THIS MATERIAL WILL HELP YOU TO PREPARE FOR THE BASIC CONCEPTS IN

MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS

KEY TOPICS:

DEL OPERATOR

GRADIENT

DIVERGENCE

CURL

LAPLACIAN

SOME BASIC MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS FOR ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS 1

DEL OPERATOR

5 (del) operator provides a means of describing the SPATIAL DERIVATIVES of a SCALAR or a VECTOR
field.

Del operator is useful in defining the following operations:

1. The GRADIENT of a SCALAR field

2. The DIVERGENCE of a VECTOR field
3. The CURL of a VECTOR field
4. The LAPLACIAN of a SCALAR field

SOME BASIC MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS FOR ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS 2

GRADIENT

Gradient of a SCALAR fieldV , written as 5 V , is a vector that represents both the MAGNITUDE and the
DIRECTION of the maximum space rate of increase ofV .

Gradient in Cartesian coordinates is defined as:

` a j j∂V j∂V j∂V

5 V x, y, z = j
ak
j
j
j
x
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f j
+ aj
j
k
j
j
j
y
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f j
+ aj
j
k
j
j
j
z
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
∂x ∂y ∂z

Gradient in Cylindrical coordinates is defined as:

b c
j∂V j1ff∂V j∂V
5 V r,φ, z = j
aj
j
k
j
j
r
f
f
ff
f
ff
ff
f j
+ aj
j
k
j
j
j
φ
fff
f
ff
f
ff
f
f j
+ j
j
k
j
aj
j
z
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
∂r r ∂φ ∂z

Fundamental properties of Gradient of Scalar fieldV :

1. Magnitude of 5 V equals the maximum rate of change in V per unit distance
2. 5 V points in the direction of the maximum rate of increase in V
3. 5 V at any point is perpendicular to the constant V surface that passes through that point

SOME BASIC MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS FOR ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS 3

Example:
Q.1. Find the gradient of the following scalar fields:
2
a. V = x y + xyz
2
b. U = r z cos 2φ
Solution:
a. ` a ∂V ∂V ∂V
5 V x, y, z = j
aj
j
k
j
j
jf
x
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f j
+ aj
j
k
j
j
jjf
y
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f j
+ aj
j
k
j
j
jjf
z
f
ff
f
ff
ff
f
∂x ∂y ∂z
` a b c b c
5 V x, y, z = 2xy + yz ax + x + xz j
j
j
j
k
j
jj
aj
j
k
j
j
jj 2 j
j
j
k
jj
j
j
y + xy a z
` a ` ajj ` aj
# 5 V x, y, z = y 2x + z j
ak
j
j
j
x + x x + z aj
j
k
j
j
jj j
j
j
k
jj
j
j
y + xy a z

b c
b. j
j
j
k
j
jj∂U
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff j
j
j
k
j
jj f∂U
j1f
f f
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f j
j
j
k
j
jj∂U
j f
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
5 U r,φ, z = ar + aφ + az
∂r r ∂φ ∂z
b c
j
j
j
k
j
jj j
j
j
k
j
jj
j j
j
j
k
j
jj
j
# 5 U r,φ, z = 2r z cos 2φ ar @ 2r z sin 2φ aφ + r 2 cos 2φ a z

SOME BASIC MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS FOR ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS 4

DIVERGENCE
j
k
j
j
j
j j
k
j
j
j
j
Divergence of VECTOR A , written as 5A A , at point P is a measure of the net outward flow of flux per
unit volume as the volume shrinks about P

Examples: air from balloon; car exhaust; kitchen sink; etc.

(a) Positive Divergence (b) Negative Divergence (c) Zero Divergence

(a) Divergence > 0 because the vector diverges (spreads out) at P or more flux is flowing out than
flowing in (in this case P is known as SOURCE POINT)
(b) Divergence < 0 because the vector converges at P or more flux is flowing in than flowing out (in
this case P is known as SINK POINT)
(c) Divergence = 0 because the rate at which flux is flowing into the point is equal to the rate at
which the flux is flowing out
SOME BASIC MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS FOR ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS 5
 j
k
j
j
j
j
Divergence of a VECTOR field A in Cartesian coordinates is calculated as:

j
k
j
j
j
j ∂fAf f ∂f
xf A f ∂f
yf A zf
5A A = f
fff
ff
ff
+ f
ff
f
ff
fff
+ f
ff
f
ff
fff
f
∂x ∂y ∂z
j
k
j
j
j
j
Divergence of a VECTOR field A in Cylindrical coordinates is calculated as:
b c
j
k
j
j
j
j 1f
f
∂f
fff
ff
f
f
rA
f
ff
f
ff
f
fr
f
fff
f
ff 1f∂fA φff ∂fA zf
5A A = + ff f
ff
f
ff
f f
f
+ fff
f
ff
fff
f
r ∂r r ∂φ ∂z

Notes on DIVERGENCE:

DIVERGENCE can only be performed on a VECTOR field and its result is a SCALAR

SOME BASIC MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS FOR ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS 6

Example:
Q.1. Determine the divergence of the following vector fields:
j
k
j
j
j
j j
j
j
k
j
jj j
j
j
k
j
jj
j j
k
j
j
j
j j
j
j
k
j
jj 2 j
j
j
k
j
jj
j j
j
j
k
j
jj
j
c. Q = r sinφ ar + r z aφ + z cosφ a z
2
a. P = x yz ax + xz a z
j
k
j
j
j
j b c
j
j
j
k
j
jj j
j
j
k
j
jj
j j
j
j
k
j
jj
j
b. A = yz ax + 4xy a y + y a z at 1, @ 2, 3
Solution:
a. j
k
j
j
jj ∂Pf
f
ff
f
f f ∂P
xf
f
f
ff ff
ff
ff
ff
ff ∂P
yf
f ff
ff
ff
fzf
f
ff
f
5A P = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
j
k
j
j
jj f∂f b c ∂f ` a ∂ ` a
f
ff
f
ff 2
5A P = x yz + f f
ff
f
ff
0 + ff
f
ff
ff
xz
∂x ∂y ∂z
j
k
j
j
j
j
# 5A P = 2xyz + x

b. j
k
j
j
j
j ∂fA f ∂f
xf A f ∂f
yf A zf
5A A = f f
ff
f
ff
ff
+ fff
f
ff
fff
+ f f
ff
f
ff
ff
f
∂x ∂y ∂z
jk
j
j
j
j f ∂f ` a ∂f b c ∂ ` a
f
ff
f
ff ff
ff
f
ff
5A A = yz + 4xy + ff
f
ff
ff
y
∂x ∂y ∂z
j
k
j
j
j
j
# 5A A = 4x
jb
j
k
j
j
j c ` a
5A A 1, @ 2,3 = 4 1 = 4

SOME BASIC MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS FOR ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS 7

 b c
c. j
k
j
j
j
j 1f
f
∂f
ffff
f
f
rQ
f
f
ff
ff
ff
f
frf
ff
ff 1f
f
f ∂Q φff ∂Q
5A Q = + f
f
f f
f
ff
ff
ff
f
+ f f
f
ff
f
ff
f
zf
f
f
r ∂r r ∂φ ∂z
b c 1 ∂ b c ∂ b c
j
k
j
j
jj 1ff∂
f f
f
ff
f
ff 2 ff
ffff
f
ff
f
f 2 ff
f
ff
ff
5A Q = r sinφ + r z + z cosφ
r ∂r r ∂φ ∂z
j
k
j
j
j
j
# 5A Q = 2 sinφ + cosφ

j
k
j
j
j
j j
j
j
k
j
jj j
j
j
k
j
jj
j j
k
j
j
j
j
Q.2. Given F = x ax + y a y , determine 5A F
Solution:
j ∂F
j
k
j
j
j ff
f
ff
f
fxf
ff
ff ∂F
ff
f
ff
f
ff
ff ∂F
yf
f ff
f
ff
f
fzf
f
ff
f
5A F = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
j
k
j
j
jj f∂f
f
ff
f
f` a
f ∂f
fff
f
f` a ∂
f
f ff
f
ff
f` a
f
5A F = x + y + 0
∂x ∂y ∂z
j
k
j
j
j
j
# 5A F = 2

SOME BASIC MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS FOR ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS 8

 j
j
k
j
j
jj j
j
j
k
j
jj j
j
j
k
j
jj
j j
j
k
j
j
jj
Q.3. Given G = y ax @ x a y , determine 5AG
Solution:
j
j
k
j
j
jj ∂G
f
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff ∂G
xf
f f
f
ff
f
ff
f
fff ∂G
yf
f f
f
ff
f
ff
f
fzf
ff
f
5AG = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
j
j
k
j
jj
j f∂f
f
ff
f
f` a
f ∂f
ff
ff
f
f`
f a ∂
ff
f
ff
f` a
f
5AG = y + @x + 0
∂x ∂y ∂z
j
j
k
j
j
jj
# 5AG = 0

SOME BASIC MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS FOR ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS 9

CURL

The CURL of a VECTOR field at a point gives a measure of the rotation/ circulation of the field at that
point.

Examples: Whirlpool; merry-go-round; etc

(a) Curl at P ≠ 0 (b) Curl at P = 0

(a) The curl of the vector field around P is directed out of the page (coming out of the page)
(b) The curl of the vector field around P is zero

SOME BASIC MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS FOR ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS 10

The CURL of a VECTOR
L
field in Cartesian
M
coordinates is calculated as:
Ljj
j
kj
j
j jj
j
k
j
jj
jj j
j
k
j
jjM
j
L ax a y a z M
L M f g f g f g
jj L
k
j
j
j Lf∂ ∂ ∂
M
M ∂ A ∂ A y ∂ A ∂ A ∂ A y ∂ A
5B A =L
L
f
f
ff
f
fff
f
ff
ff
f
ffff
ff
fM=
f
M
f
ff
f
ff
f
fz
f
fff
@ f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
fff j
j
k
j
jj
j
ax + f
ff
f
ff
f
fx
f
fff
@ f
ff
f
ff
f
fz
f
fff j
j
j
k
jj
j
j
ay + f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
fff
@ f
ff
f
ff
f
fx
f
fff j
aj
j
k
j
j
jj
z
L ∂x ∂y ∂z M
L M
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
L M
L Ax A y A z M

The CURL of a VECTOR

L
field in Cylindrical
M
coordinates is calculated as:
Lj jM
Laj
j
kj
j
j j
r
j
a
j
k
j
jj
jj j
j
k
j
a
j
j M
L r φ zM H I
L M b c ∂A G
j 1fL M ∂f f ∂fA j F ∂f f ∂f Gj F∂
jk
j
j
j L∂
f
f ff
f
ff
f
f ∂
f
f
ff
fff
f ∂
ff
ff
fM J1f
f
f f
f f
fA
f
f
ff
fzf
ff f
ff
f
ff
fφf
f
fK
fjj
k
j
jj f
fAf
ff
frf
f
ff f
fA
f
f
ff
fzf
ff
f j
j
k
jj
jj 1f f
f f
f
ff
f
ff f
f
ff
f
frf
f
f
ff
fjj
j
k
jj
jj
5B A = L M= @ a + @ a + rA @ a
rL M
L ∂r ∂φ ∂z M r ∂φ ∂z r
∂z ∂r φ
r ∂r φ
∂φ z
L M
L A rA A M
L r φ zM

DEFINITION OF CURL:
j
k
j
j
j
j j
k
j
j
j
j
The CURL of a VECTOR field A , written as 5B A , is an axial (or rotational) vector whose magnitude is
j
k
j
j
j
j
the maximum circulation of vector field A per unit area as the area tends to zero and whose direction
is normal to the area when the area is oriented so as to make the circulation maximum.

Notes on CURL:
CURL can only be performed on a VECTOR field and its result is another VECTOR

SOME BASIC MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS FOR ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS 11

Example:
Q.1. Determine the CURL of following vector fields:
j
k
j
j
j
j 2 j
j
j
k
j
jj j
j
j
k
j
jj
j
a. P = x yz ax + xz a z
j
k
j
j
j
j j
j
j
k
j
jj 2 j
j
j
k
j
jj
j j
j
j
k
j
jj
j
b. Q = r sinφ ar + r z aφ + z cosφ a z
Solution:
a. f g f g f g
j
kj ∂P
j
j
j ff
ff
f
ff
f
f f ∂P
zf
f f
f
ff
f
ff
f
fyf
f
fjj
j
k
jj ∂P
j f
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff ∂P
xf
f f
f
ff
f
ff
f
fzf
f
fjj
j
k
jj ∂P
j
j f
f
ff
f
ff
f
f f ∂P
yf
f f
f
ff
f
fxf
f
f
ff
fj j
j
k
jj
j
j
5B P = @ ax + @ ay + @ az
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
j `
j
k
j
j
j aj b c b c
5B P = 0 @ 0 ax + x y @ z a y + 0 @ x z j
j
j
k
j
jj 2
aj
j
k
j
j
jj
j
j
k
j
j
j
z
j
j 2

j b
j
k
j
j
j c
j
j
j
k
j
jj
j j
j
j
k
j
jj
j
5B P = x y @ z a y @ x 2 z a z
2

H I H I
b c
f ∂Q
b. j 1f
j
k
j
j
j ∂Q φf j F ∂Q f ∂Q Gj j 1f ∂f ∂Q
5BQ =J f
fff
f
ff
f
ff
f
zf
f
@ f
f
ff
f
ff
ff
fK
fjj
k
j
j
j
ar + ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
rf
f
@ f
f
ff
f
ff
f
f
zf
f
f j
j
k
jj
j
a + J
f
f f
ff
f
ff
rQ @ f
f
ff
f
ff
f
fKj
rf
f
f
aj
j
k
j
j
jj
z
φ
r ∂φ ∂z ∂z ∂r r ∂r φ
∂φ
D E B C
j
k
j
j
j
j zf
ff
f 2 j
jk
j
jj@
j Aj
j
j
k
j
jj 1f
j ff 2 jj
j
k
j
j
jj
5BQ = @ sinφ @r ar + 0 @0 aφ + 3r z @rcosφ az
r r
j 1f
j
k
j
j
j B C B C
ff 3 jj
k
j
j
j
j j
jj
k
jj
j
j
5BQ =@ z sinφ + r ar + 3rz @cosφ az
r

SOME BASIC MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS FOR ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS 12

 j
k
j
j
j
j j
j
j
k
jj
j j
j
j
k
jj
j
j j
k
j
j
j
j
Q.2. Given F = x ax + y a y , determine 5B F
Solution:
f g f g f g
j
k
j
j
j
j ∂F
f
f
ff
f
ff
f
f f ∂F
zf
f f
f
ff
f
ff
f
fyf
f
fjj
j
k
jj ∂F
j f
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff ∂F
xf
f f
f
ff
f
ff
f
fzf
f
fjj
j
k
jj ∂F
j
j f
f
ff
f
ff
f
f f ∂F
yf
f f
f
ff
f
fxf
f
f
ff
fj j
j
k
jj
j
j
5B F = @ ax + @ ay + @ az
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
jk
j
j
jj ` ajj ` ajj ` aj
5B F = 0 @ 0 j
aj
k
j
j j
j
k
jj
j j
j
k
jj
j
j
x + 0 @ 0 ay + 0 @ 0 az
j
k
j
j
j
j
# 5B F = 0
j
j
k
j
j
jj j
j
j
k
j
jj j
j
j
k
j
jj
j j
j
k
j
j
jj
Q.3. Given G = y ax @ x a y , determine 5BG
Solution:
f g f g f g
j
j
k
j
j
jj∂G
f
f
ff
f
ff
f
fff ∂G
zf
f f
f
ff
f
ff
f
fyf
ff
fjj
j
k
jj ∂G
j f
f
ff
f
ff
f
f f ∂G
xf
f f
f
ff
f
ff
f
fzf
ff
fjj
j
k
jj ∂G
j
j f
f
ff
f
ff
f
fff ∂G
yf
f f
f
ff
f
ff
f
fxf
f
fjj
j
k
jj
j
j
5BG = @ ax + @ ay + @ az
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
j
j
k
j
jj `
j ajj ` ajj ` aj
5BG = 0 @ 0 j
aj
k
j
j j
j
k
jj
j j
j
k
jj
j
j
x + 0 @ 0 ay + @ 1 @ 1 az
j
j
k
j
j
jj
# 5BG = @ 2

SOME BASIC MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS FOR ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS 13

LAPLACIAN

The LAPLACIAN of a SCALAR field V , written as 5 2 V , is the DIVERGENCE of the GRADIENT of scalar
fieldV .

LAPLACIAN of scalar fieldV in Cartesian coordinates is calculated as:

Fj
j
j
k
j
j ∂f
jff
ff
f
ffj
j
j
k
j
jj
jf∂f
f
ff
f
ff j
j
j
k
j
jj∂
j f
f
ff
f
fG Fj
f j
j
k
j
jj∂V
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f j
j
j
k
j
jj∂V
j f
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff j
j
j
k
j
jj∂V
j f
f
ff
f
ff
f
fG
f
2
5 V = 5A5 V = ax + ay + az A ax + ay + az
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
2 2 2
∂f V f ∂f V f ∂f V
52 V = ff
ff
f
ff
f
f
2
f
ff
f
+ f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
2
ff
f
f
+ f
ff
f
ff
ff
f
2
ff
f
ff
∂x ∂y ∂z

LAPLACIAN of scalar fieldV in Cylindrical coordinates is calculated as:

f g 2 2
f∂
1f
f f
f
ff
f
ff ∂V
f
f
ff
f
ff
ff
f 1f
f
ff∂f
f
f f
ff
f
fV
f
f
ff
f
ff ∂f
f
f ff
f
fff
fV
f
f
ff
ff
f
52 V = r + 2 +
r ∂r ∂r r ∂φ 2 2
∂ z

SOME BASIC MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS FOR ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS 14

Example:
Q.1. Determine the LAPLACIAN of the following scalar fields:
2
a. U = x y + xyz
b. V = r 2 z cos 2φ
Solution:
a. 2 2 2
∂f
ff
f
ffU
f
f
fff
ff ∂f
f
f f
ff
ffU
f
f
ff
ff
f
ff ∂f
f
ff
ffU
f
f
ff
ff
f
ff
5 U=
2
2
+ 2
+ 2
∂x ∂y ∂z
5 2 U = 2y

b. f g 2 2
f∂
1f f ∂V 1f f∂f V f ∂f V
5 V= f
2 f
f
ff
f
f
r f
f
ff
f
ff
ff
f
+ fff
f f
ff
f
ff
f
f f
fff
f
+ ff
f
fff
ff
f
ff
ff
f
r ∂r ∂r 2
r ∂φ 2 2
∂ z
b c b c
2 f∂
1f
f f
f
ff
f
ff 2 1f
fff
f
f 2
5 V= 2r z cos 2φ @ 2 4r z cos 2φ + 0
r ∂r r
2
5 V = 4z cos 2φ @ 4z cos 2φ
52 V = 0

SOME BASIC MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS FOR ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS 15

 SUMMARY OF 5 OPERATIONS
Type of Cartesian Coordinate Cylindrical Coordinate
Operations
∂f ∂f j∂
5=j aj
j
k
j
j
jf
x
f
ff
ff
f j
+ j
j
k
j
aj
jjf
y
f
ff
ff
f j
+ j
j
k
j
aj
j
z
ff
f
ff
ff
Del ∂x ∂y ∂z Not Applicable
Operator In Cartesian Coordinates, 5 (del)
operator can be expressed as a vector
b c
Gradient ` a jj∂V j∂V j∂V j∂V j1ff∂V j∂V
5 V x, y, z = axj
j
k
j
j f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f j
j
j
k
j
jj f
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff j
+ ayj
j
k
j
jj f
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
+ az 5 V r,φ, z = j
aj
j
k
j
j
r
f
f
ff
f
ff
ff
f j
+ j
j
k
j
aj
j
φ
fff
f
ff
f
ff
f
f j
+ j
j
k
j
aj
j
z
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂r r ∂φ ∂z
b c
Divergence j ∂f
j
k
j
j
j f
fA
f
f
ff
fxf
f
ff ∂f
f
fA
f
f
ff
fff ∂f
yf
f f
fA
f
f
ff
fzf
ff
f ∂f rA ∂fA
5A A = + + j 1f
j
k
j
j
j f
fff
ff
f
ff
ff
f
ff
f
fr
f
fff
f
ff 1f
f
f f
ff
f
ff
fφf
f
ff ∂f
f
fA
f
f
ff
fzf
ff
f
∂x ∂y ∂z 5A A = + +
r ∂rL
r ∂φ M ∂z
L M Lj jM
Lj jM Laj
j
kj
j
j j
r
j
a
j
k
j
jj
jj j
j
k
a
j
j
j M
j
j
kj
j
j j j
jk
j
j
j
jj j
jk
j
j
j
L ax a y a z M L r φ zM
L M L M
Curl L M
jj L
k
j
j
j Lf∂f ∂f ∂f
M
M
jj 1f
k
j
j
j L
f
ff
5B A = L
∂f
f
ff
ff ∂
f
f
ff
fff
f ∂
ff
ff
fM
f
f
M
L
5B A =L f
ff
f
ff ff
ff
f
ff f
ff
fM
f
f
L ∂x ∂y ∂z M
M rL
L ∂r ∂φ ∂z M
M
L M L M
L M L A rA A M
L Ax A y A z M L r φ zM

Laplacian 2 2 2 f g 2 2
∂f V f ∂f V f ∂f V f∂
1f
f f
f
ff
f
ff ∂V
f
f
ff
f
ff
ff
f 1f
f
ff∂f
f
f f
ff
f
fV
f
f
ff
f
ff ∂f
f
f ff
f
fff
fV
f
f
ff
ff
f
52 V =
ff
f
ff
f
ff
ff
ff
f
+
f
ff
f
ff
f
ffff
f
f
+
f
ff
f
ff
ff
fff
f
ff 52 V = r + 2 +
∂x
2
∂y
2
∂z
2 r ∂r ∂r r ∂φ 2 2
∂ z

SOME BASIC MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS FOR ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS 16

TWO NULL IDENTITIES OF 5 OPERATIONS

For any scalar function V , we have:

“The bCURL cof the GRADIENT of a SCALAR field is zero”
5B 5 V = 0

j
k
j
j
j
j
For any vector field A , we have:
“The DIVERGENCE of the CURL of a VECTOR field is zero”
b j
k
j
j
j
jc
5A 5B A = 0

SOME BASIC MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS FOR ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS 17