharynx: - The nasal part is called nasopharynx. This is the upper part of pharynx
situated behind the nose and above the lower of the soft palate.
 Oropharynx: - The oral part is called Oropharynx. This is the middle part of the
pharynx situated behind the oral cavity, it extends from below the level of the soft
palate to the level of the upper part of the body of 3rd cervical vertebra.
 Laryngopharynx: - The laryngeal part is called laryngopharynx. This is the lower part
of the pharynx situated behind the larynx, it extends from upper border of the
epiglottis to the lower border of the Cricoid cartilage.
Functions of pharynx
 It provides passageway for food from mouth to esophagus.
ESOPHAGUS
Esophagus is long, narrow, straight and muscular tube. It is also known as food pipe or
gullet.

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Position of esophagus
It lies in the median plane in the thorax in front of the vertebral column behind the
trachea and the heart. It is continuous with the pharynx and just below the diaphragm it
joins the stomach. It is about 25cm (10 inch) long.
Structure of the esophagus
The esophagus is formed by four layers of tissue:
 The outer layer is covered with elastic fibrous tissue.
 The muscle layer consists of two layers of muscles, outer layer is longitudinal and
inner layer is circular layer of fibers.
 The sub mucous layer consists of alveolar tissue. This contains blood vessels, lymph
vessels, and nerves of autonomic nervous system.
 The inner layer consists of upper part is stratified epithelium and lower part is
columnar epithelium.
Function of esophagus
 The esophagus transports food from pharynx to stomach or acts as passage way.
STOMACH
Stomach is the widest organ of the alimentary canal. It is hollow, bag like and J shaped
structure. It is situated in left side of abdominal cavity. It is about 25 cm in length.
Structure of stomach
a. Parts of stomach:
The stomach is divided into the following parts:
 Cardiac part
 Fundus
 Body or corpus
 Pyloric part

b. Orifices of stomach:
 Cardiac orifice
 Pyloric orifice
c. Curvatures of stomach:
 Lesser curvature
 Greater curvature

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d. Wall of stomach
Histologically, the wall of stomach has typical four layers:
 Serosa:-It is the outer layer of stomach and made up of squamous epithelium.
 Muscularis layer:-It is made up of outer longitudinal and inner circular muscle fibers.
 Submucosa layer:-It consists of loose connective tissue richly supplied with blood
vessels and lymphatic vessels and part of autonomic nervous system.
 Mucosa layer:-It is the innermost layer. It consists of simple columnar epithelium

Blood supply of stomach

Arterial blood is supplied to the stomach by branches of the coeliac artery (The first
branch of abdominal aorta).
Lesser curvature: - The right and left gastric arteries.
Greater curvature: - The right and left epiploic artiries.short gastric arteries also supply it.
Venous supply:-Venous drainage into the portal vein

Nerve supply of stomach: - It receives sympathetic fibers by way of celiac plexus and
parasympathetic fibers from vagus nerve.
Functions of stomach
 Temporary storage of food for long period.
 The stomach secretes gastric juice.
 The stomach digests protein by action of pepsin and rennin.
 The peristaltic movements of stomach mix the bolus with gastric juice and convert
into the semisolid material known as chyme.
 Secretion of hormone, gastrin
 The hydrochloric acid present in the gastric juice destroys many types of bacteria
entering the body along with food.
 Many substances like toxins, alkaloids and metals are excreted through gastric juice.
 Intrinsic factor presented in gastric juice is necessary for absorption of vitamin B12.
CHYME
Chyme is also known as chymus, it is the liquid substance found in the stomach before
passing through the pyloric valve and entering the duodenum. It results from the

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mechanical and chemical breakdown of a bolus and consists of partially digested food,
water, hydrochloric acid, and various digestive enzymes. Chyme slowly passes through
the pyloric sphincter and into the duodenum, where the extraction of nutrients begins.
Depending on the quantity and contents of the meal, the stomach will digest the food into
chyme anywhere between 40 minutes to a few hours.
GASTRIC GLANDS
The innermost mucosal region of stomach consists of microscopic, tubular glands i.e.
called gastric glands. Each gastric gland is lined with epithelium.
Each gastric gland consists of 4 types of cells:
 Mucous cells
 Oxyntic cells
 Peptic cells
 Argentaffin cells
Mucous cells (Goblet cells):-It is made up columnar epithelium. These cells secrete
mucous which reduces the acidic effects.
Oxyntic cells or Parietal cells:-These are numerous and situated on the side walls of the
gastric glands. These cells secrete hydrochloric acid (HCl) and intrinsic factor. Intrinsic
factor is necessary for the absorption of vitamin B12 in the small intestine.
Peptic cells (Chief or Zymogenic or Zymogen cells):-These are usually found in basal
region of gastric gland. They secrete pepsinogen, the inactive form of pepsin. Pepsin is a
protease, an enzyme that breaks down proteins.
Argentaffin cells:-It produces serotonin and gastric hormone.
Serotonin hormone:-It is a vasoconstrictor and stimulates the smooth muscles.
Gastrin hormone:-It stimulates the gastric glands to release the gastric juice.

GASTRIC JUICE
The secretion of gastric gland is called gastric juice. The Gastric juice is a clear, watery,
strongly acidic fluid containing hydrochloric acid, enzymes, mineral salts and mucus.
Composition
A normal human secretes about1200-1500 ml/day.
Water: 98-99%
Solids: 1-2%
The solids are consists of organic or inorganic substances e.g.:-Gastric enzymes: - Pepsin,
Rennin, Gastric Lipage. Gastric mucus, Hydrochloric acid (HCL), Sodium, Potassium,
Calcium, Chloride, Bicarbonate, Phosphate, Sulfate.

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Functions of gastric juice
 Water further liquefies the food.
 Hydrochloric acid kills bacteria, digests all types of food and maintains acidic pH for
the action of pepsin.
 Hydrochloric acid provides acid medium for the action of enzymes.
 Pepsin acts on proteins of food and digests them to the stage of proteoses and peptones
 Gastric amylase acts on carbohydrates.
 Gastric lipase digests the butter fat.
 Intrinsic factor present in gastric juice plays an important role in erythropoiesis. This
is necessary for absorption of the extrinsic factor i.e.vitamin B12.
 The mucus present in the gastric juice is responsible for the protection of wall of
stomach.
SMALL INTESTINE
Small intestine is a long, coiled, tube like structure extending between the pyloric
sphincter to stomach and ileocecal valve, which opens into large intestine .It is about 6 m
long.
Part of small intestine
Small Intestine is divided into three parts:
a. Duodenum: - It is small C- shaped and about 25cm long.
b. Jejunum: - It is the second part of small intestine that lies between the duodenum and
ileum
c. Ileum: - It is the last and the longest part of small intestine. It is highly coiled part.
Structure of small intestine:-
The wall of small intestine is composed of the four layers of tissue:
 Outer layer: Covering the serous membrane called mesentery.
 Muscle layer: The muscle layer is composed of longitudinal and circular smooth
muscle fibers.
 Sub mucosal layer: These layers are composed of areolar connective tissue. Blood
vessels, lymph vessels & nerves.
 Mucosal layer: These layers are consisting of columnar epithelium.
Functions of small intestine
 Secretion of intestinal juice.
 Absorption of nutrients.
 Secretion of hormones. Cholecystokinin (CCK) & Secretin.
 To complete the digestion of carbohydrate, proteins & fats.
 To do onward movement of its contents, this is produced by peristaltic, segmental &
pendular movements.
DIGESTIVE PROCESS OCCURRING IN SMALL INTESTINE
The acidic chyme from the stomach enters into the duodenum. There it mixes with:
 The alkaline intestinal juice called succus entericus.
 Alkaline secretions from liver and pancreas.
In the small intestine, digestion is carried out by the following
enzymes of intestinal juices.
 Enterokinase which converts Trypsinogen of pancreatic juice into trypsin.

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  Erepsin which converts polypeptides into amino acids.
 Sucross, maltase and lactase which converts the corresponding disachharides into
monosaccharides.
ABSORPTION IN SMALL INTESTINE
Once the chemical digestion is completed, the products are readily absorbed by the small
intestine mainly through the process of diffusion. The inner wall, or mucosa of small
intestine is covered in folds called plicae circulars, from which project the finger-like
microscopic projections known as microvilli. This arrangement greatly increases the
surface area of mucosa of small intestine aids in proper absorption of nutrients.
LARGE INTESTINE
The large intestine is “U” shaped tube like structure also called as colon. The large
intestine is about 1.5 meter long. It extends from ileocecal valve up to anus. It consists of
seven portions.
 Caecum with appendix
 Ascending colon
 Transverse colon
 Descending colon
 Sigmoid colon or pelvic colon
 Rectum
 Anal colon.

Functions of large intestine

 Absorption of water, electrolytes & salts.
 Excretion of heavy metals like mercury, leads, bismuth & arsenic through faeces.
 Secretion of mucin and inorganic substances like chlorides & bicarbonates.
 The bacterial flora of large intestine synthesizes folic acid, vitamin B 12 & vitamin
K.
ACCESSORY ORGANS
SALIVARY GLANDS
There are 3 pairs of glands situated in oral cavity known as salivary glands. These glands
are secret of saliva. These are:
 Parotid glands = 2
 Sub-lingual glands = 2
 Sub-mandibular glands = 2

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a. Parotid glands: - Parotid glands are the largest salivary glands. These glands are
situated at the side of the face just below and in front of the ear.
b. Sub-mandibular glands: - They are paired glands situated at the posterior part of floor
of mouth.
c. Sublingual glands: - These are situated at the anterior part under the tongue..

SALIVA
Saliva is the viscous colorless cloudy liquid. About 1.5 liter of saliva is produced daily
and about 1ml /min.Out of this about 25% is secreted by parotid glands, 70% of
Submandubular glands and 5% of sublingual glands.
Composition of saliva
Water = 98-99%
Solids =1-2%
The solids portion of saliva is consists of organic and inorganic substances. Gages are
also present in saliva.
Functions of saliva
 It helps in mastication, mixes with the food forming bolus.
 It lubricates mouth and helps in swallowing.
 Lysozome helps in keeping mouth clear and pathogen free.
 Saliva dissolves part of the food, which stimulates the taste.
 The saliva is moistening and lubricating soft part of mouth and lips. It helps in speech
 Salivary amylase acts on boiled starch and converts into maltose
 It excretes certain heavy metals and thyocyanate ions.
 It helps in temperature regulation. When there is dehydration, secretion of saliva
reduces thirst.

PANCREAS
The pancreas is the pale yellowish grey gland, weighing about 60-90gm.It is about 12-15
cm long and situated in the epigastric and left hypochondriac region of the abdominal
cavity.
STRUCTURE OF PANCREAS
Histologically, it consists of two parts: Exocrine part and Endocrine part:

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Exocrine part:-The exocrine part of pancreas consists of large number of pancreatic cells
or acini, connective tissue, blood vessels. The pancreatic cell secretes pancreatic juice.
The normal human secrets 500-800ml of pancreatic juice per day. Pancreatic juice
contains proteolytic enzyme, lipolytic enzyme, and amylolytic enzyme.
Endocrine part:-The endocrine part of the pancreas takes the form of many small
clusters of cells called islet of langerhans pancreatic cells. The pancreas has about one
million islets of langerhans. Each islet of langerhans consists of four types of cells such
as:
1. Alpha cells (α cell):-They produce glucagon hormone which increases the sugar level
in blood.
2. Beta cells (β cells):-They produce insulin hormone which converts excess glucose into
glycogen in the liver and muscles. Deficiency of insulin causes diabetes mellitus.
3. Delta cells (δ cells):-They secrete somatostatin (ss) hormone. The somatostatin
hormone decreases the rate of nutrient absorption into the blood from GI tract. It also
inhibits the secretion of growth hormone from the anterior lobe of pituitary gland.
4. Pancreatic polypeptide cells (PP-Cells or PF cells):-They secrete pancreatic
polypeptide (PP) hormone which inhibits the release of pancreatic juice.

LIVER
Liver is the largest digestive gland of the body which is reddish brown in colour .It is
situated in the upper part of the abdominal cavity and below the diaphragm. It generally
weighs 1.3-1.8 kg (Male) and 1.2 -1.4 kg (Female) which is about 2% of the body weight.
STRUCTURE OF LIVER
Liver consists of four lobulated structures which are separated from each other anteriorly
by falciform ligament. Four lobes of liver are right central lobe, quadrate lobe, left central
lobe and a caudate lobe.

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Histologically, Liver is made up of liver cells called hepatocytes and in a system of blood
vessels. Liver consist of many lobes. Each lobe consists of large number of lobules
(50,000 and 100,000 lobules). Each lobule is a horney comb like structure. The
hepatocytes are arranged in different plates. Each plate is one cell thick with a central
vein. Each lobule is surrounded by portal triads. Each portal triad consists of branch of
hepatic artery, a branch of portal vein and a tributary of bile duct.
In between the plates, the sinusoids or blood spaces are present. The sinusoids receive
blood from a branch of portal vein and branch of hepatic artery of the portal triad.
Sinusoids are lined by endothelial cells. Few macrophage cells called kupffer’s cells are
also found in between the endothelial cells.

Blood Supply of liver-

Arterial supply:-
1. Oxygenated blood from right and left hepatic arteries.
2. Deoxygenated nutrient rich from portal vein.
Venous drainage: - Radially orientated sinusoids converge on centre of each lobule
where they unite with central vein. Three hepatic veins converge and enter inferior
venacava.
Nerve supply: - It receives parasympathetic fibers from left vagus nerve and sympathetic
nerve.

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FUNCTIONS OF LIVER
 It removes the nitrogenous portion from the amino acids which is excreted in the
urine.
 It stores vitamin A, D, E, K & B12 , copper, iron glycogen folic acid.
 It detoxifies toxins.
 It inactivates hormones such as insulin, glycogen, sex hormones etc.
 It balances the glucose level in blood.
 It produces RBC in embryo.
 Liver carries out metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids vitamins and many of
hormones.
 Liver destroys the senile red blood cells after the life span of 120 days.
 Liver produces maximum heat due to the metabolic actions.
 It synthesis vitamin A, non essential amino acids and blood clotting factors etc.
 It produces bile juice.
 Its stored fat can be converted in the form of energy.
 It metabolizes ethanol in alcoholic drinks.
GALL BLADDER
The gall bladder is a pear shaped sac attached to the posterior surface of the liver by
connective tissue. The bile secreted from liver is stored in gall bladder. It is about 7-10cm
long, 3cm wide & capacity of bladder is 30-60ml.
FUNCTIONS OF GALL BLADDER
 It stores bile.
 It absorbs water so that is 10-15 times more concentrated than liver bile.
 Secretion of mucin.
 Maintenance of pressure in biliary system.
BILIARY TRACT
The biliary tract or apparatus includes the passage through which hepatic bile and gall
bladder bile is conveyed into the second part of the duodenum. The Biliary tract is the
apparatus of the liver & consists of:
 Left & right hepatic ducts
 The common hepatic duct
 The gall bladder
 The cystic duct
 The common bile duct

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 BILE
Bile or gall is a bitter-tasting, dark green to yellowish brown fluid, produced by the liver
of most vertebrates, that aids the process of digestion of lipids in the small intestine. In
many species, bile is stored in the gallbladder and upon eating is discharged into the
duodenum.
Composition of the bile
Water 85%
Bile salts 10%
Mucus and pigments 3%
Fats 1%
Inorganic salts 0.7%
Cholesterol 0.3%
Functions of bile
 It helps in neutralizing acidic chyme.
 It helps to absorb product of fat digestion.
 It is necessary for absorption of fat soluble vitamins.
 It acts as antiseptic fluid.
 It helps in laxative action.
 It also helps in stimulating peristalsis.
 It helps in maintenance of pH in gastrointestinal tract.

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PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION
 Digestion:-
Digestion is the chemical complex process which changes complex food into simpler
forms by the action of different chemical enzymes within the alimentary canal.
DIGESTION OF CARBOHYDRATE
In Mouth:
Saliva contains enzyme salivary amylase, which breaks down complex carbohydrates
into Disaccharides.
Salivary Amylase
Starch Maltose
In Stomach:
Acid stops the action of Salivary Amylase, so no digestion occurs in stomach.
In Intestine:
 Pancreatic juice:
Pancreatic Amylase act on Polysaccharides (Starch, Glycogen), & convert them into
disaccharides [Maltose, Lactose, Sucrose].
 Intestinal juice:
Maltase, lactase, sucrase act on disaccharide to liberate monosaccharide
Maltase
Maltose Glucose + Glucose

Lactase
Lactose Glucose + Galactose

Sucrose sucrase Glucose + Fructose

The monosaccharide is then absorbed by the intestinal villi.
DIGESTION OF PROTEINS
In Mouth:
No digestion of Protein occurs in mouth.
In Stomach:
HCl converts Pepsinogen into Pepsin. Pepsin then converts Proteins into Polypeptides.

Pepsin
Protein Polypeptides
In Intestine:
 Enterokinase converts Chymotripsinogen & Trypsinogen into Chymotrypsin &
Trypsin.
 Chymotrypsin, Trypsin & peptidase then convert polypeptides into Tripeptides,
Dipeptides & Amino acid.

Trypsin/Chymotrypsin
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DIGESTIVE SYSTEM/PREPARED BY: DR.C.K.SINGH
 Polypeptides peptides
Pancreatic juice

Peptidases
Peptides Amino acids (Absorbable)
The Amino acid is then absorbed by Intestinal villi.
DIGETION OF FAT
In Mouth:
No digestion occurs in mouth.
In Stomach:
No digestion occurs in Stomach.
In Intestine:
 Bile from Liver emulsifies fats. Pancreatic lipase converts fat into fatty acid &
glycerol.
 In the enterocytes, Lipase converts fat into fatty acid & glycerol.

Bile
Fat Emulsified fats
(Bile salt)

Lipase
Emulsified Fat Fatty acids + Glycerol (Absorbable)
The end products are then absorbed by the intestinal villi.
Note:-Emulsification: - Fat is largely digested in the small intestine. Bile salts combine
with fats and break down fat droplets into many small ones by reducing the surface area
of fat droplets, this process is called emulsification.
ABSORPTION
It is the process by which the end products of digestion pass through the intestinal
epithelium and enter the blood stream.
Absorption of carbohydrate:
 The end product of carbohydrate digestion are monosaccharide, disaccharide. About
80% of monosaccharide are absorbed in the form of glucose and other in the form of
the galactose, fructose etc.
 Glucose and galactose are absorbed by the active process with the help of carrier by a
process called sodium co-transport.
 Absorption of fructose occurs through facilitated diffusion.
Absorption of protein:
The proteins are absorbed in the form of amino acids from small intestine. The laevo
amino acids are actively absorbed by means of sodium co-transport, whereas, the
dextroamino acids are absorbed by means of facilitated diffusion.
The absorption of amino acids is faster in duodenum and jejunum and slower in ileum.

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DIGESTIVE SYSTEM/PREPARED BY: DR.C.K.SINGH
Absorption of fat:
 Fats are digested to form monoglyceride and free fatty acid, both of these digestive
end products dissolve in the lipid portion of the bile acid, micelles.
 It is absorbed by forming chylomicron (tri-glyceride aggregate within the ER of
epithelial cell into globules along with absorbed cholesterol, phospholipids and newly
synthesized that encased a protein coat), micelles (spherical globules about 3-4
nanometer in diameter and composed of 20 to 40 molecules of bile salts).
MASTICATION
Cutting the food substances into small particle and grinding them into a soft bolus is
known as mastication.
Purpose of mastication:
 Breakdown of food into smaller particles.
 Mixing of saliva with food substances.
 Lubrication and moistening of dry food by saliva. So that, the bolus can be easily
swallowed.
 Appreciation of taste of the food.
DEGLUTITION OR SWALLOWING
It is the process by which the bolus of food, formed during chewing is propelled
backward and pass into stomach through esophagus is called deglutition. It takes about 9-
12 seconds. Deglutination occurs in the three stages:
Stage 1:
Closing of the lips and rising of the tongue against the palate forced the bolus into
Oropharynx. Now, the nasopharynx is closed by soft palate and pharynx is closed by
epiglottis. This prevents the entry of food into respiratory passage.
Stage 2:
By the contraction of the muscles of pharynx, the bolus is forced into esophagus.
Stage 3:
In the esophagus, contraction of its muscular walls carries the food down to stomach.
In must be noted that the first stages is a voluntary act but
it is performed automatically, but the second stage and third stage are involuntary.
DEFECATION
Voiding of faces is known as defecation. Faces is formed in the large intestine and stored
in the sigmoid colon. By the influence of an appropriate stimulus, it is expelled out
through the anus.
PERITONEUM
Peritoneum is the largest serous membrane of the body and consists of a closed sac
within the abdomen cavity. The peritoneum is two layers:
A. Parietal layer:-Which lines the abdominal wall.
B. The visceral layer:-It covers the organs or viscera within the abdominal and pelvic
cavities.
There is cavity between the two layers of peritoneum called
peritoneal cavity. The cavity is filled with serious fluid secreted by the cells which
prevents friction of the layers. The peritoneal cavity is completely closed in male. But in

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DIGESTIVE SYSTEM/PREPARED BY: DR.C.K.SINGH
the female, the uterine tubes open into it some structure such as ileum, jejunum,
transverse & pelvic colon has long attachment to the posterior wall of the abdomen.
Functions of peritoneum
 It forms a complete or partial covering for abdominal organs.
 It gives support to the abdominal organs.
 It acts as storage for fats.
 The presence of peritoneal fluid prevents friction of organs from each other.

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DIGESTIVE SYSTEM/PREPARED BY: DR.C.K.SINGH