Determinant of square matrices

Associate Professor Pham Huu Anh Ngoc

International University

October 4, 2016

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Motivation
When does the linear system

ax + by = e
cx + dy = f have a unique solution?

Solution 1: Multiply the first equation by d and the second equation by

b and subtract d(ax + by ) − b(cx + dy ) = ed − bf . This gives
(ad − bc)x = ed − bf . So the system has a unique solution if and only if
(ad − bc) 6= 0.

Solution
 2:Theabove
 system
 can be rewritten as
a b x e
= . The system has a unique solution if and
c d y f
 
a b
only if A := is invertible.
c d

Thus, we conclude that

 
a b
is invertible ⇔ ad − bc 6= 0.
c d
Motivation
When does the linear system

ax + by = e
cx + dy = f have a unique solution?

Solution 1: Multiply the first equation by d and the second equation by

b and subtract d(ax + by ) − b(cx + dy ) = ed − bf . This gives
(ad − bc)x = ed − bf . So the system has a unique solution if and only if
(ad − bc) 6= 0.

Solution
 2:Theabove
 system
 can be rewritten as
a b x e
= . The system has a unique solution if and
c d y f
 
a b
only if A := is invertible.
c d

Thus, we conclude that

 
a b
is invertible ⇔ ad − bc 6= 0.
c d
Motivation
When does the linear system

ax + by = e
cx + dy = f have a unique solution?

Solution 1: Multiply the first equation by d and the second equation by

b and subtract d(ax + by ) − b(cx + dy ) = ed − bf . This gives
(ad − bc)x = ed − bf . So the system has a unique solution if and only if
(ad − bc) 6= 0.

Solution
 2:Theabove
 system
 can be rewritten as
a b x e
= . The system has a unique solution if and
c d y f
 
a b
only if A := is invertible.
c d

Thus, we conclude that

 
a b
is invertible ⇔ ad − bc 6= 0.
c d
Motivation
When does the linear system

ax + by = e
cx + dy = f have a unique solution?

Solution 1: Multiply the first equation by d and the second equation by

b and subtract d(ax + by ) − b(cx + dy ) = ed − bf . This gives
(ad − bc)x = ed − bf . So the system has a unique solution if and only if
(ad − bc) 6= 0.

Solution
 2:Theabove
 system
 can be rewritten as
a b x e
= . The system has a unique solution if and
c d y f
 
a b
only if A := is invertible.
c d

Thus, we conclude that

 
a b
is invertible ⇔ ad − bc 6= 0.
c d
Motivation

 
a b
In fact, if ad − bc 6= 0 then A := , is invertible and the
c d
inverse of A is given by
 
1 d −b
A−1 = .
ad − bc −c a

It is easy to check
 
−1 −1 1 0
AA =A A= = I2
0 1
Determinant of second order

A determinant of second order is denoted and defined by

 
a b
det = ad − bc
c d

Ex:  
1 2
det = 1 × 3 − 2 × 4 = −5
4 3
 
Notation: The determinant
 of a matrix
 A is
 also denoted by A. For
 a b 
example,   also means det a b .
c d  c d
Cramer’s Rule

Theorem: Cramer’s Rule for solving linear systems of two equations in

two unknowns

ax + by = e
cx + dy = f

is    
 e b   a e 
 
 f d  ed − fb  c f  af − ec
x= = ; y= =
D D D D
 
 a b 
provided D :=  6= 0.
c d 
Example

Solve the linear system

4x + 3y = 12
2x + 5y = −8

 
 4 3 
Solution: Note that D :=   = 14 6= 0. So the Cramer’s Rule
2 5 
gives
   
 12 3   4 12 
   
 −8 5  84  2 −8  −56
x =   = = 6; y =   = = −4.
 4 3 
 14  4 3 
 14
 2 5   2 5 
Third-order determinant

A third-order determinant is defined by

 
 a11 a12 a13 
 
 a21 a22 a23  = (a11 a22 a33 + a31 a12 a23 + a21 a32 a13 )
 
 a31 a32 a33 

−(a31 a22 a13 + a11 a32 a23 + a21 a12 a33 )

or equivalently
 
 a11 a12 a13     
 = a11 (−1)1+1  a22 a23  1+2  a21 a23 
   
 a21 a22 a23 + a12 (−1)
   a32 a33   a31 a33 
 a31 a32 a33 
 
1+3
 a21 a22 
+a13 (−1) 
 a31 a32 
Third-order determinant

A third-order determinant is defined by

 
 a11 a12 a13 
 
 a21 a22 a23  = (a11 a22 a33 + a31 a12 a23 + a21 a32 a13 )
 
 a31 a32 a33 

−(a31 a22 a13 + a11 a32 a23 + a21 a12 a33 )

or equivalently
 
 a11 a12 a13     
 = a11 (−1)1+1  a22 a23  1+2  a21 a23 
   
 a21 a22 a23 + a12 (−1)
   a32 a33   a31 a33 
 a31 a32 a33 
 
1+3
 a21 a22 
+a13 (−1) 
 a31 a32 
 
 a11 a12 a13 
 
 a21 a22 a23  = (a11 a22 a33 + a31 a12 a23 + a21 a32 a13 )
 
 a31 a32 a33 

−(a31 a22 a13 + a11 a32 a23 + a21 a12 a33 )

Ex:
 
 1 0 1     
 = 1(−1)(1+1)  0 1  (1+2)  1 1 
   
 1 0 1 + 0(−1) +
   1 1   1 1 
 1 1 1 
 
 1 0 
1(−1)(1+3)  = −1 + 1 = 0.
1 1 
Ex:
Find the following determinants:
   
 1 3 1   1 2 1 
   
 1 0 1 ;  1 2 1 .
   
 1 1 1   1 1 1 
Ex:
 
 1 0 1     
 = 1(−1)(1+1)  0 1  (1+2)  1 1 
   
 1 0 1 + 0(−1) +
   1 1   1 1 
 1 1 1 
 
 1 0 
1(−1)(1+3)  = −1 + 1 = 0.
1 1 
Ex:
Find the following determinants:
   
 1 3 1   1 2 1 
   
 1 0 1 ;  1 2 1 .
   
 1 1 1   1 1 1 
Cramer’s Rule for linear systems of three equations

The Cramer’s Rule for linear systems of three equations

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 = b2
a31 x1 + a32 x2 + a33 x3 = b3

is
 
 a11 a12 a13 
D1 D2 D3  
 6= 0)
x1 = ; x2 = x3 = , (D :=  a21 a22 a23
D D D  a31

a32 a33 

where
     
 b1 a12 a13   a11 b1 a13   a11 a12 b1 
     
D1 =  b2 a22 a23 ;
 D2 =  a21 b2 a23 ;
 D3 =  a21 a22 b2 .

 b3 a32 a33   a31 b3 a33   a31 a32 b3 
Solve the linear system

3x + 2y + 3z = 4
−2x − 4y + 2z = −12
2x + 3z = 0
 
 3 2 3 

Solution Note that D :=  −2 −4 2  = 8 6= 0. The Cramer’s rule
 2 0 3 
gives
D1 D2 D3
x1 = ; x2 = x3 = ,
D D D
   
 4 2 3   3 4 3 
 
where D1 =  −12 −4 2  = 24; D2 =  −2 −12 2  =
 0 0 3   2 0 3 

 3 2 4  

4;  −2 −4 −12  = −16.
 
 2 0 0 
Solve the linear system

3x + 2y + 3z = 4
−2x − 4y + 2z = −12
2x + 3z = 0
 
 3 2 3 

Solution Note that D :=  −2 −4 2  = 8 6= 0. The Cramer’s rule
 2 0 3 
gives
D1 D2 D3
x1 = ; x2 = x3 = ,
D D D
   
 4 2 3   3 4 3 
 
where D1 =  −12 −4 2  = 24; D2 =  −2 −12 2  =
 0 0 3   2 0 3 

 3 2 4  

4;  −2 −4 −12  = −16.
 
 2 0 0 
Determinant of n-th order

Definition:

Let A = (aij ) be an n × n matrix. For fixed i0 , j0 , the cofactor of ai0 j0 is

(−1)(i0 +j0 ) Mi0 j0 , where Mi0 j0 is the determinant of the submatrix that
results from A by removing the i0 -th row and the j0 -th column.

The determinant Mi0 j0 is called the (i0 j0 )-th minor of A.

Example: Let us consider  

 1 0 1 
 
 1 0 1 .
 
 1 1 1 
     
 0 1   1 1  (1+3)  1
 0 
Then (−1)(1+1)  ; (−1)(1+2) 
; (−1)
1 1   1 1   1 1 

is the cofactor of a11 = 1, a12 = 0, a13 = 1, respectively .

Determinant of n-th order

Definition:

Let A = (aij ) be an n × n matrix. For fixed i0 , j0 , the cofactor of ai0 j0 is

(−1)(i0 +j0 ) Mi0 j0 , where Mi0 j0 is the determinant of the submatrix that
results from A by removing the i0 -th row and the j0 -th column.

The determinant Mi0 j0 is called the (i0 j0 )-th minor of A.

Example: Let us consider  

 1 0 1 
 
 1 0 1 .
 
 1 1 1 
     
 0 1   1 1  (1+3)  1
 0 
Then (−1)(1+1)  ; (−1)(1+2) 
; (−1)
1 1   1 1   1 1 

is the cofactor of a11 = 1, a12 = 0, a13 = 1, respectively .

Definition: (Determinant of n-th order)
Let A = (aij ) be an n × n matrix. Then the determinant of A is defined
by

det A = a11 (−1)(1+1) M11 + a12 (−1)(1+2) M12 + ... + a1n (−1)(1+n) M1n .

Ex:
 
 1 0 1     
 = 1(−1)(1+1)  0 1  (1+2)  1 1 
   
 1 0 1 + 0(−1) +
   1 1   1 1 
 1 1 1 
 
 1 0 
1(−1)(1+3)  = −1 + 1 = 0.
1 1 
Definition: (Determinant of n-th order)
Let A = (aij ) be an n × n matrix. Then the determinant of A is defined
by

det A = a11 (−1)(1+1) M11 + a12 (−1)(1+2) M12 + ... + a1n (−1)(1+n) M1n .

Ex:
 
 1 0 1     
 = 1(−1)(1+1)  0 1  (1+2)  1 1 
   
 1 0 1 + 0(−1) +
   1 1   1 1 
 1 1 1 
 
 1 0 
1(−1)(1+3)  = −1 + 1 = 0.
1 1 
Expanding a determinant along a row or a column

Theorem Let A = (aij ) be an n × n matrix. Then the determinant of A is

given by

det A = ai1 (−1)(i+1) Mi1 + ai2 (−1)(i+2) Mi2 + ... + ain (−1)(i+n) Min ,

for any i ∈ {1, 2, ..., n}.

(In this case, we say that the determinant is expanded along the i-th row).

Furthermore, one has

det A = a1j (−1)(1+j) M1j + a2j (−1)(2+j) M2j + ... + anj (−1)(n+j) Mnj ,

for any j ∈ {1, 2, ..., n}.

(In this case, we say that the determinant is expanded along the j-th
column).
Expanding a determinant along a row or a column

Theorem Let A = (aij ) be an n × n matrix. Then the determinant of A is

given by

det A = ai1 (−1)(i+1) Mi1 + ai2 (−1)(i+2) Mi2 + ... + ain (−1)(i+n) Min ,

for any i ∈ {1, 2, ..., n}.

(In this case, we say that the determinant is expanded along the i-th row).

Furthermore, one has

det A = a1j (−1)(1+j) M1j + a2j (−1)(2+j) M2j + ... + anj (−1)(n+j) Mnj ,

for any j ∈ {1, 2, ..., n}.

(In this case, we say that the determinant is expanded along the j-th
column).
(Expanding the determinant along the first row)
 
 1 0 1     
 1 0 1  = 1(−1)(1+1)  0 1  + 0(−1)(1+2)  1 1  +
     
   1 1   1 1 
 1 1 1 
 
(1+3)  1 0 
 
1(−1)  1 1  = −1 + 1 = 0.
(Expanding the determinant along the second row)
 
 1 0 1     
 1 0 1  = 1(−1)(2+1)  0 1  + 0(−1)(2+2)  1 1  +
     
   1 1   1 1 
 1 1 1 
 
 1 0 
1(−1)(2+3)   = −1 + 1 = 0.
1 1 
(Expanding the determinant along the third row) .....
(Expanding the determinant along the first row)
 
 1 0 1     
 1 0 1  = 1(−1)(1+1)  0 1  + 0(−1)(1+2)  1 1  +
     
   1 1   1 1 
 1 1 1 
 
(1+3)  1 0 
 
1(−1)  1 1  = −1 + 1 = 0.
(Expanding the determinant along the second row)
 
 1 0 1     
 1 0 1  = 1(−1)(2+1)  0 1  + 0(−1)(2+2)  1 1  +
     
   1 1   1 1 
 1 1 1 
 
 1 0 
1(−1)(2+3)   = −1 + 1 = 0.
1 1 
(Expanding the determinant along the third row) .....
(Expanding the determinant along the first row)
 
 1 0 1     
 1 0 1  = 1(−1)(1+1)  0 1  + 0(−1)(1+2)  1 1  +
     
   1 1   1 1 
 1 1 1 
 
(1+3)  1 0 
 
1(−1)  1 1  = −1 + 1 = 0.
(Expanding the determinant along the second row)
 
 1 0 1     
 1 0 1  = 1(−1)(2+1)  0 1  + 0(−1)(2+2)  1 1  +
     
   1 1   1 1 
 1 1 1 
 
 1 0 
1(−1)(2+3)   = −1 + 1 = 0.
1 1 
(Expanding the determinant along the third row) .....
(Expanding the determinant along the first column)
 
 1 0 1     
 1 0 1  = 1(−1)(1+1)  0 1  + 1(−1)(1+2)  0 1 
    
 1 1   1 +

 1 1 1 
 1 

 
 0 1 
1(−1)(3+1)   = −1 + 1 = 0.
0 1 
(Expanding the determinant along the second column)
 
 1 0 1   
 1 0 1  = 1(−1)(3+2)  1 1
   
 = 0.
   1 1 
 1 1 1 

(Expanding the determinant along the third column) .....

(Expanding the determinant along the first column)
 
 1 0 1     
 1 0 1  = 1(−1)(1+1)  0 1  + 1(−1)(1+2)  0 1 
    
 1 1   1 +

 1 1 1 
 1 

 
 0 1 
1(−1)(3+1)   = −1 + 1 = 0.
0 1 
(Expanding the determinant along the second column)
 
 1 0 1   
 1 0 1  = 1(−1)(3+2)  1 1
   
 = 0.
   1 1 
 1 1 1 

(Expanding the determinant along the third column) .....

(Expanding the determinant along the first column)
 
 1 0 1     
 1 0 1  = 1(−1)(1+1)  0 1  + 1(−1)(1+2)  0 1 
    
 1 1   1 +

 1 1 1 
 1 

 
 0 1 
1(−1)(3+1)   = −1 + 1 = 0.
0 1 
(Expanding the determinant along the second column)
 
 1 0 1   
 1 0 1  = 1(−1)(3+2)  1 1
   
 = 0.
   1 1 
 1 1 1 

(Expanding the determinant along the third column) .....

Properties of Determinants

Theorem
(a) If I is the identity matrix then det I = 1.
(b) If B is obtained from A by interchanging two rows of A then
det B = − det A
(c) If B is obtained from A by adding a multiple of one row of A to
another row then det B = det A
(d) If B is obtained from A by multiplying a row by the number k, then
det B = k det A.
Ex:    
2 −8 0 1 −4 0
det  0 1 0  = 2 det  0 1 0 =
0 0 −3  0  0 −3 
1 0 0 1 0 0
2 det  0 1 0  = 2(−3) det  0 1 0  = −6.
0 0 −3 0 0 1
Determinant of special matrices

Theorem
 
a11 0 0 0
 0 a11 0 0 
det 
 ...
 = a11 a22 ...ann .
... ... ... 
0 0 ... ann

Ex:  
1 0 0
det  0 2 0  = 1 × 2 × 3 = 6.
0 0 3
A square matrix U is said to be upper triangular if the entries below the
main diagonal are zeros.

A square matrix U is said to be lower triangular if all the entries above

the main diagonal are zeros.

Ex: The following matrices are upper triangular:

 
  2 0 1
1 0  0 1 0 
0 0
0 0 1
 
2 0 1
The matrix  0 1 0  is NOT an upper triangular matrix.
1 0 1
The following matrices are lower triangular:
 
  2 0 0
1 0  1 1 0 
0 0
1 0 1
 
2 0 1
The matrix  0 1 0  is NOT a lower triangular matrix.
0 1 1
Theorem
If A is a triangular matrix, either upper or lower. Then det A is the
product of the diagonal entries. That is,

det A = a11 a22 ...ann ,

where a11 , a22 , ..., ann are diagonal entries of the matrix A.

Ex:    
2 0 1 2 0 0
det  0 1 0  = 2×1×1 = 2 det  1 1 0  = 2×1×1 = 2.
0 0 1 1 0 1
Calculating determinants by row reduction

Using the properties of determinants, we can calculate the determinant of

a matrix by row reduction.
Main Idea: Reduce the given matrix into a triangular matrix.

Ex:    
2 −8 0 1 −4 0
det  0 1 0  = 2 det  0 1 0 =
1 0 −3 1 0 −3
 
1 0 0
2 det  0 1 0  = 2(−3) = −6.
1 0 −3
Example

(a)    
1 0 2 1 0 2
det  2 0 4  = det  0 0 0 =0
0 1 0 0 0 −3
(b)
     
2 4 0 0 0 −6 1 2 3
det  1 2 3  = det  1 2 3  = − det  0 0 −6 
0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
 
1 2 3
= det  0 1 1  = −6
0 0 −6
Further properties of determinants

1. If two rows of A are the same then det A = 0.

2. If A has an entire row of all zeros det A = 0.
3. If A is an n × n matrix then det(kA) = k n det A.
4. If A is a triangular matrix, either upper or lower then det A is the
product of the diagonal entries. That is,

det A = a11 a22 ...ann ,

5. The square matrix A is invertible if and only if det A 6= 0.

6. det(AB) = det A det B.
Explain the following results:
     
 3 −2 5   0 0 0   0 1 5 
     
 4 7 −1  = 0;  0 2 10  = 0;  0 2 10  = 0.
     
 3 −2 5   1 3 3   1 3 3 
Example

Calculate  
1 0 0 1
 2 1 0 0 
det 
 0

1 1 0 
0 0 1 2
Solution 1: Expanding the determinant along the first row, we have
 
1 0 0 1  
 2 1 0 0  1 0 0
1+1
det 
 0 1 1 0  = 1(−1)
 det  1 1 0 
0 1 2
0 0 1 2
 
2 1 0
+1(−1)1+4 det  0 1 1  = 2 − 2 = 0.
0 0 1
Example

Calculate  
1 0 0 1
 2 1 0 0 
det 
 0

1 1 0 
0 0 1 2
Solution 1: Expanding the determinant along the first row, we have
 
1 0 0 1  
 2 1 0 0  1 0 0
1+1
det 
 0 1 1 0  = 1(−1)
 det  1 1 0 
0 1 2
0 0 1 2
 
2 1 0
+1(−1)1+4 det  0 1 1  = 2 − 2 = 0.
0 0 1
Solution 2 Expanding the determinant along the second row, we have
 
1 0 0 1  
 2 1 0 0 1
0 0   = 2(−1)2+1 det  1 1
det 
 0 1 0 
1 0 
0 1 2
0 0 1 2
 
1 0 1
+1(−1)2+2 det  0 1 0  = 2 − 2 = 0.
0 1 2
Solution 3 Expanding the determinant along the third row, we have .....
Solution 4 Expanding the determinant along the fourth row, we have ....
Solution 5 Expanding the determinant along the first column, we have
....
Solution 6 Expanding the determinant along the second column, we
have ....
Prove that the linear system

x +y = 1
2x + y = 0

has a unique solution and find the solution. Solution: The given system
can be rewritten in the matrix form as
    
1 1 x 1
= .
2 1 y 0
   
 1 1  1 1
Moreover, we have   = −1 6= 0. Therefore, the matrix
2 1  2 1
is invertible. Thus,

   −1       
x 1 1 1 −1 1 1 −1
= = = .
y 2 1 0 2 −1 0 2

Hence x = −1, y = 2 is the solution of the system.

Prove that the linear system

x +y = 1
2x + y = 0

has a unique solution and find the solution. Solution: The given system
can be rewritten in the matrix form as
    
1 1 x 1
= .
2 1 y 0
   
 1 1  1 1
Moreover, we have   = −1 6= 0. Therefore, the matrix
2 1  2 1
is invertible. Thus,

   −1       
x 1 1 1 −1 1 1 −1
= = = .
y 2 1 0 2 −1 0 2

Hence x = −1, y = 2 is the solution of the system.

Prove that the linear system

x +y = 1
2x + y = 0

has a unique solution and find the solution. Solution: The given system
can be rewritten in the matrix form as
    
1 1 x 1
= .
2 1 y 0
   
 1 1  1 1
Moreover, we have   = −1 6= 0. Therefore, the matrix
2 1  2 1
is invertible. Thus,

   −1       
x 1 1 1 −1 1 1 −1
= = = .
y 2 1 0 2 −1 0 2

Hence x = −1, y = 2 is the solution of the system.

Problems:
(1) Evaluate, showing the details of your work.
 

 14
    1 2 0 0 
2 5   0 a b   
   3 4 0 0 
(a)  2 0 8  (b)  −a 0 c  ; (c)  
0 0 5 6 
 5 8 −2   −b −c 0   
 0 0 7 8 

(2) Solve by CRAMER’s rule and check by Gauss elimination and back
substitution
(a)

2x − 5y = 23
4x + 6y = −2

(b)

2x − 3z + w = 30
4x − 5y + 2z = 13
8x − 4y + z + 2w = 42
y − 5z + 3w = 35