Lecture Notes

Business Communication
Foreword
This is an attempt to provide the students of the University of Papua
New Guinea with an up-to-date and concise text on the subject of
Business Communication.

These lecture notes introduce the students to the theory of

communication and to the special features and principles of business
communication. . This knowledge is essential in improving the
students’ interpersonal communication skills and provides a platform
for the follow-up Business Communication B course, which is more
practically oriented.

The first part of BCA explains the concept and process of

communication, providing an in-depth understanding of what is
effective communication, common barriers to effective
communication, and the specifics of communication in organizations.
The course further focuses on the characteristics and principles of
business communication and the process of planning business
communication. The various interpersonal communication skills
required for effective communication are discussed at length (writing,
reading, speaking, and listening), with special emphasis placed on
analytical thinking, which is the underlying prerequisite for all the
other communication skills.
This course also introduces the students to the major types and
conventions of business communication and provides some practical
experience in writing business letters, memos, short reports, etc.

These Lecture Notes are based on a number of sources, including

 The AAT Study Text (Language & Literature Dept., UPNG)

 Judith Dwyer The Business Communication Handbook 2nd
Edition MBC NSW Australia, 1991
 L.A. Woolcott & W.R. Unwin Mastering Business
Communication Macmillan Press Ltd., 1983
 N.B. Sigband Business Communication Harcourt Brace
Jovanovich College Outline Series, Books for Professionals,
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Publishers, 1984
 The Internet
 Contents

Lecture 1: Introduction to Business Communication 1

The Purpose of the Course 1
Definition of Communication 1
Communication Theory 1
The Process of Communication 3
Feedback in Communication 3
Effective Communication 3
Barriers to Communication 5

Lecture 2: Communication in Organizations 6

Concept & Types of Organizations 6
Communication in Business Organizations 6
Functions of Communication in a Business Organization 7
Increased Volume & Complexity of Communication in
Organizations

7
Organizational Structure & Lines of Communication 8
Communication in a ‘Network’ Organization: New Realities
11
Channels of Communication & Networking: Types of
Networks 11
Communication Media in Business Communication 12
Principles of Business Communication 12

Lecture 3: Using the Language 14

A Historical Overview 14
The Wrong Words 15
Jargon 15
Emotive Language 17
Too Many Words 18
The Fog Index 19
The Right Words 20
Style & Tone 21
Sentence Structure 22
Paragraph Structure 23
Assignments 23
Reference Section: Basics of Syntax & Sentence Analysis 24

Lecture 4: I. Research Methods; Obtaining Information 32

Business Information 32
Effective Information Search: Primary & Secondary Data 32
Receiving Information 33
Analysing, Selecting & Preparing Information 34
Taking Notes 34
Making Notes 34
Summary & Precis 34
II. Writing with Force & Clarity 34
The Planning Process in Communication 35
Scope, Limitations, & Depth 36
Drawing Up the Tentative Outline 36
Outlining Methods 36
 Orders of Development 37
Types of Outlines 37
Writing the First Draft 37
Choosing the Words 38
Choosing the Sentences 38
Choosing the Paragraphs 38
Qualities of Writing Style 38
Editing Suggestions 38
Readability Formulas 39
Ten Suggestions for Clear Writing 39
The Final Paper 39

Lecture 5: Communication through Writing: Business Letters 42

The Advantages of the Business Letter 42
The Business Letter Today 42
Letter Format 43
Letter Form 43
Principles of Business Communication 44
Different Types of Letter 45
Memoranda & Notices 47

Lecture 6: Information Storage & Retrieval. Report Writing 50

Information Storage & Retrieval 50
Reports for Decision Making: Types of Reports 51
General Points of Style 51
Report Formats: the Short Form 51
Report Formats: the Long Form 54

Lecture 7: Oral, Non-Verbal & Visual Communication 57

The Advantages of Oral Communication 57
The Disadvantages of Oral Communication 57
Skills in Oral Communication 57
Effective Speaking: the Short Presentation 58
Effective Speaking: the Long Presentation 59
Listening 59
Using Visual Aids to Communicate 61

Lecture 8: Persuasion
Persuasion and Influence 63
What is Argument? 64
Constructing a Logical Argument: Persuasive Logic 65
Message Characteristics: Persuasive Style 66
Identifying False Arguments 69
Engaging in a Constructive Discussion 71

Lecture 9: Cooperation 72
Cooperation & Group Characteristics 72
Roles and Relationships within Groups 73
Working in Groups 73
Supervision & Leadership: Styles & Functions 74
 Conflict Management 75
Motivation 75
Disciplinary & Grievance Procedures 77

Lecture 10: Conducting Meetings. Documentation for Meetings 78

References 82
 1

Lecture 1: Introduction to Business Communication

1. The Purpose of the Course

2. Definition of Communication
3. Communication Theory
 The Behavioral Theory
 The Mathematical Theory
4. The Process of Communication
5. Feedback in Communication
6. Effective Communication
7. Barriers to Communication

1.The Purpose of the Course. This course is designed to improve

the students‟ communication skills through achieving a better
understanding of:
 the role of communication in human society
 the nature of communication in human society
 the process of communication in human society
 the importance of feedback in communication
 barriers to effective communication
 specificity of communication in organizations
 forms, media, and channels of communication in
organizations

The focus on the principles and conventions of business communication

will also help us improve our basic interpersonal communication skills,
such as reading, writing, listening, and speaking. The all-important role
of analytical thinking as the underlying factor in any form of effective
communication will be highlighted.

2.Definition of Communication. Communication is a complex process

often involving reading, writing, speaking and listening. It may be verbal
and non-verbal (or a mixture of both), and it uses a variety of media
(language, mass media, digital technology, etc.). Broadly speaking,
communication is a transfer and reconstruction of information. More
specifically, we may define communication as the transmission and
reception of ideas, feelings and attitudes – verbal and non-verbal – that
produce a response.

3.Communication Theory. There are two major theories of

communication: behavioral & mathematical.
 The Behavioral Theory covers both verbal and non-verbal
communication. First set forth by Dr. Jurgen Ruesch, a
psychiatrist, it postulates that communication is based on social
situations in which individuals find themselves. Our participation
in communication with others must conform to established
behavioral patterns involving
1
 2

o social situations (culture, social class, time & place, etc.)

o roles (sex, professional, religious, etc.)
o status (authority, respect, social/class standing, i.e. in the
caste system in India)
o rules (protocol, ethics, or code of behavior)

1
 o clues in non-verbal communication (gestures, touch, voice
inflections, rate of delivery, etc.)

This theoryidentifies communication networks such as

 intrapersonal, i.e., communication with oneself,
 interpersonal, i.e., communication between individuals,
 group interaction, such as between clans, or
organizations, and
 cultural, i.e., between distinct cultures, such as
Islamic and Christian, or African, Anglo-Saxon and
Spanish, etc. in America.

The Mathematical Theory is largely based on the work of Claude

Shannon & Warren Weaver who were not social scientists but engineers
working for Bell Telephone Labs in the United States. Their goal was to
ensure the maximum efficiency of telephone cables and radio waves.
They developed a model of communication, which was intended to assist
in developing a mathematical theory of communication. Shannon and
Weaver‟s work proved valuable for communication engineers in dealing
with such issues as the capacity of various communication channels in
„bytes per second‟. It contributed to computer science, and in making
„information‟ „measurable‟ it gave birth to the mathematical study of
„information theory‟.
Their original model consisted of five elements:
 An information source, which produces a message;
 A transmitter, which encodes the message into signals;
 A channel, to which signals are adapted for transmission;
 A receiver, which „decodes‟ (reconstructs) the message from the
signal;
 A destination, where the message arrives.

A sixth element, noise, is a dysfunctional factor: any interference with

the message traveling along the channel (such as „static‟ on the
telephone or radio) which may lead to the signal received being different
from that sent.

The strengths of Shannon and Weaver‟s model are its

 Simplicity
 Generality, and
 Quantifiability.

Such advantages made this model attractive to several academic

disciplines. It also drew serious academic attention to human
communication and „information theory‟, leading to further theory and
research.
Weaknesses of the transmission model of communication: The
transmission model tends to over-simplify and misrepresent the nature
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of human communication, reducing it to a process of “transmitting
information.” It fails to recognize that human communication is about
meaning rather than information.
The transmission model fixes and separates the roles of „sender‟ and
„receiver‟, whereas human communication often involves simultaneous
„sending‟ and „receiving‟ (not only talking, but also „body language‟ and
so on). In Shannon and Weaver‟s model the source is seen as the active
decision-maker who determines the meaning of the message; the

2
destination is the passive target. It is a linear, one-way model, ascribing
a secondary role to the „receiver‟, who is seen as absorbing information.
There was no provision in the original model for feedback (reaction from
the receiver). Feedback enables speakers to adjust their performance to
the needs and responses of their audience. A „feedback loop‟ was added
by later theorists, but the model remains linear.

For the purposes of this course, however, we shall make use of the
modified version of the transmission model of communication,
highlighting some important behavioral aspects and implications of
human communication.

4.The Process of Communication. Communication begins with an

impulse (or motivation) to pass on a message made up of bits of
information. In the process of encoding, units of information are
selected and organized for transmission. Input is the sum of
experiences that build up in the human brain or computer. Output is
the encoded message transmitted by the information source (an
individual person or group of people).
The interpretation of the message is referred to as decoding. Feedback is
the response, or message that the recipient (decoder) returns to the
sender (encoder).

Graphic presentation of this model of the process of communication:

Impulse – input/encoding/output – relaying through potential

distortion on both sides – decoding – feedback

Example: When Peter calls Jenny on the phone and says, “Would you
like to stop at the Big Rooster’s today?” he is drawing on his pleasant
past experiences with Big Rooster’s roast chicken and potato chips. He
has encoded a message and transmitted it to Jenny, using the English
language as the medium and the telephone lines as channel of
communication.
Jenny, in turn, has received the message, decoded (= translated) it, and
on the basis of her information source (= input = sum total of experiences),
gives Peter feedback (response) by saying, “I dislike the Big Rooster
thoroughly. How about the Chinese instead?”

5.Feedback in Communication. Feedback in the communication

process is the response that gives us some indication of how
effectively we communicate. It is the gauge of efficiency in
communication.
Example:
If a thirsty man asks for water in a culturally appropriate way, using
proper means and channels of communication, he will get the desired
feedback (water to quench his thirst). Thus, the purpose of his

3
communication will have been achieved.

6.Effective Communication. We communicate with other people around

us from the day we are born until death. Most of our communication,
however, will be ineffective if we do not understand the processes
involved and acquire special communication skills in order to enhance
our effectiveness.
What is effective communication? Human communication is effective, if:

3
  the input (a sum of information or experiences built up in the
encoder‟s mind) is translated into an encoded message in such a
way that the output (encoded message sent) most accurately
represents the input (1:1 output-input ratio),
 the encoded message is easily decoded, or translated by the decoder,
and
 an adequate (= desired, predictable, calculated) feedback (response
to the encoded message) is sent back and duly received.

Pre-requisites for effective communication:

1. Knowledge of
 subject matter
 decoder(s)
 environment
 human psychology

2. Communication Skills. Skill means “practiced ability,

expertness.” If you are good at something – whatever this
activity may be - because you approach it intelligently, have
mastered and habitually employ the techniques, then you
have a skill, i.e. driving, swimming, or typing
Communication skills means intelligent and practiced ways
of sending and receiving messages – talking and writing,
listening and reading. This involves an understanding of
how the process works, and sensitivity to variable factors,
as well as mastery of the techniques.

 Language skills: oral (i.e., clear pronunciation,

suitable vocabulary, correct grammar/syntax,
fluency, expressive delivery), written (correct spelling,
suitable vocabulary, correct grammar/syntax, good
writing or typing, suitable style, etc.), and visual/non-
verbal (understanding of/control over “body
language”)
 Analytical thinking: ability to extract and prioritize
information; ability to choose the appropriate
medium & channel of communication; ability to
analyze the reactions of the decoder(s), etc.
3. Personality traits, such as charm, self-confidence, relaxed,
easy-going and friendly manner, sensitivity, perceptiveness,
emotional stability, objectiveness and patience, open-
mindedness and flexibility.
4. Motivation, practical benefit, personal interest, etc.
5. Necessary infrastructure, such as telephone, fax, public
address system, microphone, computer networks, the
Internet, e-mail, visual aids, electricity supply, etc.
6. Physical/mental health and fitness, i.e., communication

4
 with a deaf, dumb, or delirious man will be impeded, just
as it will be if the encoder / decoder is exhausted
physically or drunk/drugged.

Thus, good interpersonal communication skills and

conducive attitudes (willingness to communicate) are the
basic requirements for effective communication.

4
7.Barriers to Communication: on one or both sides (encoder‟s and
decoder‟s):

 Lack of knowledge
 Lack of interest or attention
 Lack in communication skills (language use, analytical
thinking)
 Lack of charm, self-confidence, sensitivity,
perceptiveness, objectiveness and patience; tense,
uneasy personality, inflexibility
 Bias, prejudice, or preconceived ideas
 Distractions
 Competition for attention
 Differences in perception
 Attitudes
 Lack of motivation
 Physical/mental handicaps
 Stress

All of the above barriers to communication may be classed into two broad
categories:
 Distortion resulting from inadequate use of language (incorrect
grammar, syntax, overuse of technical/obscure words, ambiguity,
etc.) and other communication skills (analytical approach
to/understanding of decoders and the context/ environment
within which communication is taking place, choice of appropriate
medium and channel of communication).
 Noise, or interference:
o Physical noise – actual noise that may drown the
communication
o “Technical noise” – a failure in the channel of
communication (breakdown of
technology/equipment, etc.)
o “Social noise” – personality differences due to upbringing;
difference in perceptions/mentality due to diverse cultural,
religious, educational, etc. backgrounds, bias due to age,
sex, social class, status, etc.
o “Psychological noise” – excessive/uncontrolled emotions
(anger, fear, etc.), prejudice, stress, nervous tension, etc.

Summar
y: 1. Human communication is a very complex dynamic
process of human interaction subject to a multitude of
environmental, cultural, etc., factors, as well as
potential distortion.
2. For the purposes of this course we shall make use of
the modified version of the „information
5
t the implications of the behavioral theory.
r 3. Transmission model of communication: impulse –
a input/encoding/output – relaying through potential
n distortion on both sides – decoding – feedback.
s 4. The concept of effective communication in this context
m signifies a most accurate transmission of meaning in the
i process of human interaction from the encoder to the
s decoder that receives an adequate response (feedback).
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5
Lecture 2: Communication in Organizations.

1. Concept & Types of Organizations with Reference to the Behavioral

Theory
2. Communication in Business Organizations
3. Functions of Communication in a Business Organization
4. Increased Volume and Complexity of Communication in Organizations
5. Organizational Structure & Lines of Communication
6. Communication in a „Network‟ Organization: New Realities
7. Channels of Communication & Networking; Types of Networks
8. Communication Media in Business Communication
9. Principles of Business Communication

1. Concept & Types of Organizations with Reference to the Behavioral

Theory

People function in society as individuals and in organized groups, such

as family, clan, school, community, professional associations, trade
unions, etc.

Organization, according to one of the meanings given in the Oxford

Dictionary, is an organized body of people; an organized system.

Just like an organism (a living being, an individual animal or plant), it is an individual

entity functioning as a unit. Examples: Telikom, Microsoft, Netscape, The National,
Pepsi, Coca-Cola, the Government, the military, the air force, the navy, etc.
Just like an organ (a distinct part of an animal or plant body, adapted for a particular
function, i.e., digestive organs) in the larger body of human society, every organization
carries out a specific function – be it educational, business, government or religious.
To make our analogy more vivid, individuals are like single cells in the body of human
society, whereas organizations are like organs with their specific functions.

The Behavioral Theory identifies four levels of communication in the

human society, or four main types of communication networks:
 Intrapersonal
 Interpersonal
 Group interaction and
 Cultural.
Communication in organizations may occur on all four levels.

2.Communication in Business Organizations

Business organizations are established to achieve a specific

purpose, such as the production of some goods or services.
Effective communication is vital for the coordinated functioning
of any organization.
There are the two main contexts in which organizational communication
may be viewed:
6
internal and external communication.

Internal communication involves all communication networks within the

organization, i.e. between the various levels of the hierarchy, departments,
branches, or individuals.

6
The main internal communication channels include:
 Written – memos, reports, forms, notice boards, house magazines, manuals
 Oral – interviews, consultations, formal and informal meetings, grapevine.
 Telecommunications – telephones, intercoms, private lines, fax, computers, email,
etc.

External organizational communication entails all communication by the organization

with the general public, or other public or business organizations. External
communication purposes vary from public relations and image-building to
governmental, educational, environmental, etc.
The channels of external communication include the mass media, advertising, letters,
company reports, open days, local/community participation, sponsorship, trade fairs
and exhibitions, conferences, etc.

Internal communication in all organizations has formal and

informal channels of communication.

Levels of Business Communication: There are four levels of

communication in organizations:
1. intrapersonal (communication with yourself)
2. interpersonal (communication to a superior or subordinate)
3. one to many (making a speech)
4. many to one (a committee making a presentation to company
president, etc.)

3.Functions of Communication in a Business Organization

The major functions of communication in a business organization

include communication for
 Information - passing information between people working
in the same organization and between the organization
and others
 Control - communication (written, oral, or even nonverbal) is also
used as part of management control for the planning of
operations, evaluating performance, directing and motivating
staff.
 Motivation - The difficulty is for the managers to find a balance
between control and motivation and efficiency. Too much control
may reduce initiative and actually lead to a lower productivity
with less response to what the customer wants and more
emphasis on what the workers think the management wants

4.Increased Volume and Complexity of Communication in Organizations

We know how complex the process of communication is between two

parties (See Lecture 1). The complexity of internal communication
systems and information flow increases with the growth of the
administrative and clerical functions and the size of organizations. In
a small organization with perhaps only 6 or 7 staff, all in one room,

7
communication is simple and straightforward, with people talking
face to face to one another. There is no need to send innumerable
memos* or use the telephone.

*However, there will still be a need for some internal written communication
(information which will be used more than once must be kept in written form, such as
reports, financial information, order and purchase records, stock control forms, etc.).

7
As soon as the organization expands, so does the communication
system. More written communication is needed, more specialized
information is needed, even the same information will need to be
communicated in different ways to different groups.

Advances in telecommunications technology have significantly expanded

our options for communicating, but they have not solved the
communication problem at work. It has always been difficult to get the
right information to the right people at the right time – and it still is. In
fact, one can make a persuasive case that the rate of change and the
rapid growth of information are making this age-old challenge more
difficult than ever.
In view of the large volume and increased complexity of
communication within organizations, the need arises to effectively
select, control, and direct the flow of vital information.
This is achieved with the help of formal organizational structure.

5.Organizational Structure & Lines of Communication

Business organizations consist of people who work together to achieve

common goals (at least in theory! :). Organizations are the system by
which individuals cooperate, so that there can be specialization of
functions and skills for greater efficiency. This specialization of functions
forms the basis of organizational structure. All organizations, as we
know, have formal and informal structure.

The formal structure is deliberately developed to regulate and direct the

flow of information and to control other aspects of organizational
hierarchy and set-up. In order to select, restrict, direct, and control the
flow of communication within the formal organization structure, the
traditional organizations employ the sequential model of communication
that emphasizes up and down hierarchal communication. Most frequently
we designate communication to superiors as upward/vertical
communication, messages to subordinates as downward/vertical
communication, and communication to those on our level as
lateral/horizontal communication. Diagonal communication occurs when
there is communication between lower and higher levels of hierarchy,
but both in different lines of authority (for example, between senior
members of academic staff and junior Bursary officers, etc.). Most
traditional organizations also have a policy of communication (protocol)
dictating the etiquette (formal standards/rules of correct and polite
behavior within the organization) designed to ensure effective
communication within the organization.

Informal structures/networks, based on personal relationships, will not

appear on any organization chart, but can have as much or more
impact on the functioning of the organization as the formal
8
communication system.

For example, here are some of the positive aspects of the informal network:
 It may speed up the communication process: when an employee in one
department needs help to complete a task or solve a problem, members of the
informal network in other sections can use their authority or power to assist.
This avoids the delay of „going through the right channels.‟
 It may create a conducive working atmosphere, again leading to higher
productivity: If the needs and goals of formal management coincide with those
of the informal organization, in other words,

8
 if staff are well motivated, then the atmosphere of trust between the
management and employees will lead to higher productivity.
 It helps to diffuse tensions: Job satisfaction is also related to social
environment. The informal network allows employees to „let off steam‟ with
other colleagues, thus diffusing potentially destructive conflicts.
 It provides feedback to the management: If management are sensitive to the
„grapevine,‟ they can obtain information on how employees feel about the
organization, the management, and the work.

Some of the possible negative effects of the informal organization:

 It may cause conflict within the formal structure: when the goals of the informal
organization differ from those of the formal structure, conflict occurs. If the
formal channels of communication are ineffective, rumor and gossip
(„grapevine‟) spread like wild fire and may disrupt the work process. Individual
perceptions distort information. Rumor is the unsupported or untrue part of the
informal communication and is therefore of great disadvantage to the
organization.
 The informal organization will tend to resist change : organizational
restructuring (downsizing, etc.) that are perceived to threaten the existing
structure, will be opposed effectively by a well- formed informal organization.

Every organization has a constantly changing informal communication

network that involves the link between individuals and groups outside
the formal lines of authority and communication. To deal with it effectively,
management should recognize its existence and try to influence its
direction. It will do so by being aware of the rumors, replacing rumors
with fact, and creating conditions that support the goals of both groups.

Classification of Organizational Structures: Despite the wide

diversity of organizational structures, we can classify them
according to the following criteria:
 The extent of complexity
 The level of formalization
 The degree of centralization.

The greater the number of individual job functions/titles in an

organization, the more complex the structure. The more sections,
departments, or divisions in the organization, the more complex a
company becomes because there are more levels between the least
powerful and senior management.

Complexity: Organizational structures may be tall or flat, depending on

the number of levels of management.
Tall structures are typical of large public sector corporations; they are
also still found in some large companies. Tall structures are put in
place when the management wants to centralize all decision-making
and retain control over the whole of the organization.
Flat structures exist in those organizations which have very few levels of
management, so that there may be only one or two levels in the
9
hierarchy.
The number of levels, that is, whether the organization is tall or flat,
directly affects communication within an organization. The effectiveness
of communication will depend on how well managed the organization is,
and on the extent of horizontal links.

Formalization: The more an organization determines the job

specifications of its employees, the more formalized it is. Low
formalization in a job means that the employee

9
has a high degree of independence and discretion in the job. In other
words, it means a high degree of control over work. Conversely, high
formalization means little control or independence, therefore little
power.

Centralization: The communication effectiveness of an organization will

also depend on the extent of the centralization of decision-making in the
company. Organizations with tall structures tend to be highly
centralized: all major decisions there require the approval of top
management. This means that middle management is unable to make
important decisions and must therefore use memos, short reports, and
submissions to request a decision.

Thus, there is an undeniable link between the organizational and

communication structure of any concern. This is not the place for a
detailed analysis of the link between an organization‟s structure and its
overall efficiency; however, structure does have a major effect on the
communication that takes place. Traditional organizations, operating in a
more or less stable environment, tend to be more structured and make
greater use of organizational charts, protocol, policies, and job
descriptions. Modern organizations, operating in a very dynamic
environment, may have no organizational charts, job descriptions, or
standing plans; they are highly flexible. The structured organization is
called mechanistic, and the flexible structure, organic.

Mechanistic structures:
 are static, rigid, vertically oriented, pyramid shaped
 use rules, policies, procedures
 decision-making is limited to top management
 authority is based on position
 have elaborate control system and
 rigid communication channels.

Mechanistic structures are best used when

 goals are well known and long lasting
 there is a stable, reasonably simple environment
 technology is simple and well understood
 work force appreciates routine, structure, and low levels of
ambiguity.

Organic structures:
 are fluid, dynamic, ever changing
 horizontally oriented
 flat
 decision-making takes place at all levels
 changing authority patterns
 authority based on expertise

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  collaboration
 informal routes of communication based on
current needs. They are best used when

10
  tasks are uncertain
 environment is complex and ever changing
 technology is complex and constantly changing
 workforce is creative and innovative.

7.Communication in a “Network” Organization: Facing New Realities.

Leadership (management) has generally been considered the province of
the CEO (Central Executive Officers), or at best, a few people at the top
of the organizational hierarchy. “Command and control”
leadership/management carried many organizations to very high levels
of financial performance during periods when competition was not so
great and things did not change very fast - but its time has passed. It is
becoming clear that no small group at the top can provide the leadership
needed for an entire organization of any size in the information age. The
demands on the total organization are too great for a few people at the
top to call all the shots.
Today, better-informed customers, rapid change, and fierce competition
from global competitors demand empowered employees exercising
leadership at every level of the organization. This is not possible without
a radical restructuring of the traditional sequential model of
organizational communication. As mentioned earlier, there have been
three pervasive patterns that will no longer work in knowledge-based
organizations:
1. the primary flow of information was vertical – within
departmental walls that were often impermeable,
2. information was hoarded and used as a source of power over others,
and
3. people at the top often withheld crucial strategic information
from those lower in the organization in the belief they couldn‟t
handle it.

The restrictive and regulatory function of the traditional sequential

model of communication is no longer effective in ensuring the timely
delivery of the right kind of information to the right people at all levels of
the modern organization. Because vertical communication is bound by
hierarchy and function, communication is constrained, lacking
integration across function. The sequential model restricts innovation
and prevents organizations from making effective use of information
resources. A new, concurrent communication model is evolving – it is
goal oriented and emphasizes an interactive process that supports
simultaneous and spontaneous communication. Since communication
is a critical element in organizational design, a new type of „network‟
organization is evolving, with formal and informal interactive
communication structures at all units and levels. As the environment
becomes more dynamic, the general trend is for organizations to move
from the mechanistic structure to organic structure in order to remain
competitive.

11
7. Channels of Communication and Networking. Types of Networks.
When we communicate with those above us, below us, or around
us, we are establishing communication networks. These may be
formal channels or informal channels.

Within the organization, there are usually four types of networks:

 Wheel: a wheel network exists when there is a supervisor with
a number of subordinates reporting directly without
consultation or links with each other.

11
  Chain: in a chain communication network information is passed
sequentially to the next employee above or below in the line of
authority.
 Circle: the circle is a three level hierarchy with the lowest level
of employees communicating with each other and directly with
the person on the next level. That level then reports directly to
the higher level. Communication also occurs downwards
between the levels.
 Star, or the all channel network, is more an ideal than a reality:
every member of the organization is able to communicate directly
as an equal with every other member. Some committees are
examples of all channel (star) networks.

The most structured is the wheel; the least structured is the star,
where opportunities for feedback are greatest and morale is usually the
highest.

8.Communication Media in Business Communication

Both formal and informal channels of communication may employ four

major media of communication:
 face-to-face communication (formal meetings, interviews,
informal contact, the grapevine),
 oral communication (the telephone, the intercom or public address
system),
 written communication (letters, memos, reports, forms, notice
boards, bulletins, newsletters, organizational manuals, etc.),
 visual communication (charts, films, slides, photos, etc.).

9. Principles of Business Communication

There are eleven principles of business communication:

1. Conciseness. Most business people are very busy (time is
money!). The wordy letter is usually put aside, for its very
wordiness makes comprehension difficult.
2. Completeness. Your communication must contain all
necessary information. Having to request information that
should have been included will probably antagonize the
recipient of the communication.
3. Courtesy.
4. Correctness. Everyone has a tendency to focus on errors. To
many people, errors in spelling, price quotations, sentence
structure, and the like are a reflection of organizational
inefficiency.
5. Clarity. All ambiguity should be avoided.
6. Logical Organization. It is one of the keys to all
effective communication.
12
7. Attractiveness. All business communication should
„look good‟. Appearance is also important in face-to-
face communication.
8. Natural tone. The tone of business communication should
be friendly, natural, and sincere. Hackneyed, archaic, and
obsolete words, phrases and expressions should be
avoided.

12
 9. Tact. Controversial expressions that might antagonize or
embarrass the
“receiver‟ should be avoided. At times it is necessary to convey
unpleasant ideas, but the choice of words used to accomplish
that objective should permit the „receiver‟ to save face and accept
the idea.
10.Positive tone. A positive tone almost invariably evokes a
positive reaction. In almost every situation, it is more
desirable to make a positive statement. On rare occasions
you may wish to convey a negative idea or problem.
However, you should almost always follow immediately with
an offer of a positive solution.
11.„Receiver‟ orientation. An effective communicator must be
sensitive to the reactions and anticipated responses of the
„receiver(s)‟.

We shall take a closer look at these principles in the next few lectures
on the use of the language in business communication.

Assignments

1. Examine a company of your choice and answer the following:

a. Is this a tall structure or flat structure organization?
b. Briefly describe the extent of complexity in this organization
c. Describe two horizontal communication channels in this
organization.
2. Construct a diagram of one of the four communication networks
discussed. Name the organization that you think uses this
structure. Highlight in the diagram the leader in the network.
Which of the four types of communication networks would you
prefer to use as a leader? Why?
3. Examine the company or public sector organization you work in
or one you can get information about and describe its formal
structure, with the aid of an organizational chart, if possible.
Give examples of vertical, lateral, and diagonal
communication used in this organization/business.
Outline the major communication problems that can arise
because of this organization‟s structure.
4. What is the difference between a tall and a flat organization?
5. Why is it important for an organization to match goals and
expectations with its employees‟ goals and needs?
6. Identify 3 examples of formal communication channels and
three informal channels

13
 Lecture 3: Using the Language

1. A Historical Overview
2. The Wrong Words
a. Jargon
b. Emotive language
3. Too Many Words
4. The Fog Index
5. The Right Words
6. Style & Tone
7. Sentence Structure
8. Paragraph Structure
9. Assignments
10. Reference Section: Basics of Syntax & Sentence Analysis

1.A Historical Overview

English has many more words than most other languages: for
example, the Concise Cambridge Dictionary has 300 pages for
Italian-English, but 500 pages for English- Italian. Why?
The wealth of vocabulary is the legacy of its history. The basis of the
language is Anglo- Saxon, a relatively obscure Germanic dialect brought
to England in the 5th century. The Norman Conquest in 1066 (the best-
known date in English history) brought about the defining influence of
Norman French: over the next 200 years Anglo-Saxon (the language of
the peasants) absorbed a huge number of French words and became
English. Thus, it gained a large number of words from the mainstream
Romance languages descended from Latin.
By high medieval times* English had become the common tongue of
nobleman and peasant alike, but the languages of learning were still
largely Greek and Latin. That is why English absorbed large numbers
of often technical and scientific terms from these languages.

*Middle Ages: period in European history between the fall of the Roman Empire in the
5th century and the Renaissance in the 15th. Among the period‟s distinctive features
were the unity of W Europe with the Roman Catholic Church, the feudal organization of
political, social, and economic relations, and the use of art for largely religious
purposes. It can be divided into 3 sub-periods:
The early Middle Ages (5th-11th centuries), when Europe was settled by pagan
Germanic tribes who adopted the vestiges of Roman institutions and traditions, were
converted to Christianity by the Church (which had preserved Latin culture after the
fall of Rome), and who then founded feudal kingdoms;
The high Middle Ages (12th-13th centuries, which saw the consolidation of feudal
states, the expansion of European influence during the Crusades, the flowering of
scholasticism and monasteries, and the growth of population and trade;
The later Middle Ages (14th-15th centuries), when Europe was devastated by Black
Death and incessant warfare, feudalism was transformed under the influence of
incipient nation-states and new modes of social and economic organization, and the
first voyages of discovery were made.
14
(Reference from The Wordsworth Encyclopedia, Helicon Publishing Ltd,
1995)

14
The spread of the British Empire gave English an influx of words from
many languages. Some, like char (dated Brit. infml. for „tea‟), brought
back from India by soldiers, remained colloquial, while others, like
bungalow or khaki went directly or indirectly into standard usage.

However, the greatest modern influence has been American. Especially

in the last 70 years, there has been a lease-lend of words which has
helped maintain the vigour and versatility of the language. To it we
owe hundreds of such useful expressions as boom, slump, bulldoze,
paperback, grapevine, commuter, breakeven, etc.

English is the most widely used language in the world: 60% of the
world‟s radio programmes and 70% of the letters written every day are in
English. It is the international language of air traffic and of the United
Nations.
A vigorous language is constantly changing. New words come into use,
new meanings evolve (i.e. escalate, in the Vietnam war). Some words
become archaic and disappear – perhaps to reappear! Obscene, for
example, was dismissed as somewhat archaic by the Oxford English
Dictionary in 1933, but was restored to general use recently.
The structure of the language changes, too, and there is no good reason
for clinging to rules of grammar which no longer reflect current usage.
The function of the structure of language is to support the meaning, not
to restrict expression.
The English language, like society, manners and fashion, has become
more informal since the Second World War, and many words and
constructions which would once have been unacceptable in standard
English are now established. For example, different to, and different
than, as well as different from, are now acceptable forms. The distinction
between due to and owing to has disappeared, and the rules about will
and shall are fast disappearing.
„Correct English‟ is, in short, whatever is widely acceptable in current
usage. But „Good English‟ is something else again. Despite the large
vocabulary (the average vocabulary of a person in Britain is 13,000
words), we still often have difficulty in expressing ourselves clearly. We
use the wrong words – those that do not express what we mean, those
which are not understood by our recipient, or which antagonize him.
Sometimes we merely use so many words that the meaning is lost in
them: we can‟t see the wood for the trees. To be aware of the many ways
in which language can be misused is the first step towards using the
language more effectively.

2.The Wrong Words

Jargon cannot be better defined than in the words of H.W. Fowler:

Jargon is talk that is considered both ugly-sounding and hard to

understand; applied especially to the sectional vocabulary of a
15
 science, art, class, sect, trade or profession, full of technical
terms…the use of long words, circumlocution and other clumsiness.

There are two kinds of language identified here. First, the special
terminology that develops within any group: lawyers, social workers,
computer staff, medics, pilots, and

15
so on. The use of these technical vocabularies can be both irritating and
incomprehensible to outsiders, but within the group they act as a kind of
spoken shorthand, a concise and precise way of expressing a concept
(i.e., siblings, software, hardware, etc.)
In a world of increasing specialization and technology, these technical
vocabularies are not only defensible, they are necessary.
Mathematicians, lawyers, systems analysts and accountants need the
precision and brevity of their own „languages.‟
What is indefensible, however, is to use your special vocabulary on
outsiders who are not familiar with your jargon. Not only will you fail to
communicate, you will bore or antagonize your „receivers.‟
The second variety of jargon, defined by Fowler as the use of long words,
circumlocution and other clumsiness, is a sure way of losing, or at least
obscuring meaning in a fog of words. There is nothing intrinsically wrong
with using long words (circumlocution is certainly one, but shorter than
„longwinded and roundabout ways of saying things‟!).
However, too many long words do make it difficult to understand what
we are reading or hearing (see the description of the Fog Index below).
The letter of which the following is an extract won a booby prize of two
pounds of tripe from the Plain English Awards Committee:

We would advise that our policy does exclude as contingency

consequent upon a condition which is receiving or awaiting
treatment at the date of issue of the policy.

The same letter ended ironically:

We hope this clarifies the situation.

The following excerpt from a real letter illustrates clumsiness of

expression:

In response to your card regarding the above order and the non-
delivery of one box of 352 Typing Paper, we are writing to inform
you that this has currently met an out of stock situation and that
delivery cannot be met until the end of February.

Cliches are those expressions which, due to their original popularity,

have been overused, and have lost their force and vigor as a
consequence. Harold Macmillan‟s expression, a wind of change, which
originally referred to a new direction in African politics, but is now
applied to any minor event, is an example. Other clichés, often with a
less respectable history, may commit the offence of circumlocution too:
at this moment in time and in this day and age for now are particularly
irritating.

Slang, like clichés, changes with fashion. How many slang words for

16
money can you recall? Readies, lolly, dough, bread, cabbage. Good
English is what is appropriate to the circumstances, and slang has its
place in familiar chat. It is out of place in most business
communication: it is obvious that too informal a choice of language in,
say, a company report would not inspire confidence.

16
Pompous people seek to add weight (at the expense of losing the point)
by using long words, and too many words, for example:

Passengers are requested not to communicate with the driver while

the vehicle is in motion.

Pompous writers habitually use such expressions as in connection with

when about might be more appropriate. They ameliorate, acquaint,
terminate and assist when they could improve, tell, end, and help!
Churchill used the simplest, most direct, language in his plea for brevity:

To do our work we all have to read a mass of papers. Nearly all

of them are far too long. This wastes time, while energy has to be
spent in looking for essential points.

Negative expressions often cause an emotive response from the

recipients, and need to be used with care, i.e.:

I am afraid he is not available.

This is a rejecting statement whose rejection is emphasized by the word

„afraid.‟ It is better to say „I am sorry, he‟s not available,‟ which at
least implies a polite degree of sympathy.
Disappointment is a particularly negative word and a sentence beginning
with „I am sorry to disappoint you…‟ may be more upsetting to the
receiver than if the word had been omitted.
Unfortunately is another depressing expression: „Unfortunately we were
not able to get in touch‟ makes a negative statement even more negative.
It is often preferable to avoid negatives altogether. „We cannot deliver in
three weeks‟ is totally negative and may lose you a customer. Put
another way, „Can you give us five weeks for delivery?‟, it invites the
receiver‟s cooperation.

Ambiguity is a particularly offensive fault in business writing, when

content is often factual. Smith told Jones he had been promoted is an
example of ambiguity caused by a careless use of pronouns. Other kinds
of ambiguity may have a second meaning which is contradictory, i.e.:

Nothing acts faster than…(a well-known headache pill) 

Emotive Language

It is very difficult to convey information, ideas, and especially opinions,

without
„coloring‟ them with some personal feeling or emotion. We usually
betray our own opinions or attitudes by our choice of words. It is not
wrong to do this, but it may evoke an unfavorable reaction in other

17
people and thus affect their acceptance or rejection of

17
our communication. Consider the following statement, which highlights
a typical lack of objectivity by the average human:

I am determined, you are obstinate, he is pig-headed.

Politicians are natural users of emotive language; it is in their speeches

that we so often find fact and reason clouded or lost in rhetoric. For
example, the use of biblical imagery, the journey through the wilderness,
the pilgrimage to their vision of the New Jerusalem, can lend an aura of
sanctity, rightness, or inevitability to their policies and ideals.

3.Too Many Words

Even if we have disciplined ourselves not to use technical jargon to the

uninitiated, have avoided dishonestly using emotive language (rather
than reason) to persuade, have used long words with discretion, avoided
slang and cliché, there are still many pitfalls in the use of language.
Of these, in business and commerce, one of the worst offences (because
it wastes time) is to use more words than necessary to convey our
meaning, as, for example:

Broadly speaking, this may have the ultimate effect of doubling

in numbers the total of orders dispatched outwards in a single
day.

This sentence has many superfluous words. „Broadly speaking‟ is surely

implied in the rest of the sentence. How else can one double but in
numbers? „Outwards‟ is implied in the word „dispatched‟. Tautology is
the technical (JARGON!) word for expressions like these, when the
meaning is repeated, i.e.:

This unique ornamental vase, the only one of its kind…

A more economical version of the sentence above would read:

This may have the effect of doubling the number of orders

dispatched in a single day.

While the word single is implied in the expression in a day, it has been
retained because it adds force to the sentence.

A major cause of „too many words‟ or verbosity is the over-use of

modifiers, i.e. adjectives and adverbs:

The complete implementation of this overall programme will

inevitably necessitate extensive demands on the available
resources of the appropriate committees and other bodies

18
concerned.

18
The difficulty – not to say tedium – inflicted on the readers of such
writing is self- evident. The surest way to bore people is to write, or say,
too much. Such absurdities as the true facts only cast doubt on the
truth of the facts presented.
Another communication which won a „tripe‟ award was from a British
Rail employee who took 158 words to explain why a particular train
had no buffet service. And a third
„tripe‟ award went to a local government official who devoted 104
words to asking a local resident to trim his hedge.

4.The Fog Index

All misuse of language obscures the meaning of the communication

(message). Several methods have been devised to measure the readability
of written language; the Fog Index is one such. Readability is affected by:

 The average length of the sentences, in words

 The percentage of simple words
 The percentage of verbs expressing forceful action
 The proportion of familiar words
 The proportion of abstract words
 The proportion of personal references
 The proportion of long words.

The Fog Index is based on the count of the number of words of 3 or

more syllables in a hundred-word sample of the passage being
checked, as well as of the average sentence length.
To determine the reading difficulty of a passage you will need to:

 Select samples of 100 words each

 Calculate the average number of words in the sentences of
your sample by counting the number of complete sentences
and dividing that into the number of words
 Count the number of words of three or more syllables,
excluding words with a capital letter, compounds such as
bookkeeper and words ending in –es or –ed
 Add the average number of words per sentence and the
number of words of three syllables or more, and multiply by
0.4.

This gives the Fog Index, which is graded

as follows: Index Reading Level

Less than 10 easy reading

11-12 the top 20% of 12-year-olds
13 the top 20% of 16-year-olds
19
14-16 first-year university student
17 university graduate.

19
This index can usefully be used in checking company communications,
for example, to ensure that they are comprehensible to the workers. A
British Leyland memorandum to workers, which concerned an
ultimatum about productivity, reportedly had an index of 17: hardly
likely to be effective in securing the workers‟ cooperation. Indeed, it is
claimed that the only management-to-worker communication which fell
below an index of 13 was a memo wishing all employees a Happy New
Year!  British Leyland has in the past notoriously suffered from poor
industrial relations. Could ineffective communication have been one of
the causes?
Some recent American research found that:

Only 4 % of readers will understand a sentence of

27 words But 75 % of readers will understand a
sentence of 17 words And 95 % of readers will
understand a sentence of 8 words.

5. The Right Words

We have already defined the use of good English in business as the

use of language appropriate to the circumstances.
That is the target – how can one achieve it?
First, the reader should be considered. Readability must be balanced so
that the reader can easily understand the message without any feeling of
being talked down to. Our existing relationship with the reader is
another defining factor. To a stranger there must always be more
formality than to a colleague or friend. To someone much lower or higher
in the hierarchy than ourselves there must be more formality than with
our equals.

Use simple words whenever appropriate. Generally prefer to begin

something, not commence; don‟t transmit (except in the technical
sense) but send; agree to use, not to utilize.

Use shorter expressions. Don‟t write a letter with regard to, with
reference to, in connection with, or in respect of, but about your
subject.

Prune modifiers, i.e. adjectives and adverbs, from your writing. Don‟t let
it become inflated by unnecessary words.

Use active verbs, not passive ones, for example:

Not A meeting will be held by the Board next week.

But The Board will meet next week.

Generally use personal pronouns rather than the impersonal form, for

20
example:

Not The task would be capable of determination when the

appropriate tools be made available to those concerned,
But Give us the tools and we will finish the job.

20
Try to be positive, not negative. For example:

The project failed (Not The project was not successful).

The company has abandoned the plan (Not The company will not
now proceed with the plan).

Finally, Be flexible and keep an open mind. „Rules‟ about language are
meant to be guidelines, not straightjackets. The long word may express
our meaning more precisely than a short one. Modifiers are invaluable
in expressing shades of meaning, for example:

I was concerned.
I was very
concerned. I was
most concerned.

The passive impersonal form may be useful: It has been decided

that… may be less damaging to a relationship than I have decided (it
may also be used to avoid responsibility, or „pass the buck.‟)

Our choice of words should be governed by considering

not “What do I want to say?” but “What result do I
want to get?”

6. Style & Tone

Style is a combination of choice of words, characteristics and structure of

language, and there are so many possible variations that we each develop
a method of writing which can be as distinctive as fingerprints.
Style is not a mannerism that you can take on at will, like mimicking an
accent or gesture. In the words of Eric Partridge, the author of a popular
grammar textbook „Usage or Abusage,‟ “…it is that which one is when
one writes; so far from being compelled to seek it, one cannot avoid it.”
Obviously we can, and do, adapt our style to the circumstances, the
subject and the receiver. But something of ourselves will show through
– our style will communicate to the receiver something about ourselves
as persons. A pompous person is likely to reflect pomposity, a good-
humored one – affability, and a meticulous, precise person will dot his
is and cross his ts in even his most informal note. The following
examples convey very different personalities:

Have you got any jobs vacant at your place?

I would respectfully submit myself for the appointment of
clerical assistant advertised in the „National.‟
I was interested to read your advertisement in the „Post Courier‟ for a
clerical assistant.
I am in receipt of details about a vacancy for a clerical assistant
21
in your company.

21
Tone is defined in the Oxford English Dictionary as „a particular quality,
pitch, modulation or inflexion of the voice expressing … affirmation,
interrogation, hesitation, decision and some feeling and emotion.‟
Usually it will in effect underline or emphasize the meaning of the
words used. In written language the tone conveys the feelings of the
communication.
The tone of a communication will reflect what is being said, but it can
also add a great deal of meaning. A reprimand might be cool, cold, angry,
heated, impersonal or detached in tone. A congratulation is likely to be
warm and enthusiastic, but could also be cool and formal. In much
business writing a factual, neutral tone is appropriate, but remember
that sincerity is an essential of tone, however formal the context.

`7. Sentence Structure

In Elizabethan 16th century England sentences were about 45 words

long. In Victorian England (19th century) they were about 30 words
long. Modern sentences average 20 words or less. Shorter sentences are
more dynamic and vigorous, but if all our sentences were short, our
speech would become boring, and thus less effective.

A typical sentence is a statement composed of subject (what we speak

about) and
predicate (what we say about the subject).

The subject of the sentence is the thing we talk about with all its modifiers,
e.g.:

The definition of experience is knowledge acquired too late.

The predicate is made up of the verb (expressing action performed or

received by its subject), together with all the words that go with that
verb:

The definition of experience is knowledge acquired too late.

We have distinguish types of sentence structure:

 Simple: one subject, one predicate (See Appendix I): All great
truths begin as blasphemies.

 Compound: two or more simple sentences joined by a conjunction:

You can twist perceptions, but reality won‟t budge.

 Complex: one main clause plus subordinate modifying clauses:

Everything you can imagine is real.

22
 Compound-complex: at least two main clauses and one or more
subordinate clauses: I have kleptomania, but when it gets bad,
I take something for it. Or: Saina has the key that opens this
cabinet, but she is not here today.

22
Varying our sentence structure makes our communication more
effective, it helps keep the interest of the receivers.
But however long or short the sentence, it should preferably express only
one main idea – several ideas jammed into one sentence make „decoding‟
and comprehension far more difficult, e.g.:
Saying that, while he accepted medical evidence that asbestosis
was associated with the cause of death of a Washington chemical
worker, John Henry Thompson, aged 40, of 51 Pattenson Town, the
Coroner, Mr. Williams, indicated at the inquest at Chester-le-Street
last night that the final decision whether the disease caused or
contributed to death would rest with the Pneumoconiosis Medical
Panel.

A useful way of determining optimal sentence length is to try

speaking your sentence aloud. If you can‟t manage it comfortably
with one breath, then it needs „pruning.‟

8.Paragraph Structure

As with sentences, so with paragraphs; the most important quality is

unity. A paragraph should have only one theme. This subject may be
stated or implied in the opening sentence and then expanded, qualified
or illustrated in succeeding ones. Sometimes the so-called topic
sentence comes at the end of the paragraph, to sum up what has gone
before. Too many ideas thrown together in a paragraph confuse the
reader. We need to remember that sentence and paragraph structure
contribute equally with the choice of words to the clarity of what we
write.

Summary:

1. In order to communicate effectively, you must know:

1. Your subject (what you want to say)
2. Your purpose (why you want to say it, what result do
you want to get?)
3. Your receiver(s)/audience.

2. Effective business communication must be:

i. Clear
ii. Concise
iii. Coherent

9.Assignments

 Read the following passage and work out its Fog Index. Then

23
rewrite it in much simpler language and calculate the Fog Index
of what you have written.

23
 Language is the primary instrument of communication and the
extent to which this volume is concerned with language is with
that of our native tongue. The observation has been presented in
the previous sections that the ineffectual utilization of English can
be a hindrance or even a prevention of the process of
communication, but that the observation of the regulations
regarding the usage of English will be of assistance in the
conveyance of information. There will be sectional interests who
may present the argument that the rigidity of the regulations of
language is a deterrent to improved communication.
(98 words)

 What do you understand by the term „readability‟? How would

you assess the readability of a lengthy printed document
intended for unskilled workers?

 What is the importance of concise writing in business

communications?

 Define precisely the meaning of the word „cliché‟ and give 5

examples of clichés with which you are familiar.

 Redundancies often creep into written communication.

What types of redundancies are the most common?

 The following notice on a staff notice board caused great offence.

Why?

Employees are herewith instructed that any requests

pertaining to vacation dates must be submitted to the
Divisional Personnel Manager, copies to the employee‟s
immediate superior and to the Managing Director. No
employee will be given permission to take holidays at any
time not already scheduled on the holiday rota unless a
month‟s notice is given and the immediate superior allows
it. This ruling is effective immediately and applies to all
holidays from Monday of next week. Any employee with
holidays booked for the coming month must renegotiate
them.

Rewrite it and compare your version with that given in the Answers
Section p. ….

10.Reference Section: Basics of Syntax & Sentence Analysis

24
Language skills, as we know, are vital for effective communication. One
may know the meaning of all the words in a language, but still be
unable to communicate effectively, if one does not know how to put
these words together in a sentence.
Syntax, or the arrangement of words in the sentence, is determined
primarily by word
functions, otherwise called Parts of Speech.

Here are a few basic concepts that we need in order to understand

the mechanics of sentence structure. We shall call them our „tools‟
for sentence analysis:

24
Concept # 1: Parts of Speech. The most important concept in our
approach to sentence analysis is that of „Parts of Speech.‟ These are
functions of words, phrases, or whole clauses within the larger context
of the sentence:
Function
Nouns - name things (What? Who?)
Pronouns - stand instead of nouns (What?
Who? etc.) Adjectives - describe (modify)
nouns (Which?)
Verbs - name actions or states of being
Adverbs - modify verbs (How? Where? When? Why? etc.)
Conjunctions - join similar grammatical items (words,
phrases, clauses, etc.) Prepositions - show „positions‟ of
things in space and time
Interjections - expressions of feelings and attitudes
interjected, or „thrown into‟ the midst of a clause
(they are our „raisins in the cake‟ ).

All the hundreds of thousands of words in a language fall into these eight
(8) groups,
depending on how they function in the sentence. Thus,

Part of Speech is the grammatical function of a word/group of words.

Some English words may have only one function (for example, and as
a conjunction). Others may have several functions (for example,
fancy, which is a noun in the phrase
„flights of fancy‟, a verb in „Fancy that!‟ and an adjective in „a fancy hat‟).

Other examples:
A characteristic feature
(noun) To feature in a
film, etc. (verb) A feature
film (adjective)

Ann came in early

(adverb) She is an early
bird! (adjective)

In the so-called „developing‟ countries the divide between the rich and the
poor is ever increasing. (nouns)
The poor people get poorer, whereas the rich elite gets richer. (adjectives)

Figure of speech (noun)

It is difficult to figure out his meaning.
(verb) Figure skating (adjective)

25
These are examples of single words fulfilling different functions. However,
whole groups of words often work together as one unit, fulfilling one
function. They then form phrases or clauses. What are they? We already
know that both are groups of words. But before considering the
difference between them, we need to understand the concept of clause
and consider the basic sentence structure.

25
Concept # 2: Clauses and their Basic Structure Pattern (S/FiniteV/C).
Clauses are groups of words that have a Subject (what we speak about)
and a Finite Verb (what we say about the Subject). The Finite Verb
conforms to its Subject in number and person: this Subject-Verb
Agreement is essential to sentence grammaticality. Both Subject and its
Verb may have modifiers.
Basic Sentence Pattern: (S/V/C). Most declarative English sentences
follow the S/V/C pattern: the Subject + its modifiers (what we speak
about) fill the first slot / the Finite Verb and its modifiers fill the second
slot / and Compliment (optional) takes the third slot (S/V/C).
Compliment may be made up of:

o Zero Compliment
o Predicate Adjective (PA)
o Predicate Noun (PN)
o Direct/Indirect Object (DO/IO)

Together /V/C make up the Predicate, or what we say about the Subject. The „heart‟ of
the predicate is the finite verb, which may be separated from its Subject by modifiers
(other words, phrases, or even clauses). It is important that the Subject-Verb Agreement
is maintained despite the intervening words: without the Subject-Verb Agreement the
sentence becomes ungrammatical (as in „Mary am a clever girl‟).

Example
s: S / V / C (PN)
Ignorance / is / the mother of devotion. (Robert Burton)

S / V / C (PA+or+PA)
Nothing / is / good or bad/.
Conj / S2 / V2 / C (DO)
But / thinking / makes / it.
(Shakespeare)

Concept # 3: the Difference between Phrases and Subordinate Clauses.

Both are groups of words that function as one part of speech (a noun,
an adjective, or an adverb). In order to understand and diagram
sentence structure correctly, we must be able to recognize clauses and
differentiate them from phrases, which are not shown in our schematic
clause diagrams.
Since both subordinate clauses and phrases may function as nouns,
adjectives, or adverbs within the larger framework of the sentence, then
what is the difference between them?
The difference between them is structural: clauses contain at least
one finite verb, whereas phrases do not:

Adj. Phrase: „It is a mark of an educated mind to be able to entertain a

thought without accepting it.‟ (Aristotle) [N.B.: the prepositional phrase „without
accepting it‟ functions as an adverb modifying the verb „to entertain‟ within the

26
framework of the larger adjective phrase which modifies the noun „mark.‟ Neither of
these phrases contains a finite verb.]

Adj. Clause: „A man who has committed a mistake and doesn‟t see it, is
committing another mistake. (Confucius, „Success and Failure‟) [Here the
Adj. Clause contains two finite

26
verbs, „has committed‟ and „doesn‟t see,‟ joined together by the conjunction „and‟; this
clause modifies the noun „man‟ in the main clause.]

Concept # 4: The Two Essential Aspects of Both Phrases and

Subordinate Clauses: Their Form and Function..
In our analysis of the more complex units of speech (phrases and
clauses) we must consider their two different aspects that make
them what they are:

 function, or relation to other words within a larger framework

(noun, adjective, or adverb; naming or modifying), and

 form, or structural pattern. Phrases may be or may not be

introduced by prepositions, but they never contain a finite verb.
Clauses, on the other hand, may or may not be introduced by
relative pronouns or subordinating conjunctions, but they always
have their „autonomous‟ nexal pattern (S/ finite V/ C).

Both phrases and subordinate clauses may function as nouns,

adjectives, or adverbs. The presence/absence of a finite verb within a
particular group of words that functions as one part of speech
determines whether it is a phrase or a clause.

*Prepositional Phrases: Simply put, a prepositional phrase is a

preposition plus a group of words without a finite verb in it that answers
the question „what?‟ after it. The list of words that can function as
prepositions:

About, Above, Across, After, Against, Along, Among, Around, As, At,
Before, Behind, Beneath, Beside, Between, Beyond, By, Despite,
During, Except, For, From, In, Inside, Into, Like, Near, Of, Off, On,
Onto, Outside, Over, Since, Through, To (not the particle
„to‟ indicating the infinitive form of the verb!), Toward, Under, Until,
Up, Upon, With, Within, Without, Aside from, As to, Because of,
Instead of, Out of, Regardless of, But (when it means „except‟), Past
(when it means „by‟)

In sentence analysis, it is helpful to eliminate prepositional phrases in

order to see the main S/Finite V/C patterns more clearly. If the group of
words following a preposition does contain a nexal pattern (S/Finite
V/C), then the preposition introduces a subordinate clause, which must
be reflected in the nexal diagram, for example:

//They/ traveled / in what appeared to be thick fog.

C [IO] – Noun Clause

27
Concept # 5: the Difference between Main and Subordinate Clauses:

Subordinate clauses may function in three ways within the larger sentence
framework:

27
  Noun clauses name something/somebody in the main clause,
i.e., „The most incomprehensible thing about the world is that it
is comprehensible.‟ (Einstein)

 Adjective clauses modify (describe) nouns in the main clause, for

example: The person who knows how to laugh at himself will
never cease to be amused.

 Adverb clauses modify verbs in the main clause, i.e., „We don‟t
see things as they are. We see things as we are.‟ (Anais Nin)

Main clauses, however, do not have such function:

 „I hear and I forget. I see and I remember. I do and I understand.‟

(Confucius)

Concept # 6: the Finite Verb. The finite verb is a verb that has a Subject
which defines its form (number and person). Subject-Verb Agreement is
what makes a sentence.

Concept # 7: the Infinitive Verb. This is the base form of the verb (as
listed in dictionaries). Infinitive verbs have no subjects, or „doers‟ – they
simply signify actions or states of being, and thus function as nouns,
giving names to these actions or states of being. They are usually
preceded by the particle „to‟ when used in sentences, except after modal
verbs (can, must, may, might, could, should, would, etc.). Example
(infinitives are in italics):

A diplomat is someone who can tell you to go to hell and make you
happy to be on your way.

Concept # 8: Compounding. Compounding means joining of two or more

similar items by compound conjunctions „and,‟ „or,‟ „but,‟ „either …
or,‟ and „neither … nor.‟ These conjunctions are often used to join
equal grammatical constructions – subject and subject, object and
object, adjective and adjective, verb and verb, etc. Whatever grammatical
construction appears before one of these words should also appear after
it.

Concept # 9: Ellipsis. Ellipsis is simply the omission of understood words

in a sentence (reduction). For example,

[You] Help! [me]

[You] Put your thinking cap on [your head]!

28
 Practical Examples of Sentence Analysis: Diagramming of
Clauses

Three Steps of Analysis: First eliminate prepositional phrases, then

identify the S/finite V/C patterns, and finally determine how these
S/V/C patterns relate to each other.

Symbols:

main clause

subordinate clause (noun, adjective, or adverb)

1. //All great truths / begin as blasphemies//.

2. //You / can twist / perceptions//, but // reality / won‟t budge//.

but

3. //Experience / is / something // you / don‟t get / until just after

/you / need / it//.

Adjectival Clause (modifies „something‟)

Adverbial Clause of Time (modifies

„don‟t get‟)

4. //Absence of proof / is not / proof of absence//.

29
5. //I / think //, //therefore / I / am//. (Rene Descartes)

29
 Adverbial Clause of Consequence

6. //The definition of experience / is / knowledge acquired too late//.

7. //Drawing on my fine command of language, / I / said /

nothing//.*

* Here the adverbial phrase precedes the Subject.

8. //Everything // you / can / imagine // is / real // (Picasso).

Adj. Clause

9. //True knowledge / exists in knowing / that /you / know /

nothing// (Socrates).

Noun Clause

10.//The important thing / is / not to stop questioning // (Einstein).

30
11.// Knowledge and belief / are / two separate tracks // that /
run parallel to each other and never meet, except in the
child// (Godfried Bomans: Buitelingen II).

Adjective Clause

12.//Brain / is / an apparatus // with which /we / think /

we / think// (Ambrose Bierce).

Adj. Clause

Noun Clause embedded within an Adj. Clause

31
Lecture 4:
I. Research Methods; Obtaining Information

1.Business Information
2.Effective Information Search: Primary and Secondary Data
3.Receiving Information
4.Analysing, Selecting and Preparing Information
5.Taking Notes
6.Making Notes
7.Summary and Precis

1. Business Information The Oxford Dictionary definition of

“information” reads: “facts told, heard or discovered about sb/sth;
knowledge: give/provide/pass on/receive/ obtain/collect
information on/about sb/sth.”
Data becomes information after it has been received and
analysed/processed by the recipient. Data processing may involve
classifying, selecting, sorting, analyzing, etc.

Business information is any information, which relates to business

organizations and their activities. This includes information about
business in general, as well as information generated by and about
individual organizations.
Business information should be:
 Clear
 Concise
 Complete
 Relevant:
o to the subject matter
o to the recipient
 verifiable
 timely
 cost-effective
 appropriately communicated

Information is the living blood of any organization, making

possible the coordination and regulation of organizational
activities both internally (coordination and records of activities,
bookkeeping, information on staff, etc.) and externally (keeping
records of transactions with suppliers, customers and
contractors, reports to investors, outside agencies like the State
Revenue Department, local government agencies, etc.).

2. Effective Information Search: Primary and Secondary Data All

business information, written or oral, should be based on
facts. There are two kinds of facts: primary data and
secondary data.
32
 Primary data are those that you or your staff collect without
someone else‟s interpretation of that information. Items of this
nature include raw data, memoirs, questionnaire returns,
artifacts, diaries, interviews, and the like.

32
 Secondary data are those that others have previously reported in
journals, books, magazines, pamphlets, newspapers, public
opinion polls, etc.

For one to be effective in one‟s search for relevant information, one

must:
o identify the problem, or what the information should
be about, i.e., identify the subject matter and the
purpose of looking for it.
o Develop a strategy for the search; this will dictate the type
of information that needs to be collected (primary, or
secondary, or both).

In order to find secondary information, one must be familiar with

the methods, or ways of storing it.

Organisations Providing Information include varied sources ( mass

media: newspapers, TV, Information Bureax, News Agencies,
reference books, libraries, etc.).
Using the Library: There are several systems of classifying material
store in any library:
o The author index is arranged alphabetically by authors‟
surnames (and the initials, if the surname is the same).
o The subject index, also arranged alphabetically by
subject and its subdivisions.
o The classified index contains cards in numerical order (the
disadvantage of this is, one must know the number!)

3. Receiving Information

Looking and listening: Sight and hearing are two of the sensory
methods by which we „take in‟ information. Remember that
looking at something does not necessarily mean seeing it, as well
as listening does not always mean hearing. We have information
only if our brain has processed the data supplying it.

The basic conditions required for data processing are:

o Purpose, or motivation
o Concentration
o Patience

Reading is one of the most important skills one must have in

order to be able to receive data and process information.
Analytical approach in processing data available is most
important. You will read more efficiently if you „go for the
essentials‟ at each stage of the task, i.e., if you prioritize issues.
Reading routine:
o Identify your objectives
33
o Scan to get the rough idea of the content of the material
o Separate the essential from the irrelevant – prioritize

33
 4. Analysing, or Selecting and Preparing Information In order to
select required information, one must be able to analyse and
prioritize all available data. This, in turn, requires certain skills in
o Scanning, or „getting the drift‟ of the data received
o Identifying the „essence‟
o Recording the essential points for later processing and
analysis

5. Taking Notes. There are a few useful practices that should

be adopted for effective note-taking:

o Choose a suitable storage method

o Leave plenty of space for further comments
o Start with your source and subject
o Look for key words and phrases
o Revise your notes as soon as possible after taking them
o Know why, on what and for whom you are taking notes
– before you start.

6. Making Notes: This involves the analysis and recording of the

most important points made. One should develop one‟s own
„system of shorthand‟ for key words, e.g., b/4 = before,  for
therefore,  for less than, etc. The use of standard symbols and
abbreviations should also be made.
Structure your notes.

7. Summary and Precis The objective of summary is to reflect the

original source in a much shortened form.
It must be clear, complete, and precise. In summary:
o Include all the essential points
o Include only the essential points
o Include only the author‟s ideas
o Preserve the logical sequence of ideas

II. The Planning Process in Communication; Writing

with Force and Clarity
1. The Planning Process in Communication
2. Scope, Limitations, and Depth
3. Drawing up the Tentative Outline
4. Outlining Methods
5. Orders of Development
6. Types of Outlines
7. Writing the First Draft
8. Choosing the Words
9. Choosing the Sentences
34
10.Choosing the Paragraphs

34
 11.Qualities of Writing Style
12.Editing Suggestions
13.Readability Formulas
14.Ten Suggestions for Clear Writing
15.The Final Paper

In this lecture we shall discuss the process of writing. The objective is to

develop your abilities so that you consistently write with clarity,
conciseness, and coherence. We shall review the time-saving value of
planning and outlining prior to writing the first draft, and consider
different types of outlines.

We shall also examine the discipline of writing, the skills involved

there, the tasks of editing, and a method for determining easy
readability or comprehension of material. Finally, we shall review the
factors involved in writing the final draft.

1. The Planning Process in Communication

Planning and organizing are the keys to success in most activities, from
constructing a building, taking a 2000-mile trip, or performing a
surgical procedure, to writing a report, letter, or proposal. Few daily
activities are carried through without a plan; unfortunately, though,
many people attempt to write without planning.

In communication, the planning process consists of clearly defining

the problems to be solved, recognizing the purpose of the
communication, and identifying the audience to which the
communication is directed. Interestingly enough, many people begin
their research, or even their writing, without knowing precisely the
problem they are concerned with.

Example: Sales are declining in the Campbell Corporation and the

president of the firm requests a report. Before one can prepare a report
on declining sales, it is vital to determine the precise problem or cause
of the problem. The decline could be due to higher sales prices,
ineffective advertising, poor sales representatives, increased competition,
or any one of a number of other causes. If the report writer offers a
solution based on an incorrect cause, certainly little would be achieved
in the way of solving the problem. The first step is to determine
accurately the precise problem: sales prices?
Advertising? Sales personnel? Competition? Or what?
The report writer‟s second step is to determine the purpose of the report.
The purpose could be to inform the reader, persuade the reader, offer a
comparison between two or more situations to the reader, or explain a
process or technique to the reader. For example, if the writer simply
wants to inform a potential buyer of technical details of a product or

35
service, he would be unwise to attempt to persuade the buyer to take a
specific action.
The report writer‟s third step is to determine who will be reading the
report. Certainly, the complexity of presentation, the choice of graphs,
the depth of analysis, and the details covered vary according to whether
the reader of the report is a stockholder or a member of the audit
committee.

35
36
 2. Scope, Limitations, and Depth
The planning process also includes an analysis by the writer of how
deeply he or she wishes to examine the topic. At the same time, the
writer must define the limitations of the topic in order to avoid going too
far afield and including irrelevant material. If the writer has carefully
recognized the purpose of the piece of writing and who the reader is,
then defining the depth and limitations of the topic is not difficult.

3. Drawing up the Tentative Outline

Once the writer knows the precise problem, the limits of the problem,
and who the reader is, the writer should draw up a tentative plan or
outline.
The outline serves as a guide for research, thinking, and organizing. It
permits the writer to
 Check the logic of the plan
 Evaluate the relative proportion of each section
 Check the completeness of the coverage
 Determine if the order of development is correct
 Save time (it requires less time to change an outline than a finished
presentation)

4. Outlining Methods
An outline may use a number-letter system:
1.
A.
B.
1.
2.
a.
b.
2.
or a decimal system:
1.
1.1
1.2
1.2
1
1.2 1.221
2 1.222
or simply informal indentation:

Advertising Media Used

Newspapers
Magazines
Monthli
es
Weeklie
s
Radi
A.M. stations
F.M. stations
o TV
37
 blic Broadcasting
P Channels Commercial
u Channels
Example: Number-Letter
Outline
1. Sea Travel as a Vacation

37
 A. Travel by passenger freighter
B. Travel by cruise ship
1. The advantages and cost of using a national cruise line
2. The advantages and cost of using a foreign cruise line

a. The Australian lines available

b. Other lines available
2. Auto Motoring as a Vacation

5. Orders of Development
A consistent order of development should be used in the
outline, and orders usually should not be mixed. Orders
of development include
 Inductive
 Deductive
 Chronological
 Geographical
 Analysis and synthesis
 Spatial
 Directional
 Simple to complex

6. Types of Outlines
There are three major types of outlines:
 Topic outline
 Sentence outline
 Paragraph outline

The easiest and most frequently used type is the topic outline. The topic
outline may be drawn up quickly and easily, with little time needed to
formulate complete sentences and paragraphs. Points listed in a topic
outline may be moved from one section to another easily.
Example: Topic Outline (decimal system)
1. Incentive systems to increase productivity
1.1 Merchandise awards
1.2 Money awards
1.21 On the basis of sales
1.22 On the basis of production
1.221 Cost savings secured
1.222 Increased
units over base 2.Equipment changes to
increase productivity

7. Writing the First Draft

Once the writer has carefully thought through the topic, defined the
problem and purpose of the communication, identified the reader, and
drawn up a tentative outline, he/she is ready to write the first draft.
Turning out that first draft should be carried through in a satisfactory
writing environment. For most of us that means a clear desk, plenty of
paper, and no distractions. Others might add soft background music.
38
Whatever your cup of tea, the environment should be arranged as
expertly as possible to set the right climate for you.

38
 8. Choosing the Words
Although the choice of words is absolutely vital to evoke the precise
image in the reader‟s mind, the writer should be primarily concerned
with getting ideas and concepts on paper as quickly and as completely
as possible when writing the first draft. At a later time the exact word
can be found, the alliterative phrase can be developed, or the simile or
metaphor injected.

9. Choosing the Sentences

Even in the first draft, the writer should become accustomed to using
complex sentences so that the writing has variety and rhythm.
Certainly, there is nothing wrong with simple and compound sentences.
However, using too many of either gives writing an air of repetition, or
dullness, or boredom.
The complex sentence may be short or long, fast or slow, soft or loud. In a
word, it has
variety, and variety is one of the factors that make writing interesting.

10.Choosing the Paragraphs

Paragraphs may be
 Expository (providing explanation)
 Informational
 Transitional (making a bridge)
 Emphatic, or
 Persuasive.
11.Qualities of Writing Style
Unity is the quality of “oneness” that a piece of writing possesses. All
ideas are related to a central idea; irrelevant material is discarded.
Coherence is the logical interconnection of ideas so they flow
smoothly and easily together.
Courtesy and consideration of the reader‟s needs, viewpoints, and
desires are important in writing style.
Emphasis is the writing skill that brings key ideas or concepts into sharp
focus. It may be secured by proportion, placement, repetition, attention-
catching words, or use of type styles (bold, italics, etc.).
Imagination is the writing quality that permits the reader to see, feel,
smell, or hear the incident, conversation, or activity that the writer
“draws” with words.

12.Editing Suggestions
Once the material has been written, it should be reviewed
and edited. Edit for
 Coherence
 Clarity
 Conciseness
 Emphasis
 Readability
39
  Format
13.Readability Formulas

39
There are several formulas for judging readability of material. The “Fog
Index” already discussed in Lecture 3: Using the Language, is the most
popular. In this system, the lower the readability index, the easier is the
comprehension. A level of 8 is easy to comprehend; a level of 16 is quite
difficult; over 20 is very difficult.

14.Ten Suggestions for Clear Writing (these were made by Robert

Gunning, the author of the Fog Index):
 Keep sentences short, on the average
 Prefer the simple to the complex
 Prefer the familiar word
 Avoid unnecessary words
 Put action in your verbs
 Write as you talk
 Use terms your reader can picture
 Tie in with your reader‟s experience
 Make full use of variety
 Write to express, not to impress

15.The Final Paper

The final paper should be checked to determine if all the

following items are excellent:
 Topic headings to help the reader comprehend the material
 White space to improve appearance and readability
 Appendix, charts, and supplements (make sure that all
data contained in these elements are necessary and that
all irrelevant data have been eliminated)
 Preface to set the stage properly
 Bindings to present the paper attractively.

Study Questions
Can you explain ….?

 The items to be aware of when planning a written

communication
 The value of a tentative outline
 Outlining methods
 Outline types
 The qualities of writing style
 What to edit for in a piece of written communication
 Gunning‟s ten suggestions for clear writing
 What to check in the final paper

40
Summary:

1. In planning written communication, be sure to define the

problem accurately, recognize the purpose of communication,
and identify the specific audience to whom the message is
directed. In other words, identify:
 The subject, or what you want to say
 The purpose, or why you want to say it, and
 The audience, or to whom you want to say it.
2. Planning also means limiting the scope of discussion. Once
the parameters of the topic are established, the writer should
determine in what depth to examine the topic.
3. The writer should draw up a tentative outline in order to check
the logic of the design, evaluate the relative proportion of each
section, check the completeness of coverage, review the order
of development, and, overall, save time if changes are needed.
4. Outlining methods include: number-letter system, decimal
system, and simple informal indentation.
5. Types of outlining include
a. Topic outline
b. Sentence outline
c. Paragraph outline
6. The topic may be developed through any one of the following
orders:
a. Inductive
b. Deductive
c. Chronological
d. Geographical
e. Analysis & synthesis
f. Spatial
g. Directional
h. Simple to complex
7. The first draft should be written quickly, using the tentative
guideline for a guide.
8. Words, sentences and paragraphs should be selected carefully.
9. For best results, the writer should be aware of the
following qualities of writing style:
a. Unity
b. Coherence
c. Courtesy
d. Emphasis
e. Imagination
10.After writing the first draft, the writer should edit it for
a. Coherence
b. Clarity
c. Emphasis
d. Readability
41
11.A readability formula is designed to measure the level of
difficulty of reader comprehension of a written piece. Robert
Gunning is the author of a well- known readability formula,
the Fog Index.
12.Gunning has ten suggestions for achieving conciseness and
clarity in writing. His major points are:
a. Keep sentences short, on the average.
b. Avoid unnecessary words
c. Write to express, not to impress.

42
Lecture 5:
Communication through Writing:
Business Letters, Memos & Notices

We have already discussed the major principles of business

communication in general and of business writing style in particular.
We have also considered the crucial stages in planning written
communication. Now we are going to consider how these basic
principles and strategies apply in writing different kinds of business
letters, memos, and notices.

1. The Advantages of the Business Letter

2. The Business Letter Today
3. Letter Format
4. Letter Form
5. Principles of Business Communication
6. Different Types of Letter
 Job Application Letter
 Collection Letter
 Complaint or Grievance
 Favorable Adjustments of Claims
 The Unfavorable Response, or the Psychology of Refusal
7. Memoranda and Notices

1.The Advantages of the Business Letter: All organizations today

communicate with dozens of different publics: customers, suppliers,
vendors, government agencies, community groups, manufacturers,
schools, and so on. In most cases, that communication takes the form of
telephone calls or letters. Although the use of letters is expensive (some
estimates peg the cost of a letter at over $7.00 today), letters do have at
least two important advantages over many other communication media:
 A letter establishes a record of the interaction
 A letter is personal

It is true that electronic mail and computers now permit us to

communicate in many new and different ways. However, the consistent
and effective use of the letter as a business instrument has been proved
millions of times in the last 2000 years. We are accustomed to it, and its
use in the foreseeable future is certainly assured.

1. The Business Letter Today

To the reader, the business letter is a reflection of the company.

The letter is a liaison, the representative, and the courier of the
organization, its products, its services, and its people. To the buyer,

43
vendor, prospective customer, or government representative, that letter
is the company.

43
  The letter that is concise, clear, friendly, courteous, and
complete gives the reader an image of a firm that is efficient
and concerned.
 Conversely, the letter that is carelessly typed, incorrect in its
details, and sloppy in its makeup may reflect an image of an
organization that is one with which the reader should not do
business.
 Consequently, written communication must be prepared with
care.

3. Letter Format

A. There is no one correct letter format.

 Almost every organization has developed its own design and
format for its letters. Some use a block form, others use an
indented style; some include the typist‟s and author‟s
initials; others do not.
 However, whichever format an organization uses
should be used consistently.

B. The typical business letter is made up of six parts:

 The heading is made up of the letterhead and the date. The
former is usually carefully designed to project an effective
nonverbal image of the organization. The date should be
spelled out. Using only numerals may be misleading, i.e.
06.09.00 or 04/05/00.
 The inside address should carry titles of individuals. Street
and city designations should ordinarily not be abbreviated.
Recently, it has become acceptable to use the standard
abbreviations for states in the United States and some
nations, such as the U.S., the U.K., the U.A.E., or P.N.G.
 The salutation in formal correspondence should be
followed by a colon. Whenever possible, the person‟s
name should be used rather than the impersonal “Dear
Sir” or “Dear Madam.”
 The body of the letter should be centered on the page.
Paragraphs should be relatively short.
 The complimentary close is typically “Sincerely,” “Sincerely
yours,” “Truly yours,” or “Yours truly.” Gaining in
popularity are signatures that are somewhat more
informal: “Warm regards,” “Best wishes,” and “Cordially
yours.”
 The signature is often made up of the organization‟s name
on the first line, the signature, the typed name used in the
signature, and the person‟s title.

N.B. An attention line, subject line, or letter reference number

44
 usually appears in the area of the inside address and salutation.
Enclosure and initial designations appear below the signature.

4.Letter Form: There are three popular forms for business letters:

 Full block form

 Modified block form

44
  Modified block form with indented paragraphs

5.Principles of Business Communication:

 Conciseness. Most business people are very busy. The wordy letter
not only is put aside because of the time factor, but its very
wordiness makes comprehension difficult. Therefore, whenever
you write a business letter, cut every possible sentence and word.
Say only what needs to be said. However, don‟t make your letter
so concise that it sounds curt or abrupt. Retain the friendly tone.
 Completeness. Check your letter to be sure it contains all the
necessary information. For the reader to have to request
information that should have been included is costly to both
parties (and not just in monetary terms). Use a system for
organizing to ensure completeness (see sections on Drawing up
the Tentative Outline and Outlining Methods).
 Courtesy. Be sure to include a “Please,” “We appreciate,” or
“Thank you very much” in your letter. A few words of courtesy
do not violate the principle of conciseness; rather, they add to
the communication.
 Correctness. Everyone has a tendency to focus on errors. To most
people, errors are a reflection of a firm‟s inefficiency. Edit
carefully for errors in spelling, sentence structure, price
quotations, and the like.
 Clarity. Here again, careful editing will eliminate possible
ambiguities. If there is any possibility that a statement may be
misconstrued, take it out or rewrite.
 Logical organization. Logical organization is one of the keys to all
effective writing. In a message as brief as most letters are, logical
organization is vital. The effective letter writer must organize the
points to be covered and their logical order in an outline noted on
the letter he or she is replying to. Others make up the outline on a
piece of scratch paper. Any system of organization that works for
you will do. Whatever the method used, the important factor is
making up the outline, carefully reviewing it, and using it as a
guide for writing the letter.
 Attractiveness. The letter, like a package for a product, should
“look good.” Paragraphs should be brief and well balanced. White
spaces should be generous: wide margins and adequate space
between sections should be the rule. The entire letter should be
centered on the page, and topic headings should be used if they
facilitate comprehension.
 Natural tone. The tone of the letter should be friendly, natural,
and sincere. Hackneyed, archaic, and obsolete phrases,
words, and expressions should be avoided. Such expressions
help build an image of a stodgy,, old-fashioned organization
that may be “behind the times.” Here are some examples of
45
expressions to avoid:
1. as in the above
2. advise
3. as per
4. as indicated
5. attached hereto
6. attached please find
7. beg to state

45
 8. beg to remain
9. contents noted
10.enclosed please find
11.hand you herewith
12.hereby acknowledge
13.hoping to hear
14.permit me to say
15.pursuant to
16.wish to state
17.take this opportunity

 Tact. Avoid words or phrases that might antagonize or embarrass

the reader. The careful choice of words is essential if one is to get
the decoder‟s cooperation. At times it is necessary to convey
unpleasant ideas, but the words chosen by the writer to
accomplish that objective should permit the reader to save face
and accept the idea.

6.Different Types of Letter:

 Job Application: Your resume (or C.V.) should be

accompanied by a cover letter. In many respects, the
cover letter to the resume is a sales letter and you are
the product.
Objectives of the cover letter:
o Context: refer to your source of information about the
vacancy.
o Gain the reader‟s attention by indicating your
major qualifications and how the firm would
benefit from your skills and abilities
o Describe your background and qualifications and
refer to more complete data in your resume
o Provide proof of your competence by referring to
relevant awards, employment, degrees, and the
reference list provided in your resume
o Ask that an interview be scheduled a.s.a.p.;
make the request positive and indicate that you
wish to elaborate on how the firm will benefit by
hiring you.
N.B. Other factors to consider: submit
typewritten letters that are neat and error-free.
Be specific. Tailor your cover letters to the
specific jobs you are applying for.
 Collection Letter: Occasional accounts become
delinquent, and although the firm wants to collect its
money, it also wants to maintain good relationships.

46
Most companies follow the same steps to collect
delinquent accounts: a collection series, beginning with
a reminder message and then becoming progressively
more insistent as the letters in the series continue.

46
 Reminder: Often a short note with a brief statement on
the invoice such as “Did you forget?” is sent soon after a
delinquent account is recognized. If the customer has not
responded to the reminder, a personal letter (or a series of
letters) is in order. That letter must be courteous and
must specify the exact amount due, the due date, and the
consequences of nonpayment. In addition, always convey
the message that settling the bill is to the customer‟s
advantage.

 Complaint or Grievance (Claim Letters): Because today‟s

production and marketing systems involve so many
different processes and people, claim letters regarding
lost or mishandled merchandise, bills, etc., have become
a constant part of doing business.
The objective of a claim letter is to receive a definite
answer. The writer hopes that the reply to the claim will
be favorable. However, if that is not possible, the writer
may be satisfied with a compromise or a rejection. What
the writer does not want is a letter that reaches no
decision – this usually results in further correspondence,
which wastes time and money.
A claim letter should include 5 features:
o An opening statement that refers very
specifically to the transaction
o A specific statement of the loss
o A specific statement of the adjustment desired
o A statement to motivate favorable action
o A close

 Favorable Adjustments to Claims: Because of the

increasing complexity of doing business, companies
expect claims. They are aware that a certain percentage
of claims will be entered in the natural course of doing
business. Thus policies are established for making
adjustments under various conditions.
Most firms recognize that making an adjustment
graciously and openly is an opportunity for building good
will. As a matter of fact, an adjustment made grudgingly
often will do more damage than a refusal made
courteously and intelligently.
Buyer at fault: At times a buyer will submit a
claim that he/she may think is justified but
actually is not. Firms will often grant such claims
purely for the purpose of maintaining good will.
However, it is important that the buyer be told
(tactfully of course) that he/she is at fault. Normally

47
that is done before the grant is made. The
organizational pattern for the kind of letter used in
this situation is:
1. reference to the specific transaction
2. a tactful explanation of how the buyer is at
fault
3. claim granted (graciously)
4. a sales appeal, if applicable

47
 5. a friendly close

Seller at fault: Obviously, this is a difficult situation to

handle. Buyers are usually not very sympathetic when
they have filed a claim because of the seller‟s error.
Nevertheless, the seller must grant the claim and
attempt to retain the customer‟s good will and
continued business. The organizational pattern for the
letter used in this situation is:
1. an opening that refers to the situation
and almost simultaneously makes the
grant
2. an explanation of how the error occurred,
if such an explanation serves a
reasonable purpose
3. a statement designed to rebuild the customer‟s
confidence in the seller
4. a sales appeal, if appropriate
5. a friendly close

 The Unfavorable Response, or the Psychology of Refusal: When

we say no to what others think is a reasonable request, the
potential for causing problems (as well as losing sales and good
will) is great. However, the need is still there. Provided one
organizes carefully, the task of saying no becomes quite easy.
The organizational plan is a simple one based on the assumption
that everyone is reasonable and intelligent. If there is a
legitimate reason for the refusal, people expect to be told what it
is. Thus refusal letters should be organized in this manner:
1. a statement recognizing the situation
2. an explanation of why the refusal is necessary
3. the refusal, implied or stated
4. a constructive suggestion
5. a sales appeal, if appropriate
6. a close

If the explanation is offered before the refusal, it is usually

unnecessary to include comments such as “therefore we must
refuse,” “it is not possible,” “we regret,” and similar negative
expressions. The explanation indicates the reason for refusal and
the refusal itself can be implied. One need only add “therefore you
can appreciate,” “we know you will understand,” and so on. At
times, however, it may be wise to add after the explanation a
statement such as “therefore we must refuse….”

7. Memoranda and Notices.

In order to avoid misunderstandings, office workers routinely use the

48
memorandum, or memo. The memo acts as a record that can be filed and
referred to later, if necessary. When identical information must be
transmitted to several individuals, the memo is an essential tool. In
addition, a memo can be used to confirm assignments, fix responsibility,
and document decisions or minutes of meetings.

48
Memo Format: The memo provides the busy executive with
information quickly and concisely. For easy use, memos have taken
on an almost universal form:
1. Memos are usually written on full-page or half-page paper.
2. At the top, memos have a four-item
heading: To:
From:
Date:
Subject:
3. The subject line tells the reader exactly what the memo is about,
eliminating the need for an introductory paragraph. This line
should be clear and specific.
4. The information in the memo should be clear and concise.
Tables and headings should be used whenever possible so the
reader will note important information immediately.

Memos are a record. Memos should be planned as carefully as a lengthy

research project. Although memos are usually brief, they make up a
significant part of records in company files.

Another medium used to communicate with large numbers of people

within an organization is the notice. The channel of communication is
then the notice board on which it is posted, the journal or newsletter in
which it is displayed, etc. Notices serve the purpose of bringing a matter
to people‟s attention. They are used for
 Effective impact in the presentation of a message (visually and
intellectually)
 Longer-term display of the message, as a continual reminder and
record
 Instruction, education, reminding or persuasion.

The format of a notice is extremely flexible. Their design should be

easily seen, quickly grasped and attractive. Notices should
 Stimulate immediate interest
 Be easy to read and comprehend
 Encourage the appropriate reaction on the part of the reader
 Stick in his/her mind

Summary:
 People derive an image (impression) of an organization as a
result of evaluating the quality (or lack thereof) of a business
letter.
 The business letter is quite costly
 The business letter is usually divided into
o The heading (includes the letterhead and date)
o The inside address
o The salutation
49
o The body of the letter
o The complementary close
o The signature. Added to these are miscellaneous items
such as the subject And reference lines, attention line,
author‟s and typist‟s initials, and enclosure and carbon
copy notations.

49
 The forms most usually used for business letters nowadays are
o Full block form
o Modified block form
o Modified block form with indented paragraphs.
 The principles of business communication include
1.Conciseness,
2.Completeness,
3.Courtesy,
4.Correctness,
5.Clarity,
6.Logical organization,
7.Attractiveness,
8.Natural tone.

50
Lecture 6: Information Storage &
Retrieval. Report Writing and
Form Design

1. Information Storage and Retrieval

2. Reports for Decision Making: Types of Reports
3. General Points of Style
4. Report Formats: the Short Form
5. Report Formats: the Long Form

1. Information Storage and Retrieval: In all areas of our lives, our

decisions are influenced by the facts available to us. We
remember that data is gathered and processed in order to
provide information. Data processing involves:
 Duplication: copies are made for those who need the
information („public‟ information, such as newspapers,
adverts, etc., and business information – reports, sales
documents, etc.)
 Transmission: information is sent to people who need it, in
formats appropriate to their needs, and is properly
received/acknowledged by them (feedback is part of the
process of communication!)
 Storage: not all information is needed straight away, or it
might be needed again later, so it has to be filed away for
various lengths of time (from days to years). The same item
of information may be stored in different files, once by each
person or group who might need it.
 Retrieval: information on file is obtained for use and
further data processing by „retrieving,‟ or getting it
out of file.

Data

Information is

retrieved & sent

Aspects of information storage and retrieval include

 Report writing
 Form design

51
  Classification and indexing methods
 Filing procedures
 Retention periods (length of time files are kept)

Today we are going to focus on reports as sources of information for

decision making. As we know, people in business need to obtain and
utilize information quickly. Report is a

51
general term for „telling,‟ or „reporting‟ of information, which may be
presented in a variety of formats.

2. Reports for Decision Making: Types of Reports. Report

formats differ depending on their purpose and nature.
Reports may be:
 Formal, or informal
 Routine (daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly, annual, etc.), or
occasional
 Professional, or for a wider audience
Uses of Reports. Reports are meant to be useful by providing
information for decision making They may be used
- to assist management in decision making based on clearly written,
concise information which may consist of:
 Information, retrieved from files or other sources
 Narrative or description, i.e. of one-off events or
procedures (accident, installation of new equipment, etc.)
 Analysis
 Evaluation and recommendation

- as a permanent record and source of reference

- to convey information to other interested parties

The use, or purpose of the report must be clear to both the person
requesting the report and to the report writer. Routine reports have their
purpose and use specified in procedure manuals. Occasional reports
often require „terms of reference‟ explaining the purpose of the report
and any restrictions on its scope.

3. General Points of Style: The general principles of business

communication, such as conciseness, completeness, courtesy,
correctness, clarity, logical organization and attractiveness all apply
in report writing.

Readability (clarity) may be facilitated by various display techniques,

such as headings, references, font types, spacing, etc.
Since reports provide objective information regarding facts or
processes, passive constructions (emphasis on the process, not the
doer of the action) are typical in report writing.

4. Report Formats: the Short Form. Short reports may be formal or

informal. Formal reports are strictly schematic, with a wide use of
impersonal constructions. Informal reports are less rigid in
structure and slightly more personal in style.

The short formal report is usually split into logical sections, each
referenced and headed appropriately:
52
Title (usually centered)
I. Terms of Reference
II. Procedure (or Method)
III. Findings

52
 1.Section heading (if required)
2.Section heading
(a) sub heading
(i) sub point

IV. Conclusions
V. Recommendations (if asked for)

SHORT FORMAL REPORT

Title: At the top of every report (or on a title page for lengthy ones) should
be the title (i.e., subject) of the report, who has prepared it, for whom it is
intended, the date of completion, and the status of the report (i.e.
„Confidential‟ or „Urgent‟).

I. TERMS OF REFERENCE
The purpose and scope of the report. This section may sometimes be called
„Introduction‟ and may include the details set above under „Title‟; the title
then would give only the subject of the report.

II. PROCEDURE or METHOD

This outlines the steps taken in the investigation, collection of data, etc.
For example, telephone calls or visits made, documents consulted,
computations or analyses made, etc., should be briefly described, and
the names of other people involved mentioned.

III. FINDINGS
Information itself is set out, with appropriate headings and subheadings,
if the report covers more than one topic. Organization: as with a letter or
memorandum, the content should be complete, concise, and clearly
structured in any relevant logical order of development.

IV. CONCLUSIONS
This section allows for a summary of main findings (if the report is
complex and lengthy). For a simpler report it may include action taken or
decisions reached or the overall „message‟ of the report.

V. RECOMMENDATIONS
(if stipulated by the terms of reference)

The Sort Informal Report is used for less complex information, so the
structure of the short informal report is also less complex, without any
elaborate referencing and layout. There are usually three main sections,
each of which may be headed in a way appropriate to the context in
which report is written.

53
TITLE
1. Background/Introduction/Situation

53
2. Findings/Analysis of
Situation
3.Action/Solution/Conclu
sion

SHORT INFORMAL REPORT

TITLE: Again, the subject title, „to‟, „from‟, „date‟, and „reference‟ (if
necessary) should be provided, perhaps in the memo format.

1. Background or Introduction or Situation: this sets the context of the

report, i.e. its purpose and any other relevant details. This section may
also contain the equivalent of
„terms of reference‟ and „procedure‟ („method‟).

2. Findings, or Analysis of the Situation: the detailed information

gathered is set out in well structured paragraphs. Subheadings may be
unnecessary in the short informal report.

3. Action or Solution or Conclusion: the main findings should be

summarized and conclusions drawn, together with a note of the outcome
of events, or action required, or recommendations with regard to
solutions sought.

The Memorandum Report: In informal reporting situations within an

organization, the
„short informal report‟ may well be presented in A4 memo format, which
incorporates title headings and allows flexibility of content layout.
Example of memo report:

To: Mac McNally Date: May 2,

2000 Executive Vice President
Subject: Periodic Sales Report
for
From: Tom Swanson April
2000 Director of Sales

SALES VOLUME

Distric Consume Manufacturing Government

t r
I K K 800,000 K 1,700,000
400,000
II 500,000 900,000 2,900,000
III 600,000 800,000 4.800,000*

* Includes billing for first quarter

54
 COST OF SALES TRAINING
Distr K 42,000 (includes cost of video equipment)
ict I
District II K 21,000
District III K 32,000

54
Recommendations

1. Split District III into two districts, effective July, 2000.

2. Appoint Manager of Sales. All district supervisors to report to this
manager.
3. Appoint Sales Training Director for all
Districts. 4.Increase Sales Training
budget by 20 percent.
5.Add one secretarial position to the Director of Sales office.

The Form Reports: Some routine (particularly periodic) reports have

standard content requirements, and can therefore be preprinted with
appropriate format and headings, and filled in when the need arises.
Often companies develop forms to facilitate the periodic reporting of
information such as sales, inventory, number of transactions, and so
forth.

General principles of form design: The purpose served by a form is to

ensure an effective transfer of necessary information.
A good form is one which is designed so that information can be easily:
 Transmitted
 Interpreted
 Filed (size, etc.)
 Retrieved

Form design should focus on:

 Content
 Layout
 Make-up
 Printing
 Paper

5. Report Formats: the Long Form

In most organizations, decisions are based on

information gathered from a variety of sources. This
information is usually presented to the decision maker
in the form of a long report that contains carefully
substantiated data, conclusions, and recommendations.
Types of Long Reports: There are several different types of long
reports. Each type is designed for a different goal. Therefore, when
you write a long report, it is important to identify your goal early in
the planning stage. The different types of long reports are as follows:
 Informative long report: This type of report presents information
needed to make a decision.
 Analytical long report: This type of report provides in-depth data
55
about a particular situation. For example, a company might
wish to analyze the feasibility of marketing a new high intensity
bulb, or of purchasing a new piece of equipment from another
firm. Such a report would analyze the financial,, personnel,
risk, and other factors involved.

55
  Comparative long report: A comparative report compares two or
more alternatives. Advantages and disadvantages of each
alternative are outlined.
 Argumentative long report: this type of report strongly
recommends a specific course of action and provides
documentation to support it.
 Persuasive long report: A more subtle approach is used in the
persuasive report than in the argumentative report. Here data
and information are provided to encourage the reader to take
favorable action.

Quite often, a single report combines one or more of the types listed
above; for example, a report may not only inform but also persuade.

The Format of the Long Report: All of the types of reports listed above
follow the same format. The elements of this format are as follows:
 Letter of transmittal: the letter of transmittal introduces the report.
It cites the authorization, purpose, limitations, and sources of
information for the study. In some cases,, the research findings
also may be referred to briefly in this letter, and there may also be
acknowledgement of assistance received.
 Title page: the title page of the report contains the report title, the
name(s) of author(s), the date of the report, and the name(s) of the
individual or organization to whom the report is directed. All
individuals listed should have their titles and affiliations noted.
 Letters of authorization and acceptance: letters that authorized the
report and approved the study may be included if appropriate.
 Table of contents: this lists the section titles and page numbers for
easy reference.
 Summary: A long report usually has a summary placed before the
main body of the report. This allows the busy reader to quickly
review the problem, objectives, and solutions so that he or she can
make informed decisions.
 Body: the body of most long reports is divided into four sections:
o Introduction: this section provides background information.
If it is preceded by a summary section and a letter of
transmittal, this section may be shortened. The topics
covered could be a brief history of the problem, a review of
the literature search, methods used in analyzing the
problem, and references to data and forms presented in later
sections.
o Discussion: This section should be the largest part of the
report. Findings, interpretations, and implications are
presented here. Whenever possible, topic headings should
be used. Tables and figures aid the reader in interpretation.
o Conclusions and recommendations: Using the objective data
presented in the discussion section, the writer should
56
 present carefully substantiated conclusions and thoroughly
justified recommendations. Because the reader often is an
executive who wishes to grasp the „big picture‟ quickly,
conclusions and recommendations appear immediately after
the introduction.
o Addendum: this section includes all supplemental
information: appendixes, examples of measurement
instruments used, calculations and statistics, supporting
data and/or visuals, and the bibliography.

56
Summary
Short
Reports:
1. Short reports facilitate decision making in business.
2. The information presented in a short report should be clear and
concise.
3. Periodic reports are submitted on a routine basis. They may be
completed daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly, or annually.
4. Headings facilitate the reading of periodic reports.
5. Forms for easy fill-in are sometimes used for periodic reports.
6. More and more periodic reports are computer-generated.
7. The formal short report format: Title, Terms of Reference,
Procedure, Findings, Conclusions, and Recommendations (if
required).
8. The informal short report format: Title, Background, Findings,
Conclusion.
9. Memos are the universal method of documenting important
information quickly and concisely.
10.The format for memos begins with a standard four-part heading:
„To:‟, „From:‟,
„Subject:‟, „Date:‟.
11.The subject line of a memo usually replaces the introductory
paragraph.
12.Memos are used to confirm assignments, record minutes,
document information for file purposes, fix responsibility, transmit
information, and record items for completion (action items).

Long Reports:
1. Long reports are written to inform, analyze, compare, argue, or persuade.
2. Identification of the goal of a long report determines which type of
report is most appropriate.
3. The main elements of a long report are the letter of transmittal, title
page, letters of authorization and acceptance, table of contents,
summary, and body.
4. The body of a long report usually includes an introduction,
discussion, conclusions, recommendations, and addenda.
5. The summary of the long report is often placed before the body to
provide the reader with an immediate overview.

57
Lecture 7: Oral, Non-Verbal and Visual Communication.

1. The Advantages of Oral Communication

2. The Disadvantages of Oral Communication
3. Skills in Oral Communication
4. Effective Speaking: The Short Presentation
5. Effective Speaking: The Long Presentation
6. Listening
7. Using Visual Aids to Communicate

1.The Advantages of Oral Communication:

o Swift and direct feedback
o Interactive nature of medium
o Great flexibility in the range of available
persuasive/motivating tactics.

2.The Disadvantages of Oral Communication:

o Potential interference („technical noise‟)
o Memory is unreliable, and perceptions differ. In the absence of
written records, oral communication may lead to
misunderstanding
o Less time is available for planning, hence increased possibility of
making wrong decisions
o Clash of personalities may form a barrier to effective communication
o The greater the number of people involved in the
communication process, the more the potential magnification
of these disadvantages.

3.Skills in Oral Communication:

o Speaking:
 Articulation
 Structuring the message
 Style and Tone
 Delivery
 Tact [sensitivity to recipient(s)]

o Listenin
g:  Concentration
 Interpretation of metacommunication and paralanguage
 Offering feedback

* Metacommunication (meta = beyond) is a form of

„supercommunication,‟ a sum total of all signals communicated (verbal
and non-verbal)
** Paralanguage (para = beside, beyond) is spoken language used to
convey a meaning greater or other than its surface meaning.

58
 4. Effective Speaking: The Short Presentation. During your business
career you will be required to make a variety of oral presentations.
These may be as short as three minutes, such as for introducing a
speaker, or as long as one hour, such as for making a technical
presentation. The size of the audience may vary from one individual to
hundreds, and the purpose may vary from informative to comparative
to persuasive. Planning Your Short Presentation: Like written
communications, speeches must be well planned. Analyze your
audience and note how much time is allotted to you to speak.
Planning your talk in relationship with your allotted time and
audience level is very important. However, the critical factor in planning
is the organization of the presentation itself. Just as with a written
report, the communicator must carefully determine the major topics and
minor areas, then integrate them in a logical order for the greatest
impact on the audience.
The presentation itself may be divided into 3 parts, as follows:
1. Introduction: Usually it is wise to introduce your speech by
stating your purpose, problem, and goal. This gives your
audience an idea of what you will be speaking about and how it
relates to them.
2. Body: The bulk of your time should be spent on developing
your main ideas and arguments to support your central
theme. The logic of the presentation is increased by using a
consistent order of development (deductive, inductive,
chronological, etc.). It is possible to use more than one order
of development in a presentation provided a logical sense is
maintained.
3. Conclusion: The conclusion usually summarizes the main
ideas and urges the audience to adopt a specific course of
action.

Principles of Effective Public Speaking:

o Knowledge: you should be completely familiar with
your topic. This has two advantages: first, you will be
more confident as you address your audience; second,
you will be able to anticipate and answer questions
addressed to you.
o Organization: If you organize your presentation logically,
you will be able to stay on track, move rapidly through
your key ideas, and thereby maintain the attention and
interest of your audience.
o Advance Preparation: improves effectiveness.
Preparation of ideas, supporting facts, visual aids,
attention-catching statements, etc. contributes to your
confidence and helps you speak with force and clarity.
o Honesty: when speaking, be yourself – no more, no less.
If you can‟t answer a question, say so quickly and
directly and move on. Do not try to fool your audience.
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o Vocabulary and Articulation: After analyzing your
audience, select a vocabulary level appropriate for your
listeners. Define those terms that may be unfamiliar to
them. Pronounce your words clearly. Eliminate “cuz,”
“dontcha,” “comin‟,” and so forth.
o Rate of Delivery: The rate of your delivery is critical in
maintaining and holding the interest of your audience.
Audiences bore easily while listening to a slow,
monotonous speech. On the other hand, extremely

59
 rapid speech tends to lose an audience. For maximum
effectiveness, vary the rate of your delivery at appropriate
times to hold the audience interest.
o Volume and Inflection: Vary the volume of your voice for
emphasis when necessary. Be sure you can be heard
distinctly in every corner of the room. On the other
hand, be careful the volume is not so high as to be
disturbing. Use inflection to emphasize key points, ideas,
and concepts.
Rate of delivery, volume and inflection should vary with
the content of a presentation and the impact a speaker
wants to make on the audience.
o Gestures: Always maintain eye contact with your
audience. Avoid looking out the window, at an open
door, or at the floor. If you are sitting, sit up straight. If
you are standing, stand relaxed yet straight. Use
gestures and eye movements to communicate your
ideas. A smile is well received when it is made in
keeping with the proper statement.

5. Effective Speaking: the Long Presentation. Sometimes you will be

asked to present a rather lengthy speech to inform members of an
audience of new policies, procedures, or products; to exchange technical
material; to present research findings; or to analyze budget
considerations. The long presentation differs from the short one in
several ways:

o The length of the long presentation may vary from 10 to 60

minutes
o Visuals are used more frequently in the long presentation
o The concepts and ideas in the long presentation are
usually more complex.
o Audience involvement and participation are more
common in the long presentation

Like other presentations, long speeches contain an introduction, a body,

and a conclusion.
o Introduction: The introduction is critical since its purpose is to
gain the attention of the listeners. This may be accomplished by
establishing rapport with your audience. If you are an „outsider,‟
they need to be reassured of your competence and honesty. Your
introduction should include a statement of the topic for
discussion and how it is relevant to the audience. If you plan to
use new or technical terms, be sure you define them in the
introduction.
o Body: Organize the body of your long speech as you would a long
written report. Make sure you have researched your topic
thoroughly. Organize your ideas in a logical sequence and
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 provide supporting data.
o Conclusion: The data presented should lead naturally to the
specific points in the conclusion. These points may be listed and
emphasized. Then you well- substantiated recommendations may
follow. The way you deliver your conclusion may determine the
effectiveness of your speech. Plan the conclusion carefully, using
visual aids if appropriate to increase audience retention of key
points.

6. Listening: Besides reading, writing, and speaking, a fourth area of

communication, listening, has now been recognized as an essential
management tool. Listening has

60
become so important that some companies have begun holding
seminars for employees on the subject.
Why Listen? Studies have shown that managers spend approximately
60 – 70% of their time communicating. Of that amount of time,
approximately 55 – 65% is spent listening. Effective listening has five
advantages:
o It may result in better relationships at home and at work
o It helps us to better understand those with whom we communicate
o It provides important information
o It stimulates new ideas
o It motivates others to improve their listening skills

These advantages, all secured as a result of effective listening,

help us to become effective managers.
Levels of Listening:
o Attentive listening for important information
o Empathetic listening to appreciate others‟ attitudes, feelings and
emotions
o Casual listening to music and informal discussion for pleasure

Why We Don‟t Listen: There are many reasons why many of us don‟t
listen effectively.
o Rate of comprehension. We can comprehend much faster than we
can speak. Most of us speak about 125 to 150 words per minute,
while we comprehend about 600 to 800 words per minute. If we
don‟t concentrate, that extra time could be spent thinking about
unrelated issues, and the key ideas in a presentation or
conversation could be lost.
o Competition. External distractions also compete for our
attention: „physical noise‟ (ringing telephone, conversation
nearby, etc.)
o Time. Sometimes we just don‟t have time to listen because other
items seem more important. Remember that not all conversations
take place at your convenience, and if you can‟t make the time to
listen, someone else will. (However, some people may want to
monopolize all of your time with conversation: tactfully stop this
kind of behaviour so you don‟t spend critical time listening to
somebody who should not be heard!)
o Lack of Training. In school we learned how to speak, read, and
write; yet few of us learned how to listen. Now, both schools and
companies are realizing this deficiency in education and are
offering courses in the area.
o Negative Responses. Often people fail to listen to a speaker
because they respond negatively to external factors such as
speaker‟s clothes, hairstyle, accent or smell. A good listener,
however, will not let negative responses get in the way of
concentrating on what is being said.
o Emotions. Emotions often get in the way of effective listening,
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 particularly during confrontations.
o Bias, or Prejudice.

Listening for Facts:

o Resist distractions: concentrate on key ideas being presented. Try
taking notes; it may help you to listen.

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 o Remember key words: Listen carefully for key ideas. Remember
key words associated with them. Remembering five key words
will help you remember five major topics presented.
o Review key concepts. Since your comprehension rate is faster
than your speaking rate, use the extra time to review the key
words and key concepts.
o Set aside your own bias. Even if you disagree with what the
speaker is saying, continue paying attention. The speaker may
place new light on the issue or may introduce a new concept.
o Work hard to listen. Extend yourself mentally and physically to
become a better listener.

Listening for Feelings: Empathetic listening is perhaps the most difficult

of all listening skills. Learn to listen and respond to others‟ feelings in
what they are saying.
o Listen from the speaker’s point of view: Very often people have
great difficulty articulating what they feel deeply. Try to
understand and „hear‟ those feelings.
o Watch the nonverbal communication: facial expressions, hand
movements, and body posture of the speaker. Pay attention at the
paralanguage – the quality and tone of speech and the delivery
rate. The verbal communication may say one thing, but the
nonverbal communication may say another. Be sensitive to what
the speaker‟s nonverbal messages convey.
o Listen to what isn’t said: this is often the „real‟ message. For
example, when a person tells you that he worked overtime for
three straight days to finish the job, is he really saying,
„compliment me‟? Respond to these obscure comments when
appropriate.
o Listen at the right time and place: some discussions may have
to be delayed. Graciously tell the speaker you are genuinely
interested and make alternate arrangements to continue the
discussion.
o Listen objectively: recognize your own biases. Although it is
difficult to change your attitudes, try to put them aside during
the conversation. Try to reevaluate your ideas in the light of the
new information.

7. Using Visual Aids to Communicate. Whether your presentation is long

or short, written or oral, visual aids usually enhance it. When business
data seem complex, visuals can make the interpretation of these facts
much easier. Graphs, charts, and tables clarify the data being presented
as well as illustrate relationships amongst them. Graphics should be
included to clarify, supplement, or complement the information being
presented. Factors to Consider in Choosing Visuals: The type of visual
you select should be appropriate for your audience, your communication
purpose, and the type of data you are presenting.
Audience: Before selecting and designing your visual, analyze your
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audience carefully. Purpose and data analysis: Always be sure your
data clarifies the concept or answers the question you are trying to
explain.

Graphs & Charts: Graphs and charts are often used to express
relationships among data as well as trends in sales, losses, inventory
levels, and so forth over a period of time.

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 Line or curve charts: These are a series of points connected by a
straight or curved line to reflect a change over a period of time.
When different colored inks or different line configurations such
as a broken line, a dotted line, or a solid line are used, readers
can easily note relationships and trends among data.
 Bar charts: Bar charts (either vertical or horizontal) show the
relationship by using bars of different lengths to reflect
quantitative differences in the data. Sometimes the actual
numerical data is included on or near the bars. (Variations of
the bar chart – component bar chart).
 Pie charts: A pie chart is drawn in the shape of a circle. The
entire area of the circle is considered to represent 100% of a
given total. A pie chart that is broken into segments without any
indication of percentages has questionable reliability and should
be viewed with caution.
 Tables: Tables help to convey messages by making data easier to
interpret. Tables also permit the reader to easily contrast and
compare information, retain it, and quickly note similarities and
differences. If a table is labeled and explained separately from the
text, it is considered independent of the text. If all explanatory
information is in the text, the table is considered dependent on the
text.
 Miscellaneous Visual Aids:
o Pictograms or pictographs: these charts use symbols to
help the reader visualize the product/service
o Map charts: use symbols to represent quantities
o Photographs: are useful to show plant sites, actual products,
etc.
o Exploded drawings and cutaways: these provide an in-
depth view of a product or a piece of equipment
o Flowcharts: as the systems approach becomes more
popular, work activities and relationships may be
illustrated by means of flowcharts
o Organizational charts: these show the relationships
among personnel within an organization
 Visuals for Oral Presentation:
o Chalkboard or whiteboard – both are easily erasable.
o Flip charts are large sheets of newsprint supported on an
easel. Flip charts are used easily when it is impossible or
undesirable to turn out the room lights.
o Transparencies are sheets of acetate that are projected
onto a screen by means of an overhead projector. They
have similar advantages to flip charts (that is, if the room
lights need not be dimmed).
o Slides may be used in large auditoriums to
highlight main ideas. Unfortunately, room lights
must be dimmed for proper viewing.

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 The Key to Using Graphics: ask yourself if they will truly
supplement, explain, complement, or emphasize the information
you are presenting. If the answer is yes, use them.

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Lecture 8: Persuasion

1. Persuasion and Influence

2. What is Argument?
3. Constructing a Logical Argument: Persuasive Logic
4. Message Characteristics: Persuasive Style
5. Identifying False Arguments
6. Engaging in a Constructive Discussion

1. Persuasion and Influence. Teamwork, cooperation is vital for the

success of any organization. How can these be achieved?
Management, skilled in the art of persuasion, will be able to
influence company employees, shape their attitudes, motivate their
cooperative activities, and thus ensure the highest levels of
efficiency. In this section we shall focus on the nature and power of
persuasion and discuss the “anatomy” of argument.
It is important to define our terminology first, as common words have
special meanings in social sciences. The street value of terms like
„persuasion,‟ „influence,‟ and attitude‟ may not apply here.

Influence is our umbrella term. Any time a source deliberately

attempts to change a receiver‟s thoughts, feelings, or behaviors,
influence has occurred.

Persuasion is under the umbrella as a special case of influence.

When a source deliberately uses communication to try and
change a receiver‟s attitude, then persuasion has occurred.

Both influence and persuasion concern deliberate change, but

diverge because persuasion requires communication (verbal and
nonverbal messages) and persuasion seeks attitude change. By
contrast influence can proceed without communication and may
achieve behavior (external) change without gaining attitude (internal)
change.

Now what is „attitude‟? Attitude is a person‟s evaluation of an object

of thought. A person holds up an evaluative (good to bad) yardstick
and judges objects against that scale. Women‟s Lib: Good or Bad?
Smoking: Good or Bad? Repetitive examples: Good or Bad?

Persuasion, not influence, seeks to change attitudes because attitudes

drive behavior.

Recap:
 Influence deliberately seeks any change
 Persuasion deliberately seeks attitude change through
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 communication
 Attitudes are evaluations
 Persuasion seeks attitude change because attitudes drive our
behavior

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So we‟ve got three new concepts: Influence. Persuasion. Attitude. We‟ve
got definition. We‟ve got comparison and contrast. We are ready to move
on.
How can we achieve attitude, and therefore behavior change? By putting
up a convincing argument. We shall next consider the nature and
„anatomy‟ of argument, the agent of persuasion.

2. What is Argument? Once again, let‟s put aside the commonplace

meaning of the word „argument‟ („disagreement,‟ or „quarrel‟). In
school we learned that
 Argument is a specific position on an issue with supporting
points (i.e., main claim plus supporting evidence)
 Issue is an essential prerequisite for any logical argument –
that is why identifying an issue (= problem evoking strong
disagreement among people) is basic to a successful
construction of argument
 Essential Parts of Argumentative Essays are:
i. Main Idea (Thesis) Statement
ii. Reasons, supported by
iii. Evidence, or facts and examples
iv. Constructive suggestion(s)

In logic, the branch of philosophy that studies valid reasoning

and argument, argument is defined as a series of logical steps
– using reasons or evidence – supporting of a conclusion:

Argument is a set of statements (premises), one or more

of which purportedly constitute support or reason(s) for
the truth of one of the others (the conclusion).

 Statement: a meaningful declarative sentence that is either true or

false.
 Premise: a statement in an argument that provides evidence
or support for a conclusion. In other words, a premise is a
statement from which a logical deduction, or inference, may
be drawn.
 Conclusion: a statement in an argument which the premises
support or imply. In other words, conclusion is a statement that
can be drawn (deduced) from the premises.

Thus, an argument is composed of 2 kinds of statements:

 The conclusion (main claim) is that statement which follows
from the other statements, and
 The reasons (evidence) are those statements which are
intended to support the conclusion.

If we compare an argument to a structure such as a house, the

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conclusion will be its roof, supported by the pillars of reasons
(premises):

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Arguments appear in many forms and in many contexts: from
advertisements to conversations, from newspaper and magazine articles
to speeches. An initial step toward sharpening one‟s reasoning skills is
to develop one‟s ability to analyze arguments by identifying the main
conclusion and the existing logical relationship between the conclusion
and its premises.

3. Constructing a Logical Argument: Persuasive Logic. A logical argument

aiming to
„prove‟ a point to another person‟s satisfaction will contain a
number of premises and a conclusion.

X is true. Y is true. Therefore, Z is also true. [conclusion]

[premise] [premise]
Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
All men are Socrates is a
mortal. man.

Arguments can be represented in one of two ways: deductively or

inductively.
 Deductive Argument: an argument that purportedly guarantees
the truth of the conclusion, if the premises are true. In other
words, a deductive argument is intended to be constructed in
such a way that if all the premises are true, then it is impossible
for the conclusion to be false.
 Inductive Argument: an argument that purportedly makes the
truth of the conclusion highly likely or probable, if the premises
are true. In other words, an inductive argument is intended to
be constructed in such a way that if all the premises are true,
then the conclusion is highly likely to be true as well.

You will have to make sure that:

 Your premises or assumptions are valid; and
 Your conclusion actually follows or can be deduced from them.

For example, the following thought processes may sound plausible, but are
false:

„Nobody can do two things at once [premise], so you will have to give
up one of your activities [conclusion]‟ – this premise is invalid, for its
truth depends on the nature of activities involved, as well as on
one‟s individual capabilities.

„You listen to music while you work [premise] and you have been
getting bad results [premise]: obviously your results are poor

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because you listen to music! [conclusion]‟ (Not necessarily: there
may be a whole lot of other reasons for bad results:
‘x and also y’ does not mean ‘x caused by y’)

„Jane likes John. John is a salesman. Jane must like salesmen

[conclusion]. (No – all this means is that she likes one salesman called
John, for reasons that may have nothing to do with his being a salesman.
This is a common error in communication: assumption that personal
reactions are necessarily caused by partiality, bias or prejudice – „because
I am a woman,‟ „because I am foreign,‟ etc.)

66
„It must be okay [conclusion] because, after all, 6 million people can‟t be
wrong [premise].‟ (Yes they can…)

Apart from the logic of how you have derived your conclusions, there are
other factors affecting the effectiveness of your argument (= eliciting
positive response to persuasion).
4. Message Characteristics: Persuasive Style. In this section we will
consider a variety of ways in which we can use message
characteristics to influence others. Here is a sampler of some useful
message strategies for effective persuasion:
 Revealing Persuasive Intent. When receivers believe that a
source is trying to change them, they frequently respond
defensively. Sources who “forewarn” of their intent to persuade
often put themselves at a major disadvantage precisely because
of the maxim, “Forewarned is forearmed.”
As a general rule, persuasion is more effective
when the forewarning is minimized.
 Organization. Well-organized messages tend to be more persuasive
than disorganized messages. The value of message organization is
obvious. If your message is incoherent and confusing, then
receivers will have difficulty merely understanding. The source
may have good arguments, but the receivers will not comprehend
them. (For example, most teachers have had the experience of
presenting information to students in a way that was less than
well organized. We know what happens: the students get
confused. They get worried and anxious because they do not
understand. This leads to frustration and creates more barriers to
communication).
 Message Sidedness. There are two sides on every issue. One sided
messages discuss only one perspective. Two sided messages
present information on both sides. Now, one and two sided
messages still advocate only one position. The one sided message
ardently defends a position and makes no mention of competing
views. The two sided message also defends a position, but it also
“considers” the other side.
Generally speaking, a two sided message is
more persuasive than a one sided message. To
be most effective, a two sided message must do
two things:
 Defend one side;
 Attack the other side.

When two sided messages merely mention that

there are competing perspectives and there is no
attack on the competition, two sided messages
are no more effective than one sided messages.

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 The question is, why are two sided messages
better?
First, two sided messages may simply appear to be more fair and
balanced. Thus, for receivers who are not thinking very carefully,
two sided messages make sources more credible.
Second, for receivers who are thinking carefully, the combination
of defense and attack makes them think even more systematically
about the issue and to start

67
 questioning the validity of the “other” side. Thus, two sided
messages can provide a double-barreled strategy where the source
gets more support because receivers like one side and dislike the
other.
 Repetition and Redundancy. If Maggi runs the same ad for maggi
noodles 100 times, that‟s repetition. If Maggi runs 10 different
maggi noodles ads 10 times each, that‟s redundancy. What
impact does repetition have, and does redundancy moderate its
effect?
Interestingly, repetition has two different outcomes. First, a little
repetition leads to a lot of persuasion. Second, a lot of repetition
leads to a lot of frustration. There is a balance point with the lever
of repetition. Using repetition up to that point is effective, but once
you‟ve got past the balance point, you get diminishing returns.

In the first outcome a little repetition works for an obvious reason:

Comprehension. As you repeat a message, over and over, more
and more receivers understand the message. For example,
advertisers know that if a hundred people are exposed to a TV
commercial, most of them won‟t even remember it. But if you
show that same commercial over many different times, more and
more people in the audience will finally begin to „see‟ it for the
first time. And even if a particular receiver recognized that new ad
the very first time, repeated viewings are still effective. They permit
the receiver to learn more about the ad and consider it more
carefully.

But, if this repetition is overused, the second outcome occurs.

You‟ve heard the expression, „Familiarity breeds contempt.‟ That
is exactly what happens with messages that are repeated too
much. The ad comes on the TV and you go, “Oh, no, not that
again!” Instead of thinking about this wonderful ad, you start
getting angry or frustrated or bored with it. That is not good
persuasion.

Now, redundancy (saying the same thing in a different way) can

permit repetition to work effectively for a while. Redundant
messages essentially fool the receivers into thinking that they are
seeing something new. However, even with redundant messages,
you will still reach that balance point eventually. The moral of this
is: do not overuse repetition in an effort to emphasize a point.

 Rhetorical Questions. Rhetorical questions are persuasive, aren‟t

they?

Let‟s make sure we know the terminology. A rhetorical question is

an utterance that is really a statement, but looks like a question.

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Rhetoricals are polite ways of making claims without appearing to
take a stand:
o People who study longer get better grades, don‟t they?
o Advanced persuasion courses build character, don‟t they?
o He‟s made his point, hasn‟t he?
The research with rhetoricals reveals one very
strong conclusion: Using rhetoricals can change
how people think. If the receivers are not
thinking very carefully about the persuasive
appeal, a rhetorical question jerks their
attention

68
 and makes them think. The reason for this is
due to our social training. When somebody asks
us a question, it is required that we respond to
it. To respond correctly requires that we
understand the question.

A rhetorical question is not a real question, it only looks and

sounds like one. If you are really paying attention, when you hear
a rhetorical question, you know that the source is not really
asking you to do anything. But, if you are not paying close and
careful attention, when you hear that rhetorical question, it grabs
you because you think that the source has just asked you to do
something and you must respond to be polite. Now, you start
listening and really thinking about the rest of the persuasive
message.

So, rhetoricals can be persuasive because they can make receivers

think more carefully. There is also some evidence that rhetorical
questions can be persuasive cues. That is, when receivers hear a
source using rhetorical questions, they think the source and the
message are more believable and correct.

The timing of the rhetorical appears to determine its effect. If a

source uses rhetoricals very early in the presentation, then the
rhetoricals will make the receivers pay more attention. If a source
uses rhetoricals at the end of a presentation (when it is too late to
pay attention), receivers will use that device as a persuasion cue.
 Examples versus Statistics. Examples tend to be more powerful
and persuasive than statistics. There are several reasons for this.
o First, examples are easy to comprehend and require less
effort.
o Second, people tend to think more about them. With
statistics, about all that people do is learn them. They exist
as statements that are either true or false. Examples, by
contrast, make people think a bit more. They react more
fully as they recollect their own similar personal
experiences.

 Evidence. Both examples and statistical data are part of a broader

category called evidence. Evidence is any factual statement, object
or opinion not created by the source, and used by that source as
support. Evidence, then, is something that somebody else created,
that a source uses as a means of persuasion. Needless to say, all
good evidence must be verifiable.
Evidence works. Sources who use good evidence
persuade their receivers much better than
sources who do not use evidence or who use
poor evidence. And the use of good evidence
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 also leads to stronger perception of that
source‟s credibility.
Now, of course, examples will not always be preferred to statistics. If
the audience is highly sophisticated and very well informed, statistics
would be considerably more effective.

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We have looked at seven message variables. They are intent,
organization, sidedness, repetition and redundancy, rhetorical
questions, examples versus statistics, and evidence. Skillful and
appropriate use of each will produce greater influence. Whenever you are
trying to influence anyone you can use any or all of these message
variables to improve your effectiveness. To recap:
 Intent: Forewarned is forearmed. Therefore, simply present
the persuasive message without warning.
 Organization: Structure produces comprehension. Chaos
produces confusion. Therefore, make the message clear and
organized.
 Message sidedness: There are two sides to every issue. Messages
which defend one side and attack the other are more effective.
Therefore, support your position, but make sure you point out the
weaknesses in other views.
 Repetition and redundancy: The frequency with which a message
is given enhances influence to a balance point. Past that point
repetition will annoy and frustrate receivers. Redundancy will
delay reaching the balance point, but will not prevent it.
Repetition works to improve comprehension. Therefore, expect to
repeat your messages several times to make sure everyone gets
the word and understands the word.
 Rhetorical Questions: Statements hidden as questions work well
when given in advance of the main message. Rhetoricals serve to
enhance attention and message processing. Therefore, use
rhetoricals to get or regain the attention of your receivers.
 Examples versus Statistics: Examples are easier to comprehend
and generate greater thoughtfulness than statistics. Therefore
prove your points with examples your receivers find compelling.
 Evidence: Something created by others that you use to
support your point is evidence. Evidence may be the most
powerful message variable there is. It produces a simple
equation: More good evidence, more influence. Therefore,
always include the best evidence for your receivers.

5. Identifying False Arguments. False arguments twist or ignore

logic. If you can identify false or weak reasoning, you will
effectively defend your argument and influence (persuade) your
receivers. Common diversionary tactics include:
 The personal argument
 The emotive argument
 The illogical argument
 The dishonest argument.

Personal arguments aim to persuade the audience of the validity of an

idea or attitude by discrediting or attacking the source of an opposing
idea or attitude. A case may be undermined by the claim that the person
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putting it forward is:
 „guilty of that very thing‟. This introduces a totally
irrelevant subject (the personal record of the source) and
ignores the contention at hand, be it true or false: “Why
should we listen to his proposal for flexi-time, when we all
know he doesn‟t come in until eleven anyway?”

70
  an unreliable source of information on the matter: “Well,
he would say that, wouldn‟t he, being a foreigner.” (This
has nothing to do with the truth or falsehood of what
has been said.)
 otherwise discreditable. Many debaters resort to
attacking the opponent, if they cannot refute his
argument on its own demerits: “You want to implement a
5 year plan? You can‟t even stay married to the same
person for a year at a time!”
 bound to be discreditable for holding that very view. It is
possible to attack an opponent before anything has been
uttered: “Only a complete idiot would suggest that we
change the present system.” [any takers?]

The Emotive Argument: „Emotional‟ or „emotive‟ arguments can take

many forms. It is possible to influence persuasive outcomes by
deliberately using prejudiced terms which elicit a more favorable or
hostile response than the bare facts would indicate. Advertisers,
lawyers, politicians, journalists and speakers at mass meetings are
generally good at this: “Whom are we to admire? A lone, conscientious
man who speaks out the truth, or a group of power-hungry and
blinkered tyrants?” [Not much choice, huh?]
Partiality, self-interest, bias and prejudice should not influence our
judgment in matters of fact. Language can be calculated to appeal to the
emotional leanings or needs of the audience, distracting attention from
the evidence and logic of the argument.

The Illogical Argument: Illogical arguments contain gaps in the logical

progression from the premise to the conclusion. Often
 a false conclusion is derived from reasonable premises by:
o Assuming that two events which occur together or one after
another must be related as cause and effect: “Jane came to
the office the day the file disappeared. She must have
stolen it.”
o Confusing general statements with specific cases: “The
teaching at that college is excellent. He teaches there. He
must be great.” Or: “He used to be a car salesman, and we
know they‟re crooks. He can‟t be trusted.”
 A conclusion is derived from false premises: “If it were any
good, they would have installed it ages ago. They haven‟t, so it
isn‟t any good.”
 An unestablished conclusion is used to prove itself: “We ought to
raise salaries because it is right that we pay more.” (i.e., because
we ought to raise salaries!) Or: ”I am asking you to do this because
I trust you.” “How do I know you trust me?” “Because I am asking
you to do this.”

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The Dishonest Argument uses diversionary tactics by introducing
irrelevant elements, such as:
 Proving a totally irrelevant conclusion: “Of course you need a word
processor – typewriters are totally inefficient.” [Do we need a
word processor?]
 Introducing a „red herring‟: The scent of a red herring is used by a
hunt-master to draw his hounds off the trail they are following
and onto a new one of his choice. A speaker can do exactly the
same in an argument to divert the receivers from the main point,
and prevent the logical conclusion (which may be against him)
from being reached: “I say, that‟s my wallet you are holding! Yes,
and a very nice

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 wallet it is, too. Do you know how much crocodile skin costs
nowadays?” The red herring may also take the form of an
anecdote, joke or other irrelevant humour.
 Logic traps or ambiguities:
o Presenting only two alternatives, when there are in fact
others. This traps the receiver in a false dilemma, limiting
his options: “If you are not with me, you are against me.”
o Slipping in unjustified assumptions into a question requiring
a yes/no answer: “Do you love your family enough to keep
them safe with this security system?” (If „yes‟, then buy it. If
„no‟- shame on you!). Or: “Have you stopped fiddling the
account?” (If „yes‟: you used to. If „no‟: you still do it!)
o Equivocating, making your words conceal their meaning,
so that logic cannot grasp anything solid: “You can rest
assured that your letter will receive the attention it fully
deserves.”

These, then, are some of the methods which might have a short-term
persuasive effect. They should, however, be kept out of a constructive
discussion as much as possible.
Receivers come to realize eventually that they have been tricked or
pressured, and in business context particularly you depend on the
good will, trust, and cooperation of the people you attempt to influence.

6. Engaging in a Constructive Discussion. Discussion carries none of

the competitive essence of debate or dispute. It involves the
cooperation of all participants. Constructive discussion allows for
effective communication, participation and interaction. Discussions
often fall short of these expectations because of:
 Time wasted on irrelevant issues
 Lack of cooperation between individuals
 Poor leadership or guidance

The approximate order, or sequence of procedures in a constructive

discussion:
 Definition of the objectives of the discussion
 Information supplied on the issue in hand
 Arguments and counter-arguments advanced
 Conclusions sought and formulated
 Conclusion assessed and recorded for decision and action.

Sensitive, but firm leadership and general cooperation are essential for
any constructive discussion and effective group communication.

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Lecture 9: Cooperation.

1. Cooperation and Group Characteristics

2. Roles and Relationships within Groups
3. Working in Groups
4. Supervision and Leadership: Styles and Functions
5. Conflict Management
6. Motivation
7. Disciplinary and Grievance Procedures

1. Cooperation and Group Characteristics. Teamwork, cooperation is

the heart and soul of an organization. All the aspects of effective
communication (verbal and nonverbal) that we have looked at in
the past weeks are crucial in creating and maintaining the team
spirit within an organization. Now it is time for us to consider the
personal inter-relationships and attitudes in an organization,
which form the context for communication.

What is a group? Is it just a random gathering of individuals? Would

you call passengers in a PMV, or shoppers at Andersons a group?
Neither would you call all the people queuing at the Telikom a group.
However, when you go to the Botanical Garden over a weekend, you
are likely to see many groups of people picnicking there. So what
makes a group special?

A group has certain attributes that a random collection of people

does not possess. These group characteristics include:
 A sense of identity. Whether the group is formal or informal, its
members have a sense of belonging to it. There are generally
acknowledged boundaries to the group which define who is
„in‟ and who is „out,‟ who is „us‟ and who is
„them.‟ The PNG society is very conscious of the „one-tok‟
system, which represents ethnic groups. People generally need
to feel that they „belong‟ and are accepted by others.
Organizations try to establish a sense of corporate identity
among their employees and create an appealing company
image for the general public through advertising and public
relations. This sense of group identity finds expression in
 Conformity, or acceptance of the „norms‟ of behavior and
attitude that bind the group together. Think of the traditions
and norms of behavior in your
„one-tok‟ group, for example. Or the Bank of South Pacific –
most of their employees wear a green uniform that identifies
them and creates a sense of identity and solidarity.
 Purpose and Leadership. Most groups have an expressed
purpose, or set of objectives, and most will spontaneously or
formally choose individuals or sub-groups to lead them.
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 Leadership helps coordinate and direct group members and
their activities.

Most groups and organizations like to project the image of coherence

and integrity. However, often they will in fact be composed of many
sub-groups with attributes and

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characteristics of their own. This is a natural phenomenon, dictated by
human nature (personal likes or dislikes), shared experiences, and
similar circumstances (i.e., common rank, clubs, unions, etc.)

2. Roles and Relationships. When you join a group or an organization,

you take on a role. In social sciences,
„role‟ means „the appropriate pattern of behavior in a certain social
context.‟

These patterns of behavior are things we have to learn to be accepted.

We spend our entire lives adapting to new circumstances and often
multiple roles we find ourselves in (child, parent, student, teacher,
professional, superior, subordinate, etc.).
All groups have a set of role expectations, i.e. behavior patterns
generally considered appropriate in a particular context. These may
vary widely (compare school rules in PNG with those in Afghanistan,
or the United States!).

Roles are bound up with relationships. You play a role in a context

which includes other people. You cannot be a son or a daughter
without parents: you are a student in relation to a teacher, etc.
Our roles at work are complementary to those of others. The larger
the organization in which you work, the more complicated the
pattern of roles becomes. However, there are 4 main role situations:
 You work for other people (subordinate role)
 You work with other people (equal, or peer role)
 Other people work for you (authority role)
 You represent the organization to outsiders

This „overlapping‟ of roles is a potential source of conflict, as it often leads

to a clash of interests. Each individual may at the same time be engaged
in a number of different relationships, each with its own demands and
responsibilities.
All these varying ( and sometimes conflicting) roles affect the process of
communication, its manner, tone and content. People tend to :
 Expect others to communicate with them in a manner
appropriate to a perceived relationship between them („Of course
he didn‟t say anything: he‟s the boss‟)
 Expect others to share the same perception of the relationship
(„He spoke right back to me: what cheek!‟)
 Be more formal and less open with superiors
 Be restrained with subordinates also, to preserve a position of
formal authority
 Be more open and familiar with peers or equals

3. Working in Groups involves 2 types of activity:

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 Collective tasks for the achievement of group objectives
 Group maintenance, i.e. providing support and
encouragement, maintaining harmony within the group.

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Being a team member, one must:
 Know the rules of the game
 Cooperate with others in all activities and communication

Ideally, the benefits of teamwork are many, among them:

 Each individual gets the support of the group
 Shared skills, information and ideas enhance individual potential

Unfortunately, the need to conform to the „house rules‟ may sometimes

restrict individual personality and flair, and rigid leadership and
procedures may strangle initiative and creativity in individuals.

4.Supervision and Leadership: Styles and Functions. Authority, or right

to lead, may come from various sources. It may be:
 Rational/legal, i.e. depending on established rules obeyed by
everyone;
 Traditional
 Charismatic

There are different „styles‟ of leadership:

 Authoritarian, intolerant of any contradiction
 Democratic, encouraging staff participation in decision-making
 „laissez-faire,‟ leaving staff to their own devices

Another way of analyzing leadership styles identifies 4 categories:

 the „tells‟ kind: decisions are made by the manager and then
announced to the subordinates to be carried out without
question;
 the „sells‟ kind: the manager persuades subordinates to accept
decisions;
 the „consults‟ kind: managerial decisions are taken after
consultation with staff;
 the „joins‟ kind: the manager delegates to the group the right to
make decisions. He defines the problem and its terms of
reference, but the actual decision will normally reflect majority
opinion.

You see how leadership style is practically communication style between

the leader and the group. The most effective style of leadership in a
particular situation will depend on the circumstances and the
personalities involved: it should be adapted to the requirements of the
subordinates.

The functions of the manager, or leader of a working group include:

 organization of work: giving instructions and explanations
 supervision of the work of others
 consultation with the group members
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 provision of information and assistance to group members
 representing the group in dealings with „outsiders‟

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A few golden rules for the communicating manager:
 be informed: Knowledge is Power
 be fair: keep an open mind
 be clear: ambiguity causes confusion
 be encouraging. Even negative information (e.g. a reprimand)
can be given in a positive way.

5. Conflict Management. Differences of opinion occur in any group.

They may be expressed in different ways:
 By argument: this is the constructive exchange of ideas
with the positive intention of reaching an agreement
 By competition: this may be constructive or destructive
i. Constructive competition enhances motivation and results
ii. Destructive competition occurs when results are
achieved at the expense of another („zero-sum‟
competition)

 By conflict. Symptoms: poor communication,

interpersonal differences, inflexible attitudes toward
change and low morale and frustration.

Conflicts may be caused by disputes about the boundaries of authority

or differences in the objectives of different groups or individuals.
The tactics of conflict:
 Withholding information
 Distorting information
 Imposition of rules or restrictions by one group on another in
order to bolster up its own importance
 Favoritism
 „Witch-hunting‟

Effective conflict management may be achieved through effective

communication by:
 encouraging fuller employee participation in decision-making
 providing (preferably informal) negotiation and arbitration for
settling disputes
 using persuasion to establish cooperation, trust and good will
between individuals.

6. Motivation. Efficiency depends on motivation. Motivation can be

positive (promise of benefits and rewards – „the carrot‟) and negative
(use of intimidation – „the stick‟).

Abraham Maslow‟s theory concerning the needs and satisfactions of

human beings stated that
 Man is a wanting being: his needs must be satisfied; once
satisfied, they are replaced by further needs;
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 Man‟s needs are arranged in a progressive series of levels –
a hierarchy of importance
 A man‟s job may help satisfy those needs.

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The hierarchy of needs may be as follows:
 The basic physiological needs (air, food, drink, rest, etc.)
 Safety or security needs (safety from physical danger,
economic security, discrimination, a desire for order)
 Social needs (friendship, affection, and acceptance: informal
groups become very significant aspects of organization behavior)
 Esteem needs, including self-esteem and the esteem of others
(status, recognition, respect and appreciation, the desire to excel)
 The need for self-realisation (realization of one‟s full potential).

Maslow suggested that the need for self-realisation was relevant only
for those whose other needs have already been satisfied, although
these levels do often overlap to some extent.

Self-Realization

Estee
m
Social
Safet
y
Physiological needs

Maslow‟s pyramid of human needs

Since work provides a livelihood and takes up such a large part of a

person‟s life, it obviously plays an important role in personal satisfaction.

N.B. The same need may cause different behavior patterns in

different individuals (conformity/rebellion).

Frederick Herzberg had a slightly different perspective on job satisfaction

and motivation
– he emphasized the „wanting‟ nature of man and believed that even if
all man‟s needs were satisfied, man would soon start taking them for
granted and become dissatisfied again! Herzberg called this „hygiene
factors.‟ Hygiene keeps you safe from disease – but it cannot by itself
give you „good health.‟ Similarly, pay and other benefits are necessary
to prevent employees from being dissatisfied, but do not tend to offer
long-term positive motivation. He suggested a set of other „motivators‟:
 Status
 Advancement
 Gaining recognition
 Being given responsibility
 Challenging work
 Achievement
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  Growth in the job

Pay and participation as motivators. Is pay only a „hygiene‟ factor? It

directly affects man‟s livelihood, and the satisfaction of most of the
other needs is usually in direct proportion to his income. It is generally
agreed that there is a clear, short-term and direct

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link between extra effort, results and higher pay (salesmen paid on a
commission basis – a clear example of this principle in practice).
Participation contributes a lot to job satisfaction. It gives people a
sense of identity, responsibility and belonging.

Contingency approach to motivation looks at motivation in context,

depending on the interplay of a multitude of factors over time.

7. Discipline and Grievance Procedures. Maintaining discipline is an

integral part of leadership. Once employees know what is expected
of them and feel that the rules and requirements are reasonable,
self-disciplined behavior becomes a part of „group norm‟ (“attitudes
drive behavior”- remember?).

Disciplinary action may however sometimes be necessary. This will

usually involve an interview with the „offender‟ and the supervisor
should be properly prepared for it:
 Investigate first
 Discipline in private.

ACAS guidelines for disciplinary action suggests progressive

disciplinary action in the following sequence:
 An informal talk
 Formal oral warning
 Written or official warning
 Suspension or dismissal, if necessary.

Discipline and relationships. Four basic rules will help the supervisor
reduce resentment in disciplinary actions:
 Immediacy
 Advance warning
 Consistency
 Impersonality.

Grievance procedure typically provides the following steps:

 The employee should take the grievance first to his/her immediate
boss
 If the immediate boss cannot solve the matter, the case should
be referred to the next level
 Cases referred to a higher manager should also be reported to
the personnel department for assistance/advice of a personnel
manager in resolving the issue.

The advantages of these formal grievance procedures are:

 They are a means of solving the problem without disrupting the
work process
 They are seen to give a fair treatment to all employees
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 They allow for a „cooling-off‟ period
 They protect the employee from possible hostility from his boss
 They give an employee a chance to speak for himself and be heard.

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Lecture 10: Conducting Meetings: Documentation for Meetings

Personal communication, whether one-to-group (as in a meeting or

conference) or one-to- one (as in an interview), is a useful medium for
information exchange at all organizational levels.
When the participants at a meeting leave the room thinking that the
meeting was a waste of time or that nothing was accomplished, both
time and money have been lost. But meetings can be effective and
productive. The key is to have a system that ensures success.

A. Establish a Corporate Policy Regarding Meetings and

Conferences.

A company-wide policy regarding meetings and conferences

helps eliminate unnecessary meetings and provides
procedures for running meetings effectively. The corporate
policy on meetings should address the following areas:
1. Meetings should be called only when a decision needs to
be made. Routine meetings (i.e., weekly) should be
cancelled if agenda items have not been identified.
Meetings that are „informational‟ usually can be handled
by memos.
2. Invite only those individuals who can make a positive
contribution to the decision-making or the problem-solving
activity.
3. Agendas should be distributed before each meeting so that
those attending can prepare for the meeting. If there is
insufficient time to distribute an agenda, list the agenda
items on a flip chart or a blackboard at the beginning of the
meeting.
4. Begin an end meetings promptly at the scheduled times.
5. After each meeting, distribute a set of minutes to the
participants within 24 hours of the session. Be sure to list
the action items, the person(s) responsible for their
accomplishment, and the dates for completion.

B. Prepare for the Meeting or Conference.

As with all effective communication activities,
meetings and conferences should be planned
carefully. Several areas should be addressed:
1. Determine the need. Discuss the need for the
meeting with key individuals. Do not call the
meeting if the need has not been defined clearly.
2. Define the topic or problem to be discussed. Carefully
analyse the problem. Once the specific problem and
related items have been defined by key personnel,

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 note them as agenda items. This will keep
participants focused on key topics and make it
easier to reach decisions.
3. Determine the type of meeting to be held. Determine
what type of meeting would most suit your needs.
Although it is possible to

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 include all of the following at one meeting, it is not
recommended.
 Problem-solving. This is the most common type of meeting.
Individuals are asked to help solve a problem by contributing
their expertise, whether it is in engineering, accounting,
marketing, production, or other areas.
 Informational. This type of meetings brings individuals together
so they may all be provided with the same information at the
same time – for example, when a new employee benefit is made
available or when a new procedure is implemented. Individuals
are often encouraged to ask questions for clarification.
 Brainstorming. This type of meeting provides an opportunity for
the organization to hear new and different solutions to a
problem. Participants express as many ideas as possible about a
topic or a problem.
 Training. At this type of meeting, specific ideas, skills,
procedures, or concepts are explained, demonstrated, and/or
practiced.

4. Select participants. Invite only those individuals who can make a

positive contribution to the meeting. Avoid inviting individuals
because of their position, or to prevent „hurting someone‟s
feelings,‟ or for the purposes of so-called protocol.
5. Identify a meeting leader. Although the term leader is not really
accurate, an individual should be selected to act as stimulator,
moderator, catalyst, or arbitrator at the meeting. This person may
be a member of the group or the group‟s „boss.‟ For groups that
meet routinely, it may be preferable to give each member an
opportunity to lead a meeting by rotating that position. Rotating
the position of leader helps ensure that no one in the group feels
threatened or neglected. A good meeting leader should be someone
who has the ability to think analytically, express ideas clearly, and
be poised, tactful, patient and self-restrained. He or she should
also be objective, impersonal, and good humored.
6. Designate subtopics. Determine the discussion areas that will
help solve the problem, the complexity of each item, and how
much time will be necessary for discussion. Avoid listing more
topics than can be covered adequately in the allotted time.
7. Distribute an announcement or agenda. The advantages of
distributing an announcement or agenda are: participants and
leader can prepare for the meeting; the leader can plan a strategy;
the discussion will more probably „stay on track.‟ The following
points should be listed on the agenda:
 Date, time, and location of the session
 Topics and subtopics to be discussed

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  Names of participants
 Documents to be retrieved before the meeting, if
applicable
8. Prepare physical facilities.
 Room arrangements. Secure a room with
appropriate seating arrangements
 provide necessary audiovisual equipment
 Handouts: prepare an adequate number of
handouts for participants
 Refreshments (optional)
 Miscellaneous material: Make arrangements for
providing stationery, ashtrays, name tags, and
so forth, if appropriate.
C. During the meeting the leader determines the climate of
the meeting. It should be open and friendly, and should
encourage an open discussion of problems and possible
solutions.
Introductory elements:
 Membership (optional)
 Apologies for absence
 Minutes of the last meeting
 Matters arising

The business of the meeting:

Agenda items should be discussed in a way that each
participant has an opportunity and enough time to
contribute.
A respected member of the group or a secretary should
take the minutes during the meeting.
If more information is needed to solve a problem, the
group should decide on a specific course of action. One
individual or a group of several participants may
volunteer to collect the necessary data. This should
then be listed as an action item.
Conclusion of the meeting: Before ending the meeting,
the leader should make sure that all the agenda items
have been adequately covered and decisions have been
made where necessary. The conference leader should
take the last few minutes to summarize the meeting
activities.

Closing formalities:
 A.O.B.
 Date of the next meeting (if applicable)

D. After the meeting: Within 24 hours, meeting minutes

should be distributed to those who were present as well as
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to those who were unable to attend. Advantages of prompt
distribution of minutes:
 Those who were present receive the same
summary information. Any errors may be
reported immediately.

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 The decisions reached are distributed to all
concerned. This avoids someone saying at a
later date that he or she was not aware of a
specific decision.
 Action items and individuals responsible for
accomplishing them are identified. Everyone is
aware of the responsibilities and deadlines
listed.
 The minutes may be filed for future reference.

The formats of minutes vary. General hints:

 Start with details of the time and place of the meeting
 Follow the sequence of the agenda items
 Finish with „Signed: (name & designation of
leader and date). Minutes may take three forms:
 Resolution minutes
 Narrative minutes (the use of reported speech important
here!)
 Action minutes.

Summary:
1. When meetings are ineffective, both time and money are lost.
2. A company-wide policy regarding meetings helps eliminate
unnecessary meetings and provides procedures for
running meetings effectively.
3. Every meeting should be carefully planned.
4. The most frequently held meetings are problem-solving,
informational, brainstorming, and training meetings.
5. The meeting agenda should be distributed so participants
may prepare for the meeting.
6. Notes should be taken during the meeting.
7. After the meeting, minutes should be distributed promptly
(within 24 hrs)
8.

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