Stability of Laminar Flows and

Transition Turbulence
Aspects of Laminar to Turbulent Transition

Fluid Dynamics II – Real Viscous Flows

Basics of Turbulent Flows
Overview

1 Introduction

2 Stability and Transition

3 Kelvin-Helmholtz Instability

4 Stability of Parallel Viscous Flows

5 Transition to Turbulence

6 Summary
Transition from Laminar to Turbulent
❖ As discussed previously, Laminar flows have poor
resistance to high Reynolds numbers (𝑅𝑒). For any
given laminar flow there is a finite value of 𝑅𝑒 at
which the flow transitions to turbulent flow.
❖ Reynolds was the first to demonstrate the transition
to turbulent flow in his classic experiment using
different flow rates of water injected with a small jet
of dyed water in the center of the pipe. Van Dyke/ An Album of Fluid Motion/ 1982

❖ This critical Reynolds number at which the laminar Reynolds experiment revisited
flow transitions to turbulent has a modest value,
meaning most of the flows of engineering interest
are turbulent.
❖ The process through which a laminar flow becomes
turbulent consists of multiple stages and is called
transition, or the onset of turbulence. By Gary Settles - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0,

Laminar to turbulent transition

What does transition look like?
❖ The laminar-turbulent transition in the boundary
layer on a solid body is affected by many 𝑈∞
parameters: Reynolds number, pressure difference,
nature of the wall (roughness) and the level of Hermann Schlichting,/ Boundary-layer Theory/2016

disturbance in the flow (turbulence intensity). View of transition process in the boundary layer

❖ The figure on the right shows the laminar-turbulent transition in the boundary layer. The
instantaneous structural development in the transition region is made visible via
concentration of the smoke added.
❖ Near the leading edge, the boundary layer is initially laminar but as one moves downstream,
the laminar flow is replaced by the so-called Tollmien-Schlichting instability waves. These
waves initiate the transition leading to subsequent three-dimensional structure formation.
❖ For a flat plate with a sharp leading edge the laminar-turbulent transition takes place at a
distance 𝑥 from the leading edge given by:

𝑈∞ 𝑥
𝑅𝑒𝑥,𝑐 = = 3.5 × 105 to 106
𝜈 𝑐
Concept of Stability and Transition
❖ The next obvious question then becomes, “What triggers this transition?” This can be
answered using the concept of stability.

❖ Stability can be stated simply in the form of a question:

“Can a specified physical state withstand small disturbances and return to its original
unperturbed state?”

❖ In other words - do these disturbances die away or grow in time? If the disturbances die
away in time, the basic flow is considered to be stable; if they grow, the basic flow is unstable
and laminar-turbulent transition may occur.

Types of Relative Stable Unstable Neutral Locally stable

Stability of a ball
at rest
Method of Small Disturbances
❖ For investigating the stability of laminar flows,
the motion (𝑄) is decomposed into the basic
flow 𝑄0 (whose stability is to be examined)
and a superimposed perturbation, 𝑄′ .
❖ Next, we substitute 𝑄 into the governing equations and subtract the terms corresponding to
the basic flow as it satisfies the Navier-Stokes equations.

❖ The resulting equations are called the disturbance equation, and can be further simplified by
dropping the higher order terms such as 𝑄′2 and 𝑄′3 .

❖ This linearized disturbance equation should be homogenous and have homogenous

boundary conditions.

❖ The eigen values corresponding to the linearized disturbance equation are examined to
determine when they grow (unstable), decay (stable), or remain constant (neutrally stable).

❖ This results in a chart showing regions of stability separated from unstable regions by neutral
curves.
Kelvin-Helmholtz Instability
❖ Consider a horizontal interface dividing two incompressible, irrotational and inviscid uniform flows of
differing velocity and density.
❖ Velocity potential and hydrostatic pressure distribution can be then
be stated as:

𝜙1 = 𝑈1 𝑥 𝑝1 = 𝑃0 − 𝜌1 𝑔𝑧 𝑧<0 𝑧
𝜙2 = 𝑈2 𝑥 𝑝2 = 𝑃0 − 𝜌2 𝑔𝑧 𝑧>0 𝑈1

❖ Next, apply a small disturbance to both the flows, Interface

𝜙1 = 𝑈1 𝑥 + 𝜙෠1 𝑥, 𝑧, 𝑡 , 𝜙2 = 𝑈2 𝑥 + 𝜙෠2 𝑥, 𝑧, 𝑡 𝑧 = 𝜁 𝑥, 𝑡
𝑈2

❖ Due to the disturbances, the interface is now disturbed to 𝑧 =

𝜁 𝑥, 𝑡 as shown. The unsteady pressure satisfies the unsteady
Bernoulli equation giving:

𝜕𝜙𝑖 𝜌𝑖 2
𝑝𝑖 = 𝐶𝑖 − 𝜌𝑖 − ∇𝜙𝑖 − 𝜌𝑖 𝑔𝑧 for 𝑖 = 1,2
𝜕𝑡 2
Kelvin-Helmholtz Instability
❖ The linearized interfacial conditions (𝑧 ≈ 0) can be derived assuming pressure and normal velocity match
at the interface:
𝜕 𝜙෠1 𝜕𝜁 𝜕𝜁
𝜕𝜙෠1 𝜕𝜙෠1 𝜕𝜙෠2 𝜕𝜙෠2 ≈ + 𝑈1
𝜌1 𝑈1 + + 𝑔𝜁 ≈ 𝜌2 𝑈2 + + 𝑔𝜁 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝜙෠2 𝜕𝜁 𝜕𝜁
≈ + 𝑈2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥
❖ Assume the disturbances to have a simple two-dimensional wave form:

𝜁 = 𝜁0 𝑒 𝑖 𝛼𝑥−𝜔𝑡
, 𝜙෠𝑗 = 𝜙 ′ 𝑗 𝑧 𝑒 𝑖 𝛼𝑥−𝜔𝑡
where 𝛼 is wavenumber and 𝜔 is frequency

❖ The disturbance will grow without bound in time (i. e., unstable) if the imaginary part of 𝜔𝑖 > 0.

❖ Solving the Laplacian disturbance equations and applying the far-field boundary condition that the
disturbances must also die out as one moves far from the interface, i.e., ∇𝜙෠1,2 → 0 as 𝑧 → ±∞, yields
the following disturbance eigenfunctions :

𝜙1′ = 𝐴1 𝑒 𝑘𝑧 , 𝜙2′ = 𝐴2 𝑒 −𝑘𝑧

Kelvin-Helmholtz Instability
❖ Substituting these in the linearized interfacial conditions we get the following linear homogeneous
equations for the coefficients of the eigenfunctions:

𝐴1 = 𝑖𝜁0 𝑈1 − 𝜔Τ𝛼 , 𝐴2 = −𝑖𝜁0 𝑈2 − 𝜔Τ𝛼

❖ The eigenvalues, 𝜔, are the roots of the quadratic equation represented by pressure interfacial condition:

𝜌1 𝑈1 + 𝜌2 𝑈2 𝛼 2 𝜌1 𝜌2 𝑈1 − 𝑈2 2 𝛼𝑔 𝜌1 − 𝜌2
𝜔=𝛼 ± −
𝜌1 + 𝜌2 𝜌1 + 𝜌2 2 𝜌1 + 𝜌2

❖ The instabilities will grow if Δ < 0, otherwise the waves are either stable (Δ > 0) or neutral (Δ = 0). This
gives the following unstable condition:
𝑔(𝜌12 − 𝜌22 ) 2𝜋
𝑈1 − 𝑈2 2 > 𝛼= , 𝜆 − wavelength of the disturbance
𝛼𝜌1 𝜌2 𝜆

❖ The Kelvin-Helmholtz instability is caused by the destabilizing effect of shear at the interface by
overcoming the stabilizing effect of stratification.
Stability of Parallel Viscous Flows
❖ While Kelvin-Helmholtz instability analysis is limited to free shear flows, a similar in spirit methodology
can be developed for general parallel viscous flows to investigate instabilities in laminar boundary
layers. If we apply the method of small disturbances to a two-dimensional incompressible unsteady
flow, we get:
𝜕𝑢′ 𝜕𝑣 ′
+ =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢′ 𝜕𝑢′ 𝜕𝑈 1 𝜕𝑝′
+𝑈 + 𝑣′ + = 𝜈∇𝑢′
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜌 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑣 ′ 𝜕𝑣 ′ 1 𝜕𝑝′
+𝑈 + = 𝜈∇𝑣′
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜌 𝜕𝑦
❖ Perturbations in the form of a wave propagating in the x-direction are then added to the basic flow
𝑈(𝑦). The stream function of a single mode in the perturbation can be written as:

𝜓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡 = 𝜓 𝑦 𝑒 𝑖(𝛼𝑥−𝜔𝑡)

❖ Here 𝛼 is real and 𝜔 is complex. An arbitrary disturbance can be decomposed into such Fourier modes
where 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑟 + 𝑖𝜔𝑖 , 𝜔𝑟 is the frequency of the mode and 𝜔𝑖 is the amplification factor. If 𝜔𝑖 < 0, the
wave is damped and the flow is stable, whereas if 𝜔𝑖 > 0, the instabilities are present.
Orr-Sommerfeld Equation
❖ Using stream function we get the components of the velocity as
𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
𝑢′= ′
=𝜓 𝑦 𝑒 𝑖(𝛼𝑥−𝜔𝑡) ′
𝑣 =− = −𝑖𝛼𝜓 𝑦 𝑒 𝑖(𝛼𝑥−𝜔𝑡)
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
❖ Inserting these in the three disturbance equations and eliminating the pressure, we get the following 4th
order ODE for the amplitude function 𝜓(𝑦):

1
𝑈 − 𝑐 𝜓 ′′ − 𝛼 2 𝜓 − 𝑈 ′′ 𝜓 = − (𝜓 ′′′′ − 2𝛼 2 𝜓 ′′ + 𝛼 4 𝜓)
𝛼𝑅𝑒
❖ This differential equation is the Orr-Sommerfeld equation and
forms the starting point of the stability theory for laminar flows.
(Note that 𝑐 = 𝜔Τ𝛼 = 𝑐𝑟 + 𝑖𝑐𝑖 ). This represents an eigenvalue
problem with boundary conditions:

𝑦 = 0 ∶ 𝑢′ = 𝑣 ′ = 0 and 𝑦 = ∞ ∶ 𝑢′ = 𝑣 ′ = 0

❖ The results can be represented using the curve of neutral stability

which separates the stable from unstable solutions.

Neutral curves for Orr-Sommerfeld equation

Stability of Blasius Boundary Layer Profile
❖ Accurate computations for the Blasius profile are shown in these charts from the point of view of
temporal and spatial stability.
(b)
❖ The critical Reynolds number for initial instability is 𝑅𝑒𝛿∗ ,𝑐 = 520 or 𝑅𝑒𝑥,𝑐 ≈
91,000. The wave parameters corresponding to this are 𝛼𝛿 ∗ = 0.3012, 𝑐𝑟 Τ𝑈0 =
0.3961 and 𝜔𝑟 = 2.29 × 10−4 .

❖ The maximum wave number for instability is

𝛼𝛿 ∗ ≈ 0.35, making the smallest unstable
(a)
wavelength 𝜆𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2𝜋𝛿 ∗ /0.35 ≈ 18𝛿 ∗ ≈ 6𝛿.
This means that the unstable Tollmien-
Schlichting (TS) waves are long compared to
boundary layer thickness.

❖ The maximum phase velocity of unstable waves

is 𝑐𝑟 /𝑈0 ≈ 0.4, hence TS waves travel slowly
and arise near the wall.

❖ The final transition to turbulence is at 𝑅𝑒𝑥,𝑡𝑟 ≈

3 × 106 , about 30 times further downstream Amplification curves for the Blasius flat-plate boundary layer
(a) Temporal stability (b) Spatial Stability
Image Source: Wazzan, A. R., T. T. Okamura, and A. M. Smith. Spatial and temporal stability charts for the Falkner-Skan
boundary-layer profiles. No. DAC-67086. MCDONNELL DOUGLAS ASTRONAUTICS CO-HB HUNTINGTON BEACH CA, 1968.
Transition to Turbulence
❖ For an infinitesimal and random initial disturbance spectrum, the instability appears in the form of two-
dimensional Tollmien-Schlichting (T-S) waves traveling in the mean flow direction.

❖ However, due to secondary instabilities, the T-S waves quickly begin to show spanwise variations leading
to three-dimensional disturbances known as Λ vortices.

❖ The longitudinally stretched vortices begin a cascading breakdown into smaller eddies until the relevant
frequencies and wavenumbers approach randomness.

❖ In this fluctuating state, intense localized spatio-temporal changes occur in the shear layer close to the
wall, leading to the formation of turbulent spots.
❖ A turbulent spot, when viewed from above, resembles an arrowhead
moving downstream and spreading at a half angle 8 − 12 deg. The
leading edge travels at ≈ 0.9𝑈∞ , whereas the trailing edge at ≈
0.5𝑈∞ .

❖ As seen from this experimental photograph, the spot is fully

turbulent with 𝑅𝑒𝑥 ≈ 400,000 at the center of the spot.
Frank White/ Viscous Fluid Flow/ 2006

Visualization of turbulent spot by

aluminum flakes in a water channel
Transition to Turbulence
The overall process of transition in a boundary layer
flow past a smooth surface consists of the following: 𝑈∞

❖ The flow remains stable and laminar (A) until 𝑅𝑒𝑐 - the Hermann Schlichting,/ Boundary-layer Theory/2016

critical Reynolds number.

A B C D E F
❖ Unstable 2-dimensional Tollmien-Schlichting waves (B) are
observed downstream. 𝑈∞

❖ Due to secondary instabilities, three dimensional

disturbances known as Λ-structures (C) are subsequently
formed.
𝑅𝑒𝑐
❖ The vortices then breakdown (D) leading to the formation 𝛿(𝑥)
of turbulent spots (E) which initiate the transition to fully
turbulent flow. At 𝑅𝑒(𝑥) = 𝑅𝑒𝑇𝑟 , the transition is 𝑈∞
complete and further downstream (F), the flow is fully
turbulent. Laminar Transition Turbulent
𝑅𝑒𝑐 𝑅𝑒𝑇𝑟

Laminar to turbulent transition for a flat plate flow

 Summary
❖ In this section we discussed development of instability waves in laminar flows and subsequent
transition to turbulence.

❖ Onset of instabilities in a laminar flow can be accurately described using the linearized stability
theory.

❖ Transitioning of these instabilities to turbulence, on the other hand, cannot be predicted by the
linearized theory, and description of turbulent transition is largely based on empirical
observations.

❖ In the next lesson we will shift our discussion to fully turbulent flows.