HISTORY OF EMBRYOLOGY
● Zygote – upon fertilization; sperm egg cell
● Embryo – stops being an embryo during gestational stage; 8th week from the time
it was a zygote
● Fetus – 9th week (humans);
● Gestational stage – counting from time of fertilization
● Pregnancy – counting before fertilization including ovulation; 2 weeks earlier
than fertilization
● marine -> amphibious -> terrestrial
● fertilization can be inner (marine and amphibious) or external (terrestrial, can
also be internal)
● amniotes – egg can develop in land (amniotic fluid)
Early History
1. Plato
- concept of souls
- vegetative soul brings about life (plants stop here)
- sensitive soul enables sensations (animals)
- spiritual soul enables thinking (humans)
2. Aristotle
- systematic observations of embryos
- diff stages of development of chick embryos
- multiple ways organisms reproduce
Renaissance History
1. William Harvey
- work on blood
- expanded and corrected Aristotle’s work
- epigenesis – egg developing into embryo
- omne vivum ex ovo – presence of ova even in humans
2. Antoni van Leeuwenhoek
- animalcules
- tiny preformed human was already present in these animalcules
- preformationist period – homunculus – malpighi and swammerdam were the
chief ovists
3. Lazzaro Spallanzani
- FIRST ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION – frog eggs
Epigenesis and Vitalism
1. Caspar Friedrich Wolff
- morphogenesis
- development of structure out of structureless yolk material
2. Johann Friedrich Blumenbach
- vis vitalis - vital force, immaterial virtue or life force
- Vitalism – explained how structure could develop from an amorphous state
- serious attempts to discover the nature of this force
3. Carl Ernst von Baer
- made significant strides in descriptive embryology - VITAL FORCE
- many similarities between embryos of vertebrates particularly amniotes
Ontogeny recapitulates Phylogeny
● ontogeny – life history (juvenile to adult)
● phylogeny – evolutionary history
1. Ernst Haeckel
- leading authority in embryology (late 1800s)
- ontogeny recapitulates of phylogeny – individual development progresses
through adult stages of the organisms ancestors
- race and human development and evolution were later incorporated into the
pseudo-scientific basis for Nazism
Synthesis of Embryology with Genetics
1. AUGUST WEISMANN
- germ plasm theory
- 1892 self-reproducing determinants – guiding agents in morphogenesis
- determinants were located on some newly discovered structures: chromosomes
- cell differentiation – result of cells acquiring diff chromosomes during replication
(not during fertilization)
2. Oscar Hertwig and Richard Hertwig
- 1st demonstration of fertilization – sea urchins
- existence of polar bodies – parts of the immature egg cells
- significant advances in understanding of meiosis
Experiment Embryology
1. Hans Spemann
- induction – result of organizer effect; a group of cells would influence how other
cells develop
- organizer cells – the ones that influence
- nobel prize for Medicine – ORGANIZER EFFECT – underlying role of the dorsal
lip of the blastopore
Model Organisms
- prior to 1900s
- no model organisms targeted by large numbers of scientists
- isolated advances – work of individual genius
Thomas hunt morgan – fruit fly
Wilhelm roux – frog
hans Driesch – sea urchin
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
● Testis
- male sex gland located in the scrotum
- produces sperm and androgens
● Seminiferous tubules
- lobes/structural units found in the testis
- responsible for spermatogenesis - production of sperm
● Primordial/stem cells
- early stages
- spermatogonium
● Spermatozoa
- mature sperm cells
- has all the necessary components
- unable to move
- head, neck,tail
- it has to undergo intense training in the epididymis – will be activated,
learn how to move – spermiation
● Epididymis
- sperm storage and maturation
● Scrotum
- sac-like
- descends so that testis is farther away from the body when cold; ascends
when it is hot
● Vas deferens
- transports sperm from the scrotum to prostate gland
- delivers mature sperm cells to the seminal vesicles then to the prostate
gland
● Seminal vesicles
- secretes fructose-rich semene
- provide energy to the sperm cell
● Prostate gland
- contributes milky alkaline fluid that assists sperm activation
- semen is coagulated (semi-solid) - has difficulty moving, 30 mins to liquify
for swimming purposes
● Cowpers/ bulbourethral gland
- contributes mucus to semen
● Urethra
- exit
● Penis
- delivers sperm into the female genital tract
TESTIS HISTOLOGY
- spermatogonium – undergoes mitosis to produce more spermatogonia,
differentiate primary spermatocyte, duplicates its chromosomes and undergoes
1st meiosis cycle, secondary spermatocyte, 2nd meiosis – spermatids –
round/spherical cells, undergo spermatogenesis
- spermiogenesis – grow a tail and a head
Sertoli cells
- maintain close contact with spermatogenic cells to provide structural and
metabolic support
- a single cell extends from the basement membrane to the lumen of the
seminiferous tubule
Sertoli Cell Functions
- maintain the environment necessary for development and maturation via the
blood-testis barrier
- secretes substances initiating meiosis
- secrete supporting testicular fluid
- secrete androgen-binding protein, which concentrates testosterone in close
proximity to the developing gametes
- secrete hormones affecting pituitary gland control of spermatogenesis,
particularly the polypeptide, inhibin
- phagocytose residual cytoplasm left over spermiogenesis
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
● Ovary
- female sex gland that produces ovum
● Uterus
- where fetus develops
- role up to the cervix is to deliver/ passageway
● Oocytes/ovum/egg cells
- follows meiosis 1 and 2, only 1 daughter cell proceeds to the next phase,
the other one becomes a polar body which eventually degenerates
● Oogonium
- primary oocyte – when it splits, one becomes primary oocyte and the other
becomes a polar body which cannot undergo fertilization, it will become a
secondary oocyte by fertilization, follicular cells
Meiosis
- reduction division
- homologous recombination or “crossing over”
- 4 genetically different haploid daughter cells (23 chromosomes in humans)
primary oocyte
- surrounds itself with follicular cells (Sertoli cells) which further grows to become
the zona pellucida – space cavity (avum?)
- 1 oogonium - 1 ovum
secondary oocyte
- egg cell is arrested at metaphase (has 46 chromosomes) ; upon fertilization, it
will split to 23 chromosomes
Gametogenesis
- production of gametes (sperm and egg) at the end of Meiosis II
- “gameto” – gametes
- “genesis” – to create/ make
Gametogenesis phases:
1. multiplication
- primordial germ cells undergo mitosis
- production of oogonia and spermatogonia
2. growth (process of maturing ; pag naging spermatocyte, oocyte, secondary, etc.)
3. maturation/ differentiation (when spermatids become sperm cells)
- primary spermatocyte -> 2 secondary spermatocytes -> 4 spermatids
which undergo differentiation (spermatogenesis)
- primary oocyte
Sperm structure: Acrosome
- golgi apparatus becomes the acrosome (responsible for dissolving cells
surrounding the ovum in order for the sperm cell to penetrate)
- golgi is at the north pole
- mitochondria moves to the south pole (the next middle ; becomes the neck) to
produce energy for the flagellum extending outside the cell
- derived from golgi apparatus and contains hydrolytic enzymes released when
sperm reaches an ovum, digesting the outer membrane of the egg and allowing
penetration of the sperm
Sperm structure: Midpiece
- contains numerous mitochondria that provide energy for movement of the tail
1. spermatogenesis (production of sperm cells)
- spermiogenesis (grow head and tail)
[ ] golgi becomes acrosome
[ ] mitochondria moves to posterior (neck)
[ ] centrioles move out of the spermatid ; becomes the tail
- spermiation (activation of the sperm cells in the epididymis thru vas
deferens)
- occurs upon release of mature spermatozoa from the protective
sertoli cells into the lumen of the seminiferous tubules
- removes remaining unnecessary cytoplasm and organelles
- mature but non-motile reptile are transported to the epididymis,
where in they acquire motility and become capable of fertilization
- gonads: testes/ testis
- continual production of spermatogonia
- spermatogonium - males, lifetime, can undergo replication
2. oogenesis (production of egg cells)
- gonads: ovaries/ ovary
- has 2 million primary oocytes in her ovaries
- by age 7, 300,000 remain – the rest are reabsorbed
- 400 to 500 oocytes will be released during the reproductive years
- oocytes remain arrested at prophase until ovulation
- at the time of ovulation, oocytes proceed up to Metaphase II
- penetration of sperm induces the secondary oocyte and the first polar body
to complete meiosis II
- if unfertilized, oocyte degenerates
- limited number of oogonium
- oogonium
- upon birth - predetermined oogonium
- stops at birth
- secondary oocytes are considered haploid already but when fertilized w
sperm cell, it proceed to meiosis II w diploid
- upon fertilization, it will have 46 chromosomes
- upon fertilization via spermatogonia, it will proceed to anaphase
then separating the ootid from the polar body
- only primary oocytes stay in the ovary
- secondary oocytes are in the fallopian tube (ready for fertilization)
- follicles differ in layers (primordial, primary, growing, mature)
- vesicular follicle (cavity is present; releases secondary oocytes)
- corpus luteum (comes after secondary oocytes) -> corpus albicans
(degenerates from corpus luteum)
- yolk is formed during the production of primary oocyte - cytoplasm of
different germ layers
- growing, maturing, mature oocyte – depending on size
- growing oocyte - oogonium surrounded by follicle
- maturing oocyte - developing antrum - filled with follicular fluid
- mature oocyte - large oocyte
- follicle cells prevent primary oocytes from undergoing meiosis
- upon puberty, females produce sex hormones; primary oocytes ->
secondary oocytes
- gonadotropin – hormone that has action on gonads, not produced BY
gonads
Dictyate State
- sort of ‘statis’ where the developing oocyte arrests in diplotene of the 1st meiotic
prophase following initial maturation while the female embryo is in her mother’s
womb
- mediated meiosis stabilizing factor secreted by the follicle cells of the primordial
follicle
- at the beginning of a menstrual cycle a number of oocytes in primordial follicles
are stimulated by pituitary gonadotropins to continue their maturation
- due to their luteinizing hormone concentration
- either blocks/deactivates the meiosis stabilizing factor
- as a result, egg maturation continues and meiosis 1 occurs
- in many species (including humans), the oocyte then arrests at metaphase
of meiosis II until after fertilization
Vitellogenic Phase
- formation of yolk
- estrogen stimulates synthesis of vitellogenins in liver or equivalent organ, and is
then transported to ovary by circulatory system
- follicle cells transfer this into egg (oocyte)
- molecular structure of vitellogenins is modified in the egg
- deposition of yolk in cytoplasm is mediated by enzymes, endoplasmic reticulum,
golgi bodies, and mitochondria
- yolk platelets are formed
EGG CLASSIFICATION
A. by amount of yolk
1. polylecithal/ megalecithal/ macrolecithal
- huge amount of yolk (birds, reptiles, bony fish)
2. mesolecithal
- medium amount of yolk (amphibians)
3. microlecithal/ oligolecithal
- very little yolk (most mammals)
B. by distribution of yolk
1. telolecithal
- yolk distributed in gradient, concentrated toward one pole of egg,
usually the vegetal pole (e.g. amphibians)
2. isolecithal
- yolk evenly distributed throughout egg cytoplasm (e.g. sea urchins,
human)
endoderm – gastrointestinal tract, digestive system
ectoderm – skin, CNS
mesoderm – notochord, internal organs
HORMONES
Reproductive cycle
- prepare both male and female gametes for fertilization
Hormonal control of reproduction
● Hormone
- chemicals that regulate bodily functions
- made of proteins/ lipids
- produced by organs (endocrine gland – secreted in the blood then reaches all
parts of the body except for places with a blood barrier)
- exocrine glands - part of the gland is secreted containing the hormone, sent to the
target organ
- tropism – action, indicating growth or turning movement of a biological
organism
● Vertebrate reproduction
- cyclic activity
- often related to changing seasons
- environmental cues -> hormonal control -> reproductive cycles (reproductive
process)
- FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) and LH (luteinizing hormone) ; target are
testes and ovaries (gonadotropic hormones/ gonadotropins)
Categories
● tropic - specific organ
● non-tropic - work on multiple organs/cells
● both - one growth hormone
cyclic reproductive patterns of mammals
2 types:
1. Estrous cycle
- lower vertebrates
- associated with more pronounced behavioral cycles than menstrual cycles
- copulation can only occur during the actual reproductive phase of the cycle
(window period); cannot occur beyond
● estrus: period of sexual activity
- the only time the condition of the vagina permits mating
Stages of Estrous cycle
- marked by changes in the uterus, ovary, and vagina
1. Proestrus – period of preparation (follicles grow)
2. Estrus – when mating occurs (within the time- range of ovulation) - if successful
- pregnancy proceeds
3. Metestrus – period of repair
4. Diestrus – becomes small and anemic
Frequency of estrous cycle during the breeding season varies
● Monoestrous – single EC in a breeding season
- ex. dogs, foxes
● Polyestrous – recurrence of EC in a breeding season
- ex. mice, rabbits, squirrels
2. menstrual cycle
- anthropoid primates
- refers specifically to the changes that occur in the uterus, preparedness of the
uterus
- also called the uterine cycle
- caused by the cyclic events that occur in the ovaries, the ovarian cycle
The gonadal steroids and their control
1. ovaries – estrogen
2. testes - testosterone
● GnRH - gonadotropin- releasing hormone
- hypothalamus – secretes it
- gonadotropin-releasing hormone
- hypothalamo-pituitary portal vessel
- stimulate anterior pituitary to release GnRH
● Anterior Pituitary
- FSH (blocks meiosis in primary oocytes and spermatocytes) – Sertoli cells –
stimulate spermatogenesis – inhibin
- LH – Leydig cells – produce testosterone – reprod. tract and other organs
(secondary characteristics)
- Testosterone – auto-gonadotropin; produced by the gonads but exert action on
the gonads as well (on Sertoli cells – stimulate spermatogenesis)
- inhibin – negative feedback; inhibit gonadotropins -
hypothalamus – anterior pituitary – testes (NEGATIVE FEEDBACK)
in ovaries (positive feedback)
DIAGRAM (PHASE): top: ovarian, bottom: uterine
endometrium – outermost layer of the uterus
Variations in the length of mc/ phases
- most cycles: 25-30 days
- > 25d <30d
- Younger women > older women
- 15-19 years old = 30 d
- 30 years old = 30 d
- 35 years old = 28 d
- 25,28, 30 day cycles
Summary of Hormone Effects
● FSH
- stimulates growth and development of the follicle
- stimulates secretion of estrogen
- enhances effect of LH in stimulating ovulation
● LH
- stimulates the final development of the follicle
- stimulates ovulation
- stimulates the development of corpus luteum
- stimulates production of progesterone
● Estrogen
- stimulates repair of uterine lining
- at high concentration, inhibits FSH, however during pituitary hormone
surge, it stimulates further FSH production
- as concentration peaks, stimulates release of LH
● Progesterone
- maintains uterine lining
- inhibits release of FSH
- inhibits release of LH
- fall in concentration results in menstruation
- fall in concentration removes inhibition of FSH and a new cycle begins
FERTILIZATION
sexual reproduction – union of sperm and egg cell, can take place outside (lays eggs) or
inside
fertilization
- beginning of a new organism
- external fertilization (ex vivo)
- internal fertilization (in vivo)
- needs copulation/ mating
- amniotic egg – egg that contains their own fluid
- union of male and female gametes
insemination - deposition of sperm cells into the female reproductive tract
Major events in fertilization
a. contact and recognition between sperm and egg
- acrosome contains hyaluronidase – “ase” – enzyme
- hyaluronic acid – glues cells and tissues together
- actin – contractile proteins, what makes up the centrioles during mitosis
or meiosis, behind the acrosome
- nucleus is behind the actin
- tail of sperm – flagellum
- haploid nuclei – pronucleus
- zona pellucida – jelly coat, hyaluronic acid
- plasma membrane, vitelline layer, zoona pellucida (outwards)
- sperm cell will come in contact with egg cell, acrosome will release the
hyaluronidase that contains/digests hyaluronic acid (ACROSOMAL
REACTION) that will dissolve the jelly coat, exposing sperm-binding
proteins, actin will attach vitelline membrane containing the
sperm-binding proteins, pull the sperm toward the egg
- contact -> acrosomal reaction -> contact and fusion of sperm and egg
membranes -> entry of sperm nucleus -> cortical reaction
- cortex granules – located behind the plasma membrane, will open/burst
releasing their contents in the space between the vitelline membrane and
plasma membrane – perivitelline membrane
- fusion of the plasma membrane
- cortical reaction – cortex granules are released, destroy sperm-binding
proteins, harden the jelly coat
- becomes fertilization embryo that prevents from other sperms from
entering
b. regulation of sperm entry into the egg
- polyspermy – prevented by sodium influx
- *remember chemical in ppt*
- phosphor lipase C – breaks down lipids, calcium release (2 effects),
cortical reaction, trigger interphase stage of mitosis
- fusion of 2 plasma membranes -> cortical granules will harden the jelly
coat and will remove the sperm binding proteins
- upon fusion of the 2 plasma membranes, sodium influx
- upon fusion of the 2 plasma membranes, phospholipase C – enzyme that
breaks down lipids -> calcium release (2 effects) -> 1. cortical reaction ->
2. trigger interphase stage of mitosis
c. fusion of the genetic materials of sperm and egg
d. activation of egg metabolism to start development/metabolic activation of the
oocyte
Sea urchin Fertilization
Transport of gametes and fertilization in mammals
- through insemination
- the sperm cell will reach the cervix in the vagina
- pH gradient – diff concentrations, successive intervals – from 5 to 8 (female)
- sluggish motility of sperm except in the fallopian tube
- capacitation of sperm – became hyperactivated in the fallopian tube (rubbed in
cilia)
- oocyte transport in the female reproductive tract
- ampulla of the fallopian tube – site of fertilization
Sperm transport in the female reproductive tract
- site of insemination
- barriers in the reproductive tract
- uterus – uterine contractions are important in the success of the zygote
- entrance into the uterine tube
- final destination
- capacitation – brushing of the sperm cell along the sides of the fallopian tube
Human female reproductive tract illustrating stages of male gamete transport
● A. Sperm entering cervical mucus at external os of cervix
● B. Sperm interacting with endosalpingeal epithelium of the fallopian tube
● C. Hyperactivated motility of sperm in the fallopian tube
● D. Oocyte in the ampulla of the fallopian tube
Union of gametes
- in mammals
- hyaluronidase is released from the acrosomal cap, digests the corona radiata, ZP,
PM
- sperm specific receptor presenter in the ZP
- ZP3 proteins in rodents
- amphimixis – pronuclei fusion
Accomplishments of fertilization
- completion of the second meiotic block
- restores normal diploid number of chromosomes
- sex of the future embryo determined
- variation
- metabolic activation of the egg
sperm cells carry the sex chromosome! (xy)
CLEAVAGE
fertilization(zygote) -> cleavage
Cleavage mitosis
- no transcription – just divide cytoplasm of maternal ovum, splitting egg cells in
smaller parts until you run out of mRNA and then it will shift to regular mitosis
- “synchronized cell division”
- no G1
Functions of Cleavage Cell Division
1. generate large number of cells
2. generate many copies of the zygotic genome
3. can result to cytoplasmic gradients
- the two-cell would have more cytoplasmic content than the
eight-cell stage
4. increases the nuclear-cytoplasmic volume ratio
- universal aspect of cleavage
- at a certain level, pace of cell division shows
What fuels cleavage?
MPF – mitosis promoting factor (translated from maternal mRNAs)
- fusion of 2 subunits:
● Cyclin B
● cdc2/cdk1 = cyclin dependent kinase (enzyme that allows
transfer of phosphorus/phosphate -> phosphorylation)
- degradation of cyclin in cleavage but not in regular mitosis
How does MPF work?
● Synthesis and degradation of MPF ------> cycling of cells
Activation/deactivation of cd kinases
Cyclin B-cdc2 complex (active MPF)
- phosphorylates target proteins inside the cell
● histone proteins (chromatin condensation)
● nuclear membrane proteins (nuclear membrane depolarization)
● reg. cytoplasmic proteins (spindle fiber organization)
Sources of MPF in the early embryo
- Cyclin B is translated from maternal RNAs
- all the other necessary components for cell cycling are also maternally
derived
- the cell cycle is independent of the nuclear genome for several cell divisions
- regulators of Cyclin B resides in the cytoplasm of the egg
● As the egg cytoplasm and the maternally-loaded cyclin B and other cell cycle
factors are depleted
● Zygote transcription – must begin in order to
replenish them, transcribe their own mRNA
● transition from maternal to zygotic genome
transcription
Beginning of new phenomena:
1. addition of gap phases
2. loss of synchronous division
3. new mRNAs are transcribed
4. new cells synthesize different regulators
When does the embryo stop dividing?
- a new balance in the nuclear:cytoplasmic volume ratio
- depletion in the maternal reserve of mRNAs and proteins
- Result to:
● zygote genome activation (ZGA)
- new gene transcription in the zygote nucleus
● synchronous cell division is lost (becomes asynchronous)
The Timing of Cleavage Division
Cell cycle of a typical mature somatic cell
- includes M (mitosis) phase, S phase (DNA synthesis)
- two gap phases, G1 and G2 - when cells grow, produce mRNAs and proteins
necessary for cell cycle
Cell cycle of early cleavage divisions
- gap phases do not occur
- the cells cycle between M phase and S phase (biphasic)
- if G2 would occur, it is short
- there is not growth
What controls the cell cycle
Cell cycle (cleavage stage embryo) Cell cycle (typical somatic cell)
In normal cell cycles
- presence of the cyclin-cdc2 complex
- promotes the transition from G2 to M phase
In early cleavages
- the cyclin-cdc2 complex promotes the transition from S to M phase
Factors influencing Cleavage Patterns
1. Maternal cytoplasmic factors
angle of mitotic spindle -> site of 1st cleavage furrow
- invariably, cytokinesis occurs in a plane perpendicular to the axis of
mitotic spindle
- maternal gene products may orient mitotic spindle
- prophase occurs because of phosphorylation
-
2. Amount and distribution of yolk
● isolecithal/oligolecithal
● mesolecithal
● telolecithal
● centrolecithal
Patterns of Cleavage and Cleavage Symmetry
Holoblastic radial
Holoblastic rotational
In mammals
- cleavage is extremely slow; during its journey down to the oviduct
- unusually asynchronous
- does not always proceed regularly from 2->4->8 blastomeres
Mammalian Cleavage to Blastula
1. Compaction
- 8 cell stage
- takes place when the cleavage cells/blastoemeres flatten to become more
compact
2. Polarization
- around 16 cell stage, outside cells (9-14), inside cells (2-7)
- concentrated on one side of the blastula/blastocyst - cells separating into
2 poles: embryoblast (inner) and trophoblast (outer)
3. Cavitation
- blastocoel
- holoblastic – blastocyst, whole zygote splits up, usually occur among
animals who develop inside their mother’s womb
- meroblastic – partial, only top portion undergoes cleavage, retains a huge
amount of yolk for nourishment of the growing embryo, takes place
outside the mother’s womb, blastodisc, blastoderm
GASTRULATION
Syngamy – fusion of 2 cells
Gastrulation
- depends if the cleavage is holoblastic or meroblastic
- embryo prepares to segregate into 3 germ layers
- gastrula – gut
Fertilization
- in all sexually-reproducing animals, the first step is fertilization – union of male
and female gametes
- fertilization itself consists of 3 events:
● sperm penetration and membrane
● egg activation
● fusion of nuclei
Sperm penetration and membrane fusion
- protective layers of egg include the jelly layer and vitelline envelope in sea
urchins, and the zona pellucida in mammals
- the acrosome of sperm contains digestive enzymes that enable the sperm to
tunnel its way through to the egg’s cell membrane
- membrane fusion permit sperm nucleus to enter directly into egg’s
cytoplasm
Cleavage
- rapid division of the zygote into a larger and larger number of smaller and
smaller cells called blastomeres
- not accompanied by an increase in the overall size of the embryo
- two embryo ends are:
- in a blastocyst:
● animal pole
- external tissues
- upper portion
● vegetal pole
- internal tissues
- lower portion
- outermost blastomeres in the ball of cells become joined by tight junctions
- innermost blastomeres pump Na+ into the intracellular spaces
- create osmotic gradient, which draws water
- the result is a hollow ball of cells, the blastula, containing a fluid-filled cavity,
blastocoel
Cleavage Patterns
- eggs with large amounts of yolk undergo meroblastic (incomplete) cleavage
- in eggs of reptiles and birds, the clear cytoplasm is concentrated at one
pole called the blastodisc
- cleavage is restricted to this area - resulting embryo is not spherical
- mammalian eggs contain very little yolk and undergo
- from a blastocyst:
● trophoblast
- becomes placenta
- outer layer
● inner cell mass
- forms the developing embryo
- located at one pole
Cleavage Patterns
Fate of Blastomeres
- in mammals, early blastomeres do not appear to be committed to a particular fate
- the earliest patterning events occur at the 8-cell stage
- outer surfaces of the blastomeres flatten against each other in a
process called compaction
- produces polarized blastomeres which then divide
asymmetrically
Gastrulation
- embryo prepares to segregate itself into 3 germ layers (diff organs will arise from)
- gut will be the first to form
- process involving a complex series of cell shape changes and cell movements that
occurs in the blastula
- invagination (cell sheet dents inward), involution (rolling inward), ingression
(breaking away from cell sheet and migrate as individual cells ; for primitive
streak), delamination (cell sheets split in 2)
- establishes the basic body plan and creates the 3 primary germ layers: ecto, meso,
endo
- cells move during gastrulation using a variety of cell shape changes
- cells that are tightly attached to each other via junctions will move as cell sheets
● invagination - cell sheet dents inward
● involution - cell sheet rolls inward
● ingression - cells break away from cell sheet and migrate as individual cells
● delamination - cell sheet splits in 2
Developmental Fates of the Primary Germ Layers in Vertebrates
- epidermis and nervous system – ectoderm
- digestive tract, gut – endoderm
- remaining organs – mesoderm
4 gastrulation patterns
- vary according to amount of yolk
1. sea urchin – mesoderm form first, then endoderm
- follow hollow symmetrical blastulas
- develop from relatively yolk-poor eggs
- deuterostome - anus then mouth
- formation of vegetal plate – ingression of primary mesenchyme cells
(future mesoderm cells) into the blastocoel
- remaining cells invaginate into blastocoel – forming endoderm
- archenteron – future digestive gut
- cells staying at the surface form ectoderm
- involution, ingression, invagination
2. frogs – endoderm forms first, then mesoderm
- from blastula, cells from animal pole involute over dorsal lip of blastopore
into the blastocoel
- cells eventually press against far wall
- eliminate blastocoel – producing archenteron with yolk plug
- movement create layers
- outer ectoderm and inner endoderm
- mesoderm forms later in between
- involution of the animal pole
3. birds – ectoderm forms first, then mesoderm
- undergo meroblastic cleavage
- avian consists of a disc of cells
- instead of blastocyst, blastoderm (on top is blastodisc), sitting on top of a
large yolk mass
- 1st, blastoderm delaminates into 2 layers (endoderm and ectoderm) w/
blastocoel cavity
- upper layer produces 3 germ layers:
- cell that migrate through primitive streak form
endoderm/mesoderm
- cells that remain form ectoderm
- delamination (main cellular movement) and ingression
ingression – from ectoderm
hensen’s node will become the nervous system
inner cell mass of mammals are the blastodisc in birds
4. mammals
- process similar to birds
- embryo develops from inner cell mass
- ICM flattens and delaminates into 2 layers
- a primitive streak forms
- cell movements through it give rise to 3 primary germ layers
- holoblastic
