Road Safety

Fundamentals

Concepts, Strategies, and Practices that

Reduce Fatalities and Injuries on the Road
Notice
This document is disseminated under the sponsorship of the U.S. Department of Transportation
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This document can be downloaded for free in full or by individual unit at:
https://rspcb.safety.fhwa.dot.gov/rsf/
1. Report No. 2. Government Accession No. 3. Recipient’s Catalog No.
FHWA-SA-18-003
4. Title and Subtitle 5. Report Date
Road Safety Fundamentals: November 2017
Concepts, Strategies, and Practices that Reduce Fatalities and Injuries
on the Road

7. Author(s) 6. Performing Organization Code

Lead Editor: Daniel Carter, P.E., Senior Research Associate
Unit Authors: 8. Performing Organization Report No.
Unit 1: Dan Gelinne, Program Coordinator, UNC Highway Safety
Research Center
Unit 2: Bevan Kirley, Research Associate, UNC Highway Safety Research 9. Performing Organization Name
Center and Address
Unit 3: Carl Sundstrom, P.E., Research Associate, UNC Highway Safety University of North Carolina,
Research Center Highway Safety Research Center
Unit 4: Raghavan Srinivasan, Ph.D., Senior Transportation Research
Engineer; Daniel Carter
10. Work No. (TRAIS)
Unit 5: Daniel Carter; Jennifer Palcher-Silliman, Communications
Manager, UNC Highway Safety Research Center
Layout and Graphics: Graham Russell, Graphic Designer, UNC Highway 11. Contract or Grant No.
Safety Research Center
Technical Editors: Jennifer Palcher-Silliman; Patty Harrison,
13. Type of Report and Period Covered
Communications Specialist, UNC Highway Safety Research Center;
Text book
Caroline Mozingo, Senior Manager of Communications, Education and
Outreach, UNC Highway Safety Research Center

12. Sponsoring Agency Name and Address 14. Sponsoring Agency Code
Federal Highway Administration Office of Safety
1200 New Jersey Ave., SE
Washington, DC 20590
15. Supplementary Notes
The project manager for the textbook was Felix H. Delgado, P.E., FHWA Office of Safety

16. Abstract
This book provides an introduction to the fundamental concepts of road safety. The book’s goal is to equip
the reader with a broad base of knowledge about road safety. Thus, the focus is in communicating concepts
rather than providing instruction in detailed analysis procedures.
The audience for this book is two-fold. First, this is intended for those whose job addresses some aspect of
road safety, particularly in a public agency setting. Second, this book is intended for professors and
students in a university setting.
This book seeks to lay the foundation of road safety knowledge regardless of a particular discipline.
Professionals with a background in engineering, planning, public health, law enforcement, and other
disciplines will benefit from the concepts presented here.
17. Key Words 18. Distribution Statement
road safety, road safety management process, site-level management, system No restrictions
level management, human behavior, safety performance measures, road safety
data, multidisciplinary approaches
19. Security Classif. 20. Security Classif. 21. No. of Pages 22. Price
(of this report) (of this report) 188 FREE
Unclassified Unclassified

Form DOT F 1700.7 (8-72) Reproduction of completed pages authorized

TABLE OF CONTENTS
UNIT 1 Foundations of Road Safety
Chapter 1: Context of Road Safety
Chapter 2: Road Safety Through the Years
Chapter 3: Multidisciplinary Approaches
Chapter 4: Road Users

UNIT 2 Human Behavior and Road Safety

Chapter 5: Understanding Human Behavior
Chapter 6: Changing Human Behavior

UNIT 3 Measuring Safety

Chapter 7: Importance of Safety Data
Chapter 8: Types of Safety Data
Chapter 9: Improving Safety Data Quality

UNIT 4 Solving Safety Problems

Chapter 10: Road Safety Management Process
Chapter 11: Site-Level Safety Management
Chapter 12: System-Level Safety Management

UNIT 5 Implementing Road Safety Efforts

Chapter 13: Who Does What
Chapter 14: Road Safety Research
Chapter 15: Strategic Communications
Chapter 16: Advancing Road Safety

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 1

INTRODUCTION
This book provides an introduction to many of the fundamental concepts
of road safety. These concepts cover areas such as the nature of road safety
issues, human behavior in the road environment, and identifying and
solving road safety problems. The goal of this book is to equip the reader
with a broad base of knowledge about road safety. Thus, the focus of the
text is in communicating concepts rather than providing instruction in
detailed analysis procedures.

The audience for this book is two-fold. First, this is intended for those
whose job addresses some aspect of road safety, particularly in a public
agency setting. This is especially relevant for individuals who have been
tasked with managing road safety but who do not have formal training in
road safety management. In order to show practical applications of each
road safety concept, this book contains many examples that demonstrate
the concepts in real-world settings. Second, this book is intended for
professors and students in a university setting who can use individual units
or this entire book to add an emphasis on road safety as part of graduate-
level work. Each unit provides learning objectives and sample exercises to
assist professors as they incorporate content into their courses.

As a final note, this book is intended to lay the foundation of road safety
knowledge regardless of a particular discipline. Professionals with a
background in engineering, planning, public health, law enforcement, and
other disciplines will benefit from the concepts presented here.

2 ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

ABOUT THIS BOOK
This book is divided into five units according to major topics of road safety
knowledge. Each unit is divided into multiple chapters that address the
primary concepts of the unit. The beginning of each unit provides a list of
learning objectives that indicate what the reader will be able to understand,
describe, identify, or otherwise do by the end of the unit.

Each chapter presents call-out boxes, glossary definitions, and references

as shown below.

Secretary Hoover called a second to coordinate crash research

conference for March 1926. During nationwide. The HRB played a major Uniform
A the interim between the two part in subsequent efforts to reduce Vehicle Code B
Call-out conferences, a special committee the consequences of crashes.8 A code covering Glossary
drew up a model “Uniform Vehicle
boxes are Code” covering registration and Federal Government Role
registration and
titling of vehicles,
B definitions are
licensing of
provided titling of vehicles, licensing of
drivers, and operation of vehicles on
in Highway Development drivers, and provided along
operation of
throughout the the highways. The code incorporated The growing use of motor vehicles
during the 1920s was mirrored
vehicles on the side of the
the best features of the numerous the highways.
book to provide and varied State laws then on by the expansion of the Federal page. These
the statute books. The second Government’s role in funding and
examples conference approved this code building roads. In its early form, the 8 correspond to
of concepts and recommended it to the State
legislatures as the basis for uniform
Office of Public Roads was organized
under the U.S. Department of
Source: America’s words in bold
Highways, 1776-1976:
presented in motor vehicle legislation. Agriculture, playing a large role in A History of the
Federal-Aid Program.
face in the page
funding roadways within national
the chapter. Studies following this 1926 parks and forests.
Federal Highway
Administration C content.
conference concluded that (U.S. Government
determining the causes of crashes Following the Federal Aid Road Act Printing Office,
Washington D.C.,
was far more difficult than they had of 1916, this office would become 1976).
presumed. The problem warranted the Bureau of Public Roads (BPR),
a sustained program of research charged with working cooperatively
by a national organization. The with State highway departments on C
Conference agreed, and the Highway road projects. Work continued on References
Research Board (HRB) organized
the Committee on Causes and
the expansion of highways across
the country, and between 1921 and to source
Prevention of Highway Accidents 1939, the distance of paved roads material are
Balanced Design for Safety provided along
In the 1920s and 1930s, it was good Increasing concern for road safety led many the side of the
A engineering practice to design new
highways as much as possible in long
highway engineers to worry about this
inconsistency between posted speed limits page. These
straight lines or “tangents.” When it and safe design speed on curves. In 1935,
became necessary to change direction, highway engineer Joseph Barnett of the BPR are numbered
the engineer laid out a circular curve, proposed that all new rural roads conform to
the radius of which he selected to fit an “assumed design speed,” a comfortable consecutively
the ground with the least construction top speed for drivers outside of urban areas.
cost, but which could not be less than a With its adoption by American Association
through the unit
certain minimum fixed by department
policy. In practice, engineers made the
of State Highway Officials in 1938, Barnett’s
“balanced design” concept became a
and correspond
curves sharper than this minimum when
it was cheaper to do so, but with little
permanent feature of U.S. roadway design.
Today, standards for designing curves, to numbers
consistency. Engineers expected motorists
driving these roads to adjust their speeds
such as design speed, curve radius and
superelevation (the tilt of the road through in the page
to the varying radii, and on the sharper
curves safe design speed might be
a curve) are provided in A Policy on
Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, content.
considerably lower than the posted produced by the American Association for
speed limit. State Highway Transportation Officials.

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 1: FOUNDATIONS OF ROAD SAFETY 1-13

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS 3

UNIT 1
Foundations
of Road Safety
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading the chapters and completing JJ DISTINGUISH between nominal

exercises in Unit 1, the reader will be able to: and substantive safety

JJ DESCRIBE the importance of road JJ IDENTIFY key points in the history of

safety and how it relates to public road safety in the U.S., including key
health, economic, environmental legislation and agency formation, and
and demographic trends understand how these decisions have
shaped today’s roadways
JJ RECOGNIZE roles and responsibilities
of various disciplines and approaches JJ IDENTIFY different groups of road users
to improving road safety and challenges unique to each group

1-b UNIT 1: FOUNDATIONS OF ROAD SAFETY ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

 CHAPTER 1 FOUNDATIONS OF ROAD SAFETY

Context of Road Safety

Road safety is an important part
of everyday life. Across the nation,
people use roads and sidewalks to
get to work, school, stores, and
home. Public agencies work to
ensure that people arrive at their
destination without incident.

However, not every trip is without

incident. Deaths and injuries
resulting from motor vehicle crashes
represent a significant public
health concern. The World Health
Organization (WHO) estimates that
motor vehicle crashes kill more than 1 Vehicle Occupants Pedestrians
million people around the world each Motorcyclists bicyclists
year, and seriously injure as many as Other/Unknown
20 to 50 million.1 These crashes affect
1
all road users, from vehicle drivers FIGURE 1-2: Traffic Fatalities in the U.S. by
and passengers to pedestrians, Person Type, 2013 (Source: NHTSA FARS) http://www.who.int/
bicyclists, and transit users. features/factfiles/
roadsafety/en
Though road safety in the U.S.
has steadily improved over people were killed each year and
time, it remains a priority for an estimated 2.3 million were
transportation agencies, legislators, injured in motor vehicle crashes.2
and advocacy organizations. Over While many of these deaths and 2
the past 10 years in the U.S., an injuries are sustained by motor National Highway
average of approximately 37,000 vehicle passengers and drivers, Traffic Safety
Administration
(NHTSA). Fatality
50,000 Analysis Reporting
fatalities System (FARS).
40,000 http://www.nhtsa.
gov/FARS

30,000

20,000

10,000
1983

1988

1993

1998

2003

2008

2013

FIGURE 1-1: Traffic Fatalities in the U.S. by Year, 1983-2013 (Source: NHTSA FARS)

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 1: FOUNDATIONS OF ROAD SAFETY 1-1

 3,500 6
billion Vehicle Miles Traveled (billions)
3,000 5
Fatality Rate per 100 Million
Vehicle Miles Traveled
4
2,000
3

2
1,000
1
1966

1976

1986

1996

2006
FIGURE 1-3: Fatality Rate and Vehicle Miles Traveled, 1966-2013 (Source: NHTSA FARS)

they also impact motorcyclists, more complex due to the multitude

pedestrians, bicyclists, and users of factors influencing safety, from
of transit vehicles. This challenge infrastructure to vehicle design to
requires a comprehensive approach human behavior.
Crash to improving safety, involving
Road safety professionals typically
frequency numerous stakeholders and
measure safety by the number and
decision makers from a variety of
The number
perspectives and disciplines. rate of crashes and by the severity
of crashes of those crashes. Crash frequency, or
occurring per
year or other Defining Safety the number of crashes occurring per
unit of time.
year or other unit of time, is another
In the simplest terms, safety can commonly used metric. Crash rates
be defined as the absence of risk are numbers of crashes normalized
or danger. Focusing this term to by a particular population or metric
Crash rate address transportation, road safety of exposure. Commonly cited crash
can be characterized by the ability rates include crashes per 100,000
The number of a person to travel freely without
of crashes people living in a particular State,
injury or death. A perfectly safe city or country. Some crash rates
normalized by
a particular transportation system would not present crash numbers per miles
population experience crashes between various traveled or licensed drivers. Crash
or metric of road users. Though absence of all outcomes can be measured by
exposure. crashes is an optimal condition, and the types of injuries sustained to
many transportation agencies have the people involved in the crash,
a goal of zero deaths on the road, typically categorized by fatalities
Crash the reality is that people continue and injury severity. Focusing on
outcome to get injured or killed on streets
crashes that result in severe injuries
and highways across the nation. The
Measured and fatalities is one strategy that
challenge posed to the road safety
by the types agencies use to prioritize their
of injuries
field is to minimize the frequency
safety activities.
sustained to the of crashes and the resulting deaths
people involved and injuries using all currently In addition to the measures
in the crash. available tools, knowledge, and described above, safety professionals
technology. This challenge is made can use surrogate measures, such as

1-2 UNIT 1: FOUNDATIONS OF ROAD SAFETY ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

conflicts (near misses), avoidance can use surveys, driving simulators,
maneuvers, and the time to collision and other modern technologies to
if no evasive action is taken, to understand the safety perception of
determine the level of safety risk road users.
and identify specific problems.
Evaluating the safety of a particular
Safety problems may exist even
network, corridor or intersection
in locations that do not have a
requires an understanding of both
demonstrated history of crashes,
just as someone who smokes is at nominal and substantive safety.
higher risk for lung cancer even if Originally introduced by Dr. Ezra
no cancer has yet been detected. Hauer,3 these terms offer a helpful
3
This can be especially true for framework for assessing the safety
of a particular location. Decades of Hauer, E.
non-motorized road user safety, Observational
such as pedestrians and bicyclists, research and evaluation in the field Before/After Studies
since crashes involving these of road safety have revealed a wealth in Road Safety.
Estimating the Effect
road users may be infrequent and of knowledge concerning the proper of Highway and
appear random at first sight. In designs and policies that contribute Traffic Engineering
to the safety of a particular location. Measures on Road
such locations where crashes are Safety. Pergamon
sparse or distributed across the Roadways constructed according to Press. 1997.
system, safety professionals can use the best and latest recommended
surrogate measures to fill the gaps research and design standards are
and assess the road’s level of risk. said to be nominally safe. Nominal
safety is an absolute statement Nominal
Observing traffic at an intersection,
about the safety of a location based safety
for example, may reveal a pattern
of near misses and other conflicts only on its adherence to a particular An absolute
between vehicles and pedestrians. set of design standards and related statement
criteria. A road that was nominally about the safety
This pattern may not appear in
of a location
crash data, but can be a valuable safe when it was first opened to
based only on
source of information to highlight traffic may become nominally its adherence
the potential for safety risk. unsafe when the roadway design to a particular
standards change, even though set of design
Safety perception is also an the road’s crash performance has standards and
important consideration for travel not changed. related criteria.
choices. There are a number of
reasons why someone may or may While nominal safety considers
not choose a particular route to the design of a road, it does not
drive, walk or bike. Pedestrians who incorporate any information about
perceive an intersection to be unsafe the frequency, type and severity of
may cross in a midblock location, crashes occurring on the facility. The
where they are more easily able to historical and long-term objective
find a gap in traffic. Motorists may safety of a location based on crash Substantive
feel uneasy about making a left turn data is known as substantive safety. safety
across multiple lanes of traffic, so A particular intersection that has
experienced fewer than expected Historical and
they may choose to turn right and
long-term
travel out of their way to perform crashes over an extended period
objective safety
a U-turn instead. Safety perception will be referred to as a substantively of a location
impacts road user decisions but is safe location, while a corridor with based on
not easily understood by looking a higher than expected number of crash data.
at crash data. Safety professionals crashes is substantively unsafe.

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 1: FOUNDATIONS OF ROAD SAFETY 1-3

 Unlike nominal safety, substantive
safety operates on a continuum and Nominal
allows for a range of explanations Safety
as to why a particular safety Substantive

Crash Risk
problem exists. Safety

Another key distinction is the fact

that a location can be nominally
safe – adhering to all standards and
design criteria – while experiencing
high rates of crashes, making it Design Dimensions
substantively unsafe. Similarly, a (LANE WIDTH, RADIUS OF CURVE,
STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE, ETC.)
substantively safe location (one that
has a lower than expected crash
FIGURE 1-4: Comparison of nominal
rate) may be nominally unsafe if it and substantive concepts of safety http://
does not meet the applicable design safety.fhwa.dot.gov/geometric/pubs/miti-
standards. gationstrategies/chapter1/1_comparnom-
inal.cfm (Source: NCHRP Report 480,
Agencies and safety professionals Transportation Research Board, 2002)
should strive to prioritize the
substantive safety of a facility.
Simply building a road that meets all trade-offs – making a decision to
the current design standards will not favor one goal at the expense of
ensure that the road is substantively another. While those in the field of
safe. Using professional judgement road safety continually look for
to prioritize safety improvements new designs and technologies to
and select appropriate designs advance all goals, there continue
within a range of options, based on to be many instances where public
observations of road user behavior agencies must weigh competing
and other available data, will goals for a location or portion of
increase the chance that all factors the road network and decide what
are considered. The end result will trade-offs should be made for the
be a road that moves a step closer goal of increasing road safety.
to the ultimate goal of having
a transportation system free of Below are several examples:
injuries and deaths.
JJ Roundabouts: A city may decide
Road Safety Decisions to install a roundabout at an
intersection to decrease the
and Trade-offs potential conflicts between
The goal of improving safety various movements at the
exists alongside other goals of the intersection. Safety is improved,
transportation system, such as especially related to left-turns,
mobility, efficient movement of since all turns are now part of the
people and goods, environmental circle. However, a roundabout
concerns, public health, and does require traffic on the main
economic goals. In this way, road to slow their speeds and
transportation professionals and navigate through the roundabout.
policy makers often refer to During heavy traffic, especially

1-4 UNIT 1: FOUNDATIONS OF ROAD SAFETY ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

 if it is unbalanced among the records information about
intersection legs, this may those who violate red light
cause a decrease in the overall laws, typically resulting in
throughput of the intersection. citations through the mail. These
However, this is a trade-off to cameras have been shown to
produce fewer crashes. improve safety by decreasing
4
the types of crashes that result
JJ Bicycle Helmet Requirements:
In order to improve bicyclist in serious injury,4 but installing Council, et al.
Safety Evaluation of
safety, some jurisdictions have the cameras can be met with Red-Light Cameras.
adopted ordinances that require significant public opposition. Federal Highway
Administration.
bicyclists to wear helmets. In JJ Protected Left Turns: To April 2005. https://
practice, this can reduce the risk minimize the risk of severe
www.fhwa.dot.
gov/publications/
of head injuries among cyclists, left-turn crashes at signalized research/safety/
but it may also reduce the intersections, engineers may
05048/05048.pdf
number of people who choose
choose to provide left turning
to ride a bicycle. Adopting such
drivers an exclusive protected
ordinances would prioritize
left turn phase (green arrow).
safety while potentially reducing
While this minimizes crash risk
bicycle ridership.
by separating the left turning
JJ Red Light Cameras: Red light vehicles from other movements,
camera enforcement monitors it also requires that extra time
signalized intersections and be added specifically for left

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 1: FOUNDATIONS OF ROAD SAFETY 1-5

 turns, which can increase delay too close to an intersection
for the rest of the traffic at the can restrict sight distance,
intersection. contributing to crashes. Selected
tree and vegetation removal is an
JJ Rumble Strips: In rural locations,
excellent example of a
rumble strips can be installed as
trade-off between safety and
a measure to alert drivers when
other beneficial features of trees.
they are running off the road.
However, these rumble strips are JJ Traffic Signal Installation: A
usually installed on the edge of high-speed, high-volume road
the road or the paved shoulder with multiple traffic lanes may
where bicyclists can safely and separate housing developments
comfortably ride separated from an elementary school. In
from traffic. This may result order for children living in the
in bicyclists riding in the road housing development to safely
where they are more vulnerable travel to and from school, a
to crashes with motor vehicles. traffic signal and crosswalk may
be installed along the busy road.
JJ Trees and Landscaping:
Motorists will be delayed since
Street trees, shrubs, and
they are required to stop for a
other vegetation can serve a
period of time while the students
valuable purpose in roadside
cross, but the crossing is safer
environments – particularly
for those students.
creating shade for the sidewalk,
serving as a buffer between the JJ Access Management: Left turns
road and sidewalk area, and in and out of shopping centers,
even creating “visual friction” especially along multilane roads,
that can keep vehicle speeds can result in severe injuries to
down. However, trees can also motorists when crashes occur.
pose a safety risk for vehicles Eliminating these left turns by
that run off the road and collide building raised median islands
with them. Vegetation that is and consolidating driveways

1-6 UNIT 1: FOUNDATIONS OF ROAD SAFETY ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

 can eliminate these risky
movements; however, this
prevents direct access to the
stores by potential customers.

Sometimes improving safety

for one group of road users may
negatively impact the safety of
another group. It can also be the
case that improving mobility for a
group of road users may negatively
affect the safety of that same group.
There is no absolutely correct
answer to many of these trade-offs,
as they are all context-specific.
Transportation professionals need to
discuss the various trade-offs in the
context of a particular community’s
transportation goals. These types of
trade-offs are made every day, and about the transportation system,
require the cooperation of numerous transportation professionals
agencies and stakeholders, all must understand the impacts –
of whom have a role to play in both positive and negative – that
transportation decision-making. design, operations, and policy
Despite the temptation to study road decisions have on the safety of
safety as a self-contained system, the transportation network as
there are a multitude of factors well as the impacts on other areas
influencing and being influenced by such as public health, mobility,
road safety and travel behavior. In environmental quality, and
order to make informed decisions economic growth.

EXERCISES

JJ LIST various ways to measure the safety JJ DESCRIBE a change that could be made
of a road and describe the advantages to a road or intersection that would
and disadvantages of each. Consider fac- improve road safety at the expense of
tors such as the type of information each another transportation goal (e.g., traffic
safety measure provides as well as other operations, public health, mobility and
issues such as how it can be collected. access, environmental quality, or eco-
nomic growth).
JJ DESCRIBE a change that could be made
to a road or intersection that would JJ DESCRIBE a change that could be
improve one transportation goal (e.g., made to a road or intersection that
traffic operations, public health, mobili- would improve safety for a road user
ty and access, environmental quality, or but not at the expense of other users,
economic growth) at the expense of the or other goals.
safety of road users.

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 1: FOUNDATIONS OF ROAD SAFETY 1-7

 CHAPTER 2 FOUNDATIONS OF ROAD SAFETY

Road Safety Through the Years

When examining current efforts to however, it is most useful to begin
address road safety, it is useful to the discussion in the late nineteenth
view them in the context of American century.
transportation history. Recent
In the 1880s and 1890s, bicycles
decades have witnessed numerous
were the dominant vehicle on
advances in the field of road safety.
This growing national consciousness our nation’s roads. With the
about the need for safer roads introduction of the “safety” bicycle,
provides a stark contrast to the first with two wheels of the same size,
half of the twentieth century when and the pneumatic tire in the late
the focus was on highway expansion. 1880s, the bicycling craze became an
The following chapter will provide economic, political, and social force
an overview of the major milestones in the U.S. By 1890, the U.S. was
and achievements that led to the manufacturing more than 1 million
transportation system we have today, bicycles each year.
as well as the policies and practices
At that time, bicyclist behavior—
that were implemented to address a
particularly careless or risk-taking
growing safety problem.
behavior—was a contributing
factor to bicycle crashes. However,
Late Nineteenth Century and
the biggest contributor to crashes
the Popularity of Bicycling existed outside the cities; the poor
An exploration of the history of condition of the nation’s roads made
road safety in the U.S. can begin at cycling a laborious and dangerous
many different points – some of process. Bicycle groups worked
our roads were developed as pre- at the Federal, State, and local
colonial routes and others were levels to secure road improvement
trails blazed by Native Americans. legislation. The work of these
In terms of lasting influence on the advocacy groups became known as
modern transportation network, the Good Roads Movement.

Three men
with bicycles
on bridge near
Pierce Mill,
Washington,
D.C., 1885.
(Source:
Brady-Handy
Collection,
U.S. Library
of Congress)

1-8 UNIT 1: FOUNDATIONS OF ROAD SAFETY ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

 Consequences of Speeding
As in modern times, in the early days of the These improvements along with mechanical
automobile, posted speed limits were set advances in vehicles, such as more
far below the speed of which most motor powerful engines and four-wheel brakes,
vehicles were capable. in turn encouraged even faster speeds.

With faster and heavier traffic, it became Thus, after 1918, highway design followed
dangerous to drive in the middle of a spiral of cause and effect, resulting in
the road and the States began painting faster and faster speeds and wider and
centerlines on the pavements to channel wider pavements. The motivating force
traffic in lanes. At 40 miles per hour, these behind this spiral was the driving speed
lanes appeared uncomfortably narrow to preferences of the great mass of vehicle
most motorists, especially when passing operators. The public authorities were
trucks. The lane lines also caused trucks never able to impose or enforce speed
to run closer to the shoulder, causing the limits for very long if the majority of drivers
slab edges and corners of the road to considered the limits unreasonably low.
break. To provide greater safety and Now, many current engineering practices 5
reduce edge damage, State highway use the 85th percentile speed – or the
Source: Richard
departments built wider pavements speed at which the majority of drivers travel F. Weingroff, “A
and made new roads straighter. – as the method of setting speed limits. Peaceful Campaign
of Progress and
Reform: The
Federal Highway
To build support, advocates tailored later, 2.33 million automobiles were Administration at
100,” Public Roads
their message to farmers with traveling the country’s roads, and by 57, no. 2 (Autumn,
the argument that bad roads, 1918, this number had increased to 1993), http://www.
by increasing transportation fhwa.dot.gov/
5.55 million. Mass production made publications/
expenditures, cost more than good this increase possible as it lowered publicroads/93fall/
roads. While engineers, writers, and vehicle manufacturing costs, putting
p93au1.cfm
politicians joined the movement,
vehicles within the reach of the
bicyclists dominated the Good Roads
middle class. As more vehicles 6
Movement until cars arrived in the
became available at a lower price,
early twentieth century.5 Soniak, Matt. When
the pattern of daily travel in the U.S.
and Where Was the
By the close of century, automobiles began to shift. Longer vehicle trips First Car Accident?
had slowly begun to share the roads replaced shorter trips by foot or Mental Floss.
2 December 2012.
with bicyclists and pedestrians, bicycle, and development patterns http://mentalfloss.
benefitting from many of the road began to follow suit. The motor age com/article/31807/
when-and-where-
improvement efforts spearheaded
had arrived, and with it a new kind was-first-car-
by cycling groups. In 1899, a motor accident
of highway would evolve, designed
vehicle struck and killed a New
specifically for motor vehicles.
York City pedestrian. This event
marked the first time in the U.S. Expansion of automobile use had 7
that a person was killed in a crash immediate positive effects on the Source: America’s
involving a motor vehicle.6 national economy and quality of life Highways, 1776-1976:
A History of the
around the country. Yet proliferation
Rise of Motor Vehicles in the Federal-Aid Program.
Federal Highway
of motor vehicles also had a negative
Early Twentieth Century side. As millions of new drivers
Administration
(U.S. Government
took to the roads, traffic crashes Printing Office,
In 1905, only 78,000 automobiles,
Washington D.C.,
most of which were confined to the increased rapidly—tripling from 1976).
cities, traveled the U.S. Ten years 10,723 in 1918 to 31,215 in 1929.7

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 1: FOUNDATIONS OF ROAD SAFETY 1-9

 Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover, center, with President Calvin Coolidge, right,
in February 1924. (Source: Harris & Ewing Collection, U.S. Library of Congress)

Shifting Attention to Safety injury, and 38 required railroads

and common carriers to report
Recognizing the rise in crashes and highway crashes. Other committees
resulting injuries and fatalities, devoted their attention to issues like
Secretary of Commerce Herbert traffic control and vehicle speeds,
Hoover convened the First infrastructure and maintenance
National Conference on Street and concerns, and issues impacting
Highway Safety in Washington, vehicles and their drivers.
D.C., in December 1924. Here, for
the first time, representatives of Conference participants supported
State highway and motor vehicle a wide range of measures to
commissions, law enforcement, reduce the rate of crashes and
insurance companies, automobile recommended that legislative,
associations and a multitude of other administrative, technical, and
stakeholders and interest groups educational bodies adopt them.
met in one place to discuss how Conference participants also
to address the growing number of recommended that the States take
fatalities and serious injuries. the lead by passing adequate motor
vehicle laws and setting up suitable
Prior to the conference, committees
agencies for administering the laws,
were established to perform
policing the highways, registering
research into areas such as planning
vehicles, and licensing drivers.
and zoning, traffic control, motor
vehicles, statistics, and other To the Federal Government, the
areas related to road safety. conference assigned the role of
These committees reported wide encouragement, assembly and
differences in traffic regulations distribution of information,
from State to State and city to city. and the development of
For instance, twenty States did not recommended practices. Adoption
attempt to collect crash statistics, and implementation of these
only eight States required reporting recommended practices would be
crashes that resulted in personal left to the individual States.

1-10 UNIT 1: FOUNDATIONS OF ROAD SAFETY ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

Secretary Hoover called a second to coordinate crash research
conference for March 1926. During nationwide. The HRB played a major Uniform
the interim between the two part in subsequent efforts to reduce Vehicle Code
conferences, a special committee the consequences of crashes.8 A code covering
drew up a model “Uniform Vehicle registration and
Code” covering registration and Federal Government Role titling of vehicles,
licensing of
titling of vehicles, licensing of in Highway Development drivers, and
drivers, and operation of vehicles on
The growing use of motor vehicles operation of
the highways. The code incorporated vehicles on
the best features of the numerous during the 1920s was mirrored the highways.
and varied State laws then on by the expansion of the Federal
the statute books. The second Government’s role in funding and
conference approved this code building roads. In its early form, the 8
and recommended it to the State Office of Public Roads was organized
Source: America’s
legislatures as the basis for uniform under the U.S. Department of Highways, 1776-1976:
motor vehicle legislation. Agriculture, playing a large role in A History of the
Federal-Aid Program.
funding roadways within national
Federal Highway
Studies following this 1926 parks and forests. Administration
conference concluded that (U.S. Government
determining the causes of crashes Following the Federal Aid Road Act Printing Office,
Washington D.C.,
was far more difficult than they had of 1916, this office would become 1976).
presumed. The problem warranted the Bureau of Public Roads (BPR),
a sustained program of research charged with working cooperatively
by a national organization. The with State highway departments on
Conference agreed, and the Highway road projects. Work continued on
Research Board (HRB) organized the expansion of highways across
the Committee on Causes and the country, and between 1921 and
Prevention of Highway Accidents 1939, the distance of paved roads

Balanced Design for Safety

In the 1920s and 1930s, it was good Increasing concern for road safety led many
engineering practice to design new highway engineers to worry about this
highways as much as possible in long inconsistency between posted speed limits
straight lines or “tangents.” When it and safe design speed on curves. In 1935,
became necessary to change direction, highway engineer Joseph Barnett of the BPR
the engineer laid out a circular curve, proposed that all new rural roads conform to
the radius of which he selected to fit an “assumed design speed,” a comfortable
the ground with the least construction top speed for drivers outside of urban areas.
cost, but which could not be less than a With its adoption by American Association
certain minimum fixed by department of State Highway Officials in 1938, Barnett’s
policy. In practice, engineers made the “balanced design” concept became a
curves sharper than this minimum when permanent feature of U.S. roadway design.
it was cheaper to do so, but with little Today, standards for designing curves,
consistency. Engineers expected motorists such as design speed, curve radius and
driving these roads to adjust their speeds superelevation (the tilt of the road through
to the varying radii, and on the sharper a curve) are provided in A Policy on
curves safe design speed might be Geometric Design of Highways and Streets,
considerably lower than the posted produced by the American Association for
speed limit. State Highway Transportation Officials.

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 1: FOUNDATIONS OF ROAD SAFETY 1-11

 Safety Signs
Before World War I, most States were and created a document that was, in
using signs to warn road users of danger effect, a manual of the best practices
ahead, particularly at railroad crossings; of the time. Recognizing the need for
railroad companies themselves were standard practices for signs in rural and
required to post warning signs at all public urban areas, the American Association of
road crossings. However, there was little State Highway Officials and the National
agreement between States about the Conference on Street and Highway
specific design of these warning devices, Safety organized a Joint Committee on
and the signs were a variety of shapes, Uniform Traffic Control Devices in 1931
sizes, and colors.
and introduced a new manual for national
In 1929, the American Engineering Council use in 1935. The manual of best practices
surveyed sign practices in all U.S. cities changed over time to become the Manual
with a population of more than 50,000 on Uniform Traffic Control Devices.

increased from 387,000 miles to

nearly 1.4 million miles.9 The BPR
9
recognized that the antiquated
Source: Weingroff, highway system was one of the
Richard. A Peaceful
contributing causes of the high
Campaign Of
Progress And Reform: crash toll, but did not go so far as
The Federal Highway to identify primary crash causes or
Administration
at 100. Public recommend potential solutions.
Roads Magazine.
Vol. 57 No. 2. July During this time, an emphasis was
1993. http://www. placed on expanding the Federal
fhwa.dot.gov/
publications/ role in the process of highway
publicroads/93fall/ design and development. This
p93au1.cfm
effort culminated in 1944 when
Congress approved the development
of a National System of Interstate
Highways along with that year’s
Federal Aid Highway Act. Though
expansive in scope, calling for a
40,000 mile network, the legislation President Harry S. Truman, 1945.
was not accompanied by any funds (Source: U.S. Library of Congress)
10 to support the development of
Source: Richard these highways. Without funding,
his unsuccessful efforts as a U.S.
F. Weingroff and the legislation did not significantly
the assistance of senator to enact Federal legislation
Sonquela Seabron,
expand the highway system.
on motor vehicle registration and
President Dwight
D. Eisenhower and Road safety continued to present driver licensing, the President
the Federal Role a national concern. In May 1946, said Congress was not yet ready to
in Highway Safety,
accessed May 23,
President Harry S. Truman spoke at interfere with what many perceived
2013, http://www. the Highway Safety Conference to as State prerogatives. However, he
fhwa.dot.gov/
rally public support to improve State noted that the Federal Government
infrastructure/
safetyin.cfm motor vehicle laws, driver licensing, would not stand aside if the rates of
and education. After summarizing highway fatalities continued to rise.10

1-12 UNIT 1: FOUNDATIONS OF ROAD SAFETY ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

 President
Dwight D.
Eisenhower
speaks to the
White House
Conference on
Highway Safety,
1954. (Source:
Eisenhower
Presidential
Library)

Post War Development the nation’s roads and highways

and Growth were unprepared for the increase in
traffic. Under wartime restrictions,
Economic conditions following States were unable to adequately
World War II led to even higher maintain their highways. With
levels of driving and automobile widespread operation of overloaded
ownership. Personal savings of trucks and reduced maintenance,
almost $44 billion created a market the State highway systems were in
for housing and other types of worse structural shape post-war
goods, chief among them new than before the war.
automobiles. Automobile production
jumped from a nearly 70,000 in 1945 Development of the Interstate
to 3.9 million in 1948. Highway System
Because of this increase in Though the National System of
vehicle production, motor vehicle Interstate Highways had been
registrations spiked and the number established by legislation in
of drivers on the nation’s roads and 1944, little progress was made
highways reached unprecedented
over the next decade. Without
levels. Under wartime rationing of
funding, established routes were
rubber, and specifically tires, States
slow to develop. That changed in
had implemented speed controls to
1956, when President Dwight D.
reduce wear and tear and improve
Eisenhower signed the Federal-
tire longevity. With the end of
Aid Highway Act of 1956. This
rationing and emergency speed
legislation linked the development
controls at the conclusion of the
of the interstate highway system to
war, highway travel returned to
the interest of national defense and
pre-war levels and began a steady
assigned funding that would rapidly
climb of about 6 percent per year,
expand the highway network.11 The
which would continue for nearly 11
act established a dedicated funding
three decades. http://www.
stream and a plan for highway
fhwa.dot.gov/
While the increasing popularity of development that launched the publications/
low density housing development nation into an unprecedented era of publicroads/
06jan/01.cfm
(i.e., the suburbs) and the expansion in which new interstate
availability of motor vehicles created corridors linked cities and towns to
perfect conditions for more driving, one another.

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 1: FOUNDATIONS OF ROAD SAFETY 1-13

 Despite the enthusiasm of political of the White House marked a
12 13
and business leaders, the growth transformation in the role of the
Source: Richard of this system was not without Federal Government in road safety.
F. Weingroff and
the assistance of its critics. These critics primarily This role had been growing during
Sonquela Seabron, denounced the destruction of homes the Eisenhower administration, but
President Dwight
D. Eisenhower and
and separation of communities became a larger area of emphasis as
the Federal Role that sometimes resulted from new fatalities on the nation’s highways
in Highway Safety, highways bisecting established climbed toward 50,000. Those in
accessed May 23,
2013, http://www. neighborhoods. Though this opposition the federal government observed
fhwa.dot.gov/ halted projects in some locations, that the steps taken during the
infrastructure/
safetyin.cfm it did not stop the expansion of the previous two decades to reverse the
interstate highway system. climbing number of fatalities had
failed, and they believed that road
14 Highway Safety Act of 1966 safety should no longer be left solely
to the responsibility of the States,
http://www. In 1964, the U.S. faced a sharp rise
the automobile industry, and the
fhwa.dot.gov/ in the number of traffic fatalities.
infrastructure/ individual drivers.13
50interstate.cfm An increased number of vehicles
on the roadways combined with a This legislation established the
public culture that did not prioritize U.S. Department of Transportation
15 roadway safety consciousness led (USDOT) and transformed the
to 47,700 deaths on the nation’s Bureau of Public Roads into the
Title 49 of the
United States Code,
highways, an increase of 10 percent Federal Highway Administration
Chapter 301, Motor over the number of fatalities that (FHWA). New bureaus were added to
Vehicle Safety, occurred in 1963. These deaths address safety in areas of growing
https://www.gpo.
gov/fdsys/pkg/ prompted the nation to take a hard concern, such as the Bureau of
USCODE-2009- look at road safety efforts and Motor Carrier Safety and National
title49/html/
USCODE-2009- resulted in Congressional hearings in Highway Safety Bureau (these
title49-subtitleVI. March 1965 to raise public awareness would later become the Federal
htm
of the growing national crisis.12 Motor Carrier Safety Administration
and the National Highway Traffic
To respond to these trends, the
Safety Administration, respectively).
nation needed a change of direction
The USDOT proceeded to develop
16 in the design and operation of its
programs and initiatives and
roads and vehicles. This change
Federal Motor pave the way for activities still in
Vehicle Safety began with reviewing safety
place today.14
Standard (FMVSS) standards in these areas and
No. 218,
https://www.federal
conducting research to identify Advances in vehicle design
register.gov/ effective measures to improve and policy were also an area of
documents/2015/05/ safety. The 1960s was a pivotal emphasis during the 1960s. In
21/2015-11756/
federal-motor- decade for road safety due to the 1968, federal legislation required
vehicle-safety- passage of laws that provided vehicles to provide seat belts. 15
standards-
motorcycle-helmets funding and new policies. On Federal law also required States to
September 9, 1966, President begin implementing motorcycle
Lyndon B. Johnson signed the helmet laws in order to qualify for
National Traffic and Motor Vehicle particular sources of funding.16
Safety Act of 1966 and the Highway These requirements led to more
Safety Act of 1966. The signing widespread implementation of
ceremony in the Rose Garden safety policies through the late

1-14 UNIT 1: FOUNDATIONS OF ROAD SAFETY ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

 President Lyndon B. Johnson signs the National Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety Act of
1966 and the Highway Safety Act of 1966. (Source: LBJ Presidential Library)

1960s and 1970s. Section 402 of helped by decreasing fuel costs. The
the Highway Safety Act established law would later be repealed in 1995,
a revenue stream for funding to allowing States to set their own
directly support State programs maximum speed limits.
aimed at improving road safety.
Between 1970 and 2007, there
Known as the State and Community
were two periods of time when 17
Highway Safety Grant Program, the
VMT decreased from the previous Governors Highway
funds originally supported a variety
year. These years include 1974 and Safety Association.
of program areas, including many Section 402 State
1979, each of which saw a roughly
many behavioral safety programs and Community
18 billion mile decrease in VMT Highway Safety
that are still in existence today. 17 Grant Program.
from the previous year.18 As driving
http://www.ghsa.
Energy Crises and Safety decreased, so did traffic fatalities. org/about/federal-
From 1973 to 1974, for example, grant-programs/402
Legislation in the 1970s traffic fatalities went down 16
and 1980s percent – the largest single year
decline since 1941-1942.19 Driving 18
The 1970s and 1980s were
levels began to increase again http://www.
characterized by energy crises in
once fuel costs normalized, so fhwa.dot.gov/
1973 and 1979 that had immediate policyinformation/
the reductions were not sustained travel_monitoring/
and lasting impacts on travel trends.
beyond the period of economic tvt.cfm
Vehicle Miles Traveled (VMT)
stagnation.
decreased following each of these
events, as Americans drove less The Highway Safety Act of 1973 19
due to rising fuel costs. Strategic established a specific methodology
legislative action by Congress, such https://crashstats.
for improving roadway safety from
nhtsa.dot.gov/Api/
as the National Maximum Speed an engineering perspective. It Public/ViewPub
Law of 1974 which prohibited speeds required the States to first survey lication/811346

higher than 55 miles per hour also all hazardous locations and examine

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 1: FOUNDATIONS OF ROAD SAFETY 1-15

 Ford Model T is released as Revenue Act of 1932

1908

1932
20 the first automobile available establishes first national
to most of the middle class gas tax at 1 cent per gallon
Source: “HSIP
History,” accessed ROAD SAFETY TIMELINE
October 22, 2013,
http://safety.fhwa.
dot.gov/hsip/gen_
info/hsip_history.cfm Office of Road Inquiry is created, Bureau of

1893

1916
which would eventually become the Public Roads Uniform Vehicle Code is

1926
and “Subchapter J— developed during the second
Federal Highway Administration is created
Highway Safety: Part highway safety conference
924—Highway Safety
Improvement Program,” First national conference

1924
accessed October on highway safety held
in Washington, DC
21, 2013, http://www.
gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CFR-
2003-title23-vol1/pdf/ the causes of crashes at these sites. The Federal Motor Vehicle Safety
CFR-2003-title23-vol1-
chapI-subchapJ.pdf. A benefit/cost analysis was then Standard 213 brought attention
performed to prioritize needed to child passenger safety. This
improvements. This process set standard was the first to outline
21 the stage for the current safety specific requirements for restraint
Source: “What is management processes and would be systems designed for children.
the Motor Carrier refined and improved over the years.
Safety Assistance
Program (MCSAP)?”
Multimodal Shift in the 1990s
The Highway Safety Act of 1973 also
accessed May 23,
2013, https://www. clarified the relationship between The 1990s saw a shift from
federalregister.gov/ the Federal Government and the transportation policies that focused
documents/2000/03/ on motor vehicle safety and
21/00-6819/motor-
States. The Federal Government
carrier-safety- was to direct policy and program efficiency to an acknowledgement of
assistance-program alternate modes of transportation,
components, while the States were
responsible for implementing those such as bicycling, walking and use
policies and programs.20 of public transit. The Intermodal
22 Surface Transportation Efficiency
During the 1970s, Congress also Act of 1991 (ISTEA) added a
http://www.iihs.org/
iihs/topics/laws/ established the Motor Carrier Safety multimodal perspective to the
safetybeltuse Assistance Program (MCSAP). Federal-aid highway program.
This program provides financial
assistance to States to reduce the While ISTEA was not specifically
23
number and severity of crashes focused on transportation safety, it
Source: and hazardous materials incidents created some programs to promote
“Intermodal Surface
involving commercial motor safer travel. For example, ISTEA
Transportation
Efficiency Act of 1991 vehicles (CMV) through inspection enhanced road safety with new
Information,” last and enforcement programs programs that encouraged the
updated May 16, 2013,
accessed July 05, 2013, focused on trucks, carriers, use of safety belts and motorcycle
http://www.fhwa. and driver regulations. 21 helmets.23 The legislation also
dot.gov/planning/
public_involvement/ required the installation of airbags
Vehicle safety continued to be a
archive/legislation/ for drivers and front passengers in
istea.cfm. priority in the 1970s and 1980s, as
all cars and trucks.24
more States began to implement
laws requiring the use of seat belts In 1998, the Transportation Equity
24 and motorcycle helmets. New York Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21)
See next page. became the first State to adopt a provided more focus for roadway
mandatory seat belt law in 1984, and safety planning by establishing
other States soon followed suit.22 safety and security as planning

1-16 UNIT 1: FOUNDATIONS OF ROAD SAFETY ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

 Federal-Aid Highway Act provides First Federal safety

1956

1971
dedicated funding stream to support standard requiring child
the interstate highway system passenger restraints

Congress approves the

1944
development of the National First Federal Motor Vehicle

1968
System of Interstate Highways Safety Standard requiring
seat belts is passed 24
Highway Safety Act and National Traffic and

1966
http://www.history.
Motor Vehicle Safety Acts are signed, creating
the U.S. Department of Transportation com/this-day-in-
history/federal-
legislation-makes-
accuracy, completeness, uniformity airbags-mandatory
and accessibility) of State data
needed to identify safety priorities
25
for national, State and local road
Source: “TEA-21
safety programs.25 – Transportation
Equity Act for the 21st
Not to be lost among the TEA-21 Century Fact Sheets,”
last modified April 5,
legislation, another pivotal moment 2011, accessed June
2, 2013, http://www.
in transportation legislation came in
fhwa.dot.gov/tea21/
2000 when an important provision factsheets/index.htm
Officers use specialized devices to related to alcohol was included in
measure drivers’ blood alcohol content.
the USDOT appropriation act. The
Blood alcohol
appropriation carried a requirement
content
priorities. Prior to TEA-21, a State or that all States must enact laws to
Metropolitan Planning Organization The percentage
limit the legal blood alcohol content
of alcohol in
(MPO) may have incorporated (BAC) of drivers to 0.08 percent.26 a person’s
safety in its goals or long-range blood, used to
This limit was in line with similar
transportation plan, but specific measure driver
limits imposed on drivers in other
strategies to increase safety were intoxication.
seldom included in statewide and countries, though some European
metropolitan planning processes countries limit the legal BAC to 0.05
or documents. percent. 26
Rodriguez-Iglesias,
TEA-21 established the Highway While 19 States and Washington, C.; Wiliszowski, ClH.;
Safety Infrastructure program (not D.C., had already enacted this law,
Lacey, J.H. Legislative
History of .08 Per
to be confused with the Highway
the Federal mandate provided a Se Laws, National
Safety Improvement Program, Highway Traffic Safety
further incentive for other States Administration,
which would be developed several Report No. DOT HS
years later), which funded safety to do so: States that did not pass 809 286, June 2001
improvement projects to eliminate the law by 2004 would forego a
safety problems. portion of their transportation
funding. Though specific laws vary, 27
The TEA-21 legislation also
encouraged States to adopt and each State now recognizes the legal http://www.ghsa.org/
html/stateinfo/laws/
implement effective programs to limit of 0.08 percent blood alcohol impaired_laws.html
improve the quality (e.g. timeliness, content.27

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 1: FOUNDATIONS OF ROAD SAFETY 1-17

 Oil crisis in the ISTEA is National SAFETEA- MAP-21

1991

1995
1979

2005

2012
wake of the passed Maximum Speed LU is is passed
Iranian Revolution Law is repealed passed

Safety standard New York becomes first TEA-21 is passed, along with a call for
1974

1984

1998
requiring motorcycle State to pass mandatory all States to adopt a 0.08 percent
helmets is passed seat belt law blood alcohol content limit for drivers
Oil embargo leads to energy crisis Gas tax
1973

1993
increased to 18.4
Highway Safety Act of 1973, cents per gallon
introduction of National
Maximum Speed Law

Legislation in the 21st Century the requirement for each State to

develop and implement a Strategic
Twenty-first century legislation Highway Safety Plan (SHSP).29
continued to move Federal The plans sought to establish
transportation funding and data-driven approaches that were
policy in the direction of focusing coordinated with a broad range of
on multimodal, data-driven stakeholders and utilized a diverse
approaches to improving the set of disciplines (e.g., engineering,
transportation system. One specific enforcement, education and
area of focus was a move toward emergency response). These data-
safety planning. Transportation driven plans had to include clear
safety planning shifts the focus methods for measuring progress
of traditional planning efforts to toward safety goals.
a more comprehensive process
that integrates safety into The Moving Ahead for Progress in
transportation decision-making. the 21st Century Act (MAP-21) was
Safety planning encompasses signed into law in 2012. The 2012
corridors and entire transportation legislation transformed the policy
networks at the local, regional, and programmatic framework
28 and State levels, as well as for investments in the country’s
specific sites.28 transportation infrastructure,
Source:
“Transportation enhancing the programs and policies
Safety Planning In 2005, Congress passed the Safe, established in 1991.
(TSP),” accessed Accountable, Flexible, and Efficient
August 13, 2013, MAP-21 doubled funding for road
http://safety.fhwa. Transportation Equity Act—A
dot.gov/hsip/tsp/ Legacy for Users (SAFETEA-LU). safety improvement projects,
and “Transportation
SAFETEA-LU raised the stature of strengthened the linkage among
Safety Planning Fact
Sheet,” accessed Federal road safety programs by modal safety programs and created a
August 13, 2013,
establishing the Highway Safety positive agenda to make significant
http://safety.fhwa. progress in reducing highway
dot.gov/hsip/tsp/ Improvement Program (HSIP) as
fact_sheet.cfm. a core Federal-aid program tied fatalities and serious injuries. It
to strategic safety planning and provided increased focus on the
performance. HSIP is one of six importance of high quality data,
29 core Federal-aid programs under transportation infrastructure and
which funds are apportioned the safety of local streets.
Title 23 United
States Code § 148 directly to the States. One of the
major elements of the HSIP was

1-18 UNIT 1: FOUNDATIONS OF ROAD SAFETY ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

Conclusion
Exploring the history of travel
trends and safety in the U.S. helps
illustrate how past decisions have
led to the transportation system
seen today. Safety has not always
been a deciding factor in how roads
are built. However, today, safety
is a top priority of the USDOT.30
30
Most State and local transportation
agencies share USDOT’s goal; U.S. Department
some have even set goals to reduce of Transportation.
Strategic Plans.
total traffic fatalities to zero. November 2015.
These “vision zero” and “toward https://www.
transportation.gov/
zero deaths” goals are guiding mission/budget/
transportation projects by requiring dot-budget-and-
safety to be incorporated into every performance-
documents#
step of project planning, design, StrategicPlans
construction and operation.

Future safety issues will certainly

arise as technological advancements
lead to changes in the vehicle
fleet. Autonomous and potentially begin to share the roads with older
driverless vehicles are being vehicles, bicyclists, and pedestrians.
developed and tested across the As can be learned from the history
world. Though safety improvements of road safety in the U.S., complex
are touted as a benefit of these problems must be met with safety
advanced vehicles, safety will advancements, legislative action,
continue to be a priority as they and collaboration.

EXERCISES

JJ RESEARCH a federal transportation law JJ USE https://www.govtrack.us to find a

addressed in this chapter and write a transportation bill currently proposed
summary about the law, emphasizing or under review by Congress. Describe
the safety aspects. how the legislation would be expected
to affect road safety.
JJ FIND a recent news article that involves
road safety (more than just a local news JJ RESEARCH the legal driving Blood
article on a recent crash) and write a Alcohol Content (BAC) by state in the
summary describing the effort under- U.S. and create a table showing the
taken by the public agency, how it was comparison. Select one state where
received by the public, and whether it the legal BAC is lower than the federal
was shown to be effective in increasing requirement, locate a paper or news
road safety. article describing how that BAC level
was decided, and write a summary.

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 1: FOUNDATIONS OF ROAD SAFETY 1-19

 CHAPTER 3 FOUNDATIONS OF ROAD SAFETY

Multidisciplinary Approaches

Road safety is a complex issue, and

any efforts to improve safety must The E’s
address not only the roadway but A popular multidisciplinary approach to
also road user behavior, vehicle road safety is sometimes referred to as
design, interaction between the “four E’s”: Engineering, Education,
road users, and the effect of the Enforcement, and Emergency response.
roadway on all road users. Road These E’s broadly represent the
various disciplines that bring together
safety partners include anyone
stakeholders who care about making
who influences road user safety, the road safe for all users. Sometimes
including those in infrastructure a fifth “E” for evaluation is added to
safety, behavioral roadway safety, this list to represent the important
transportation planning, public role of evaluating what works and what
health, public safety and many other doesn’t. This emphasizes the fact that
good data is crucial to the improvement
disciplines. Each of these disciplines
of road safety.
is able to provide a unique
perspective and each has specific
This chapter will discuss
methods for addressing road safety.
road safety efforts from the
It is becoming increasingly common
disciplines of roadway design and
for these various disciplines to work
engineering, public education,
in collaboration with one another
and enforcement campaigns.
to address road safety through
Working in collaboration with one
comprehensive programs. Instead
another, as described above, these
of focusing on traditional “silos”
groups can share the burden of
of activity, agencies hope that this
road safety responsibilities and
interaction and collaboration among
create comprehensive programs to
various disciplines will lead to
address the various factors that may
continued safety improvements.
contribute to crashes.

1-20 UNIT 1: FOUNDATIONS OF ROAD SAFETY ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

Roadway Design Roadway engineers work on the
design, construction and system
and Engineering
preservation of the roadways. In
Several types of transportation particular, engineers are charged
professionals are responsible for with designing roads that minimize
roadway safety engineering. the chance that crashes will occur
Broadly speaking, the roadway while balancing the needs for
safety engineering community efficiency and mobility. Engineers
includes transportation planners also work to design roads and
and engineers. intersection in such a way that
minimizes crash severity and
Transportation planning plays a
injury risk when crashes do occur.
critical role in determining the shape
Engineers affect the safety of the
of the transportation system and
built environment by incorporating
provides an early opportunity for
safety in to the planning process at
professionals to address safety needs.
the beginning of a project; selecting
Before a road project is designed or
design alternatives that prioritize
built, it is influenced by any number
safety considerations; using
of comprehensive and strategic
design elements that maximize
transportation plans that are
the safety of each part of the road
coordinated to ensure that the system
or intersection; ensuring quality
being developed is one that matches
and safe construction, operation,
the vision of the local community.
and maintenance of the roads;
Planners work with stakeholders
and addressing safety problems at
such as the general public, business
existing locations.
owners, policy makers, and
advocates to establish plans for how Infrastructure improvements such
the transportation system can best as paved shoulders, rumble strips,
serve every group’s needs. and improved nighttime visibility
may prevent drivers from veering
In the past, the traditional planning
off the roadway, and still other
process focused on economic
opportunities exist for improving
development, environmental quality,
the roadside and road user behavior.
and mobility as the three primary
For example, when a driver veers
concerns. Most States consider
off the roadway, it is important to
infrastructure safety improvements as
provide a roadside environment that
part of preservation or improvements
reduces the potential for crashes and
projects or within operational
injury. Roadside slopes and objects
changes undertaken by traffic
such as drainage structures, trees,
offices. States are now able to use
and utility poles are examples of
the Highway Safety Improvement
roadside elements that engineers
Program (HSIP) to fund safety
can target for improvements to
projects in at high priority locations.
road safety performance. One
This program allows development
engineering method to increase
of targeted solutions and approaches
roadside safety is to create a clear
that address the contributing
zone—an unobstructed, traversable
factors to collisions, thereby
roadside area that allows a driver to
seeking to achieve a higher return
stop safely or regain control of the
on safety investments.
vehicle that has left the roadway.

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 1: FOUNDATIONS OF ROAD SAFETY 1-21

 Public Education and
Countermeasures That Work
Enforcement Campaigns
Countermeasures That Work31 is a
31 comprehensive guidance document Public education and communications
Countermeasures providing details of different programs campaigns are commonly used
that Work: A and interventions that are effective to improve road user attitudes
Highway safety in improving safety. The guide is and awareness. The structure
Countermeasures published regularly by NHTSA.
Guide for State and delivery methods of these
Highway Safety campaigns can take many forms.
Offices, 7th edition,
2013 DOT HS 811 727 However, they generally involve
Engineering solutions must materials (media advertisements,
incorporate the different needs informational brochures, posters,
and preferences of a variety of user presentations, etc.) to inform
groups. As mentioned previously, people of a desired behavior and
this often means that tough the benefits of such behavior (or
decisions and trade-offs must be conversely, the risks of an unwanted
made to arrive at infrastructure behavior).
solutions that balance the needs of
While standalone informational or
different users. This trade-off can
educational campaigns can improve
be illustrated with an example of a
awareness or perceptions about road
signalized intersection. Improving
safety issues, they are unlikely to
intersection safety for pedestrians
change road user behavior. Rather,
may involve adding pedestrian
campaigns that educate the public
crossing time to the signal or
about increased law enforcement
separating turn movements to
efforts aimed at a particular
eliminate high risk conflicts. behavior have been shown to be
Protected left-turn phases can effective. Generally referred to as
also improve safety for vehicles, as “high-visibility enforcement” these
shown previously. But these new campaigns increase the perceived
or longer signal phases either add enforcement of a particular law.
time to the cycle length or keep When people believe there is a high
the same length while reducing probability of being caught, they are
time for the through movements. more likely to follow the law. The
Regardless, the result is more delay Click it or Ticket campaign is one of
to both pedestrians and motorists. the most widely known examples
In such situations, it is necessary of high-visibility enforcement.
to consider all of these needs and In this case, simply enforcing the
select the appropriate signal timing seatbelt law was not sufficient.
that meets the needs of all users. The key to this program’s success
Adhering to design standards – was the media coverage and other
creating nominally safe conditions informational campaigns telling the
– is only one aspect of the complex public that law enforcement officers
roadway design and engineering are looking for people who are not
field. Addressing substantive safety wearing a seatbelt. In other words,
through design strategies requires for those people who do not typically
an understanding of multiple wear a seatbelt, the law itself
perspectives, trade-offs and was not sufficient motivation to
user needs. change. The motivation came from a

1-22 UNIT 1: FOUNDATIONS OF ROAD SAFETY ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

perceived threat of being caught and
ticketed. Targeted Enforcement

When safety professionals analyze To reinforce pedestrian safety laws,

possible educational campaigns, they police departments can initiate targeted
enforcement operations at crosswalks.
must consider the factors that affect
Under this approach, a law enforcement
people’s behavior and the probability
officer in plain clothes will attempt
that the campaign will change such to cross the street at an uncontrolled
behavior. Simply communicating crosswalk. Drivers who do not yield
safety messages and enforcing to the officer will be pulled over and
laws may not lead to a change in either cited or warned by patrol vehicles
behavior if a road is designed in a waiting beyond the crosswalk. More
way that allows (or unintentionally info: http://www.nhtsa.gov/staticfiles/
encourages) unsafe behaviors. For nti/pdf/812059-PedestrianSafetyEnforce
example, to address a speeding OperaHowToGuide.pdf
problem on a wide multilane
arterial where the posted speed is
35 miles per hour, enforcement the road. Supplemental education
and education may not be the only and enforcement campaigns can
solution. Narrowing the roadway then help reinforce the proper
and creating more “visual friction” behavior. This emphasizes the need
along the roadside may be needed for cooperation and coordination
to alter the desired design speed of between disciplines to accomplish

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 1: FOUNDATIONS OF ROAD SAFETY 1-23

 meaningful improvements to
road safety.

While there is evidence to suggest

32 some success for well-designed and
executed safety education campaigns
Zegeer, C. V.,
Blomberg, R. D., when they are targeted at children,32
Henderson, D., the same results have not been
Masten, S. V.,
Marchetti, L., shown for teens and adults when
Levy, M. M., Fan, an educational campaign stands
Y., Sandt, L. S.,
alone. Though well-intentioned,
Brown, A., Stutts,
J., & Thomas, L. J. these approaches generally assume
(2008b). Evaluation that people are not performing
of Miami–Dade
pedestrian safety the desired behavior simply
demonstration because they lack the appropriate
project.
Transportation
information. However, this idea fails
Research Record to take into account the fact that,
2073, 1-10. in general, most human behavior is
not the result of conscious, rational
deliberation. People are largely Bicycle Safer Journey
influenced by emotions, values,
Bicycle Safer Journey is an educational
social context, and culture, among program intended to provide bicycle
many other factors. Thus, simply safety skills and education to children.
being presented with information The program uses interactive video
or facts alone is unlikely to lead to lessons to teach children safe bicycling
skills and provides resources for
any lasting behavior change. In the
parents and teachers. The program
context of transportation safety, can be accessed online at http://www.
most people do not engage in risky pedbikeinfo.org/bicyclesaferjourney.
or undesirable behaviors due to a
lack of knowledge about the desired
behavior. Instead, people act based influence the pedestrian’s decision
on a variety of contributing factors. to cross mid-block (time, ability,
weather, etc.), but likely the most
For example, consider the behavior important factor is that doing so
of a pedestrian on a multi-lane just makes sense. People are wired
undivided arterial. The goal of to choose the option that makes
the pedestrian is to get to a bus the most intuitive sense. Efforts to
stop located directly across the change this behavior only through
street from his current location. signs, posters or other educational
The pedestrian almost certainly campaigns will likely have only
knows that the desired behavior minimal effect.
is to walk a quarter mile to the
signalized intersection, wait and Similar examples can be found
cross with the crossing signal, and throughout the transportation safety
then to backtrack a quarter mile to field. Most people already know they
the bus station. However, instead should wear their seatbelt, obey
the pedestrian chooses to cross in posted speed limit signs, and limit
the middle of the block. The fact distractions while driving. Yet some
is that there are many factors that people refuse to wear a seatbelt,

1-24 UNIT 1: FOUNDATIONS OF ROAD SAFETY ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

 Click It or Ticket
Click It or Ticket is a successful seat belt and enforcement along with high visibility
enforcement campaign that has helped to media coverage to publicize and sustain
increase the national seat belt usage rate. the campaign. NHTSA manages this
The program uses public education to campaign annually with assistance from
communicate the law and risks of not the State Highway Safety offices, law
using seat belts in a variety of settings. enforcement agencies, and national- and
The campaigns provide waves of education local-paid advertising.

some people speed, and some people

text while driving. Knowledge alone Media Campaign Effectiveness
is not enough. Well planned and executed media 33
campaigns centered on reducing
Successful education and alcohol-impaired driving can be
Elder, R.W., et
al. Effectiveness
enforcement campaigns recognize effective in reducing the occurrence of of mass media
the reality of people’s behaviors and alcohol related crashes. A study in 2004 campaigns for
pointed to a 13 percent decrease in reducing drinking
apply this knowledge to the safety
and driving and
efforts. For example, social norms alcohol related crashes following these
alcohol-involved
types of campaigns.33 crashes: a
and cultural influences can provide
systematic review.
some explanation for why certain July 2004. http://
behaviors are common - even those to the areas of distracted driving www.sciencedirect.
com/science/
behaviors known to be unsafe. and driving under the influence of article/pii/
Marketing interventions based on alcohol. Such methods provide a S0749379704000467
social norms have been applied way to examine safety problems and

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 1: FOUNDATIONS OF ROAD SAFETY 1-25

 what might be done to address them reduction in fatalities and serious
Strategic through education and enforcement. injuries.
Highway
Safety Plan Comprehensive A State’s Strategic Highway Safety
Plan (SHSP) is an example of a
Provides a Safety Programs comprehensive safety plan, and one
framework for
While each discipline has its own of the best examples of a multi-
developing a
coordinated and strengths, significant improvements disciplinary, data driven planning
comprehensive in roadway safety are more likely effort. A State SHSP provides
approach to a framework for developing a
when a program encompasses
addressing road coordinated and comprehensive
safety across many disciplines rather than
approach to addressing road safety
a State. just one. Interdisciplinary team
across a State. In the development of
efforts can take on safety problems
a State’s SHSP, safety stakeholders
using multiple approaches and
from across the State and across
are therefore greater in scope
disciplines will consider all the
than individual disciplines
data available (i.e., crash, injury
working in isolation. The need
surveillance, roadway and traffic,
for this “multiple approach”
vehicle, enforcement, and driver
solution requires collaboration data) that will help an agency
among many parties. This type of understand where more safety
34 collaboration is most clearly seen emphasis is needed.34 Beyond crash
when agencies seek to create a records, an agency may choose to
https://safety.
fhwa.dot.gov/shsp/ comprehensive safety plan. Creating rely on alternate data sources like
guidebook/ a comprehensive safety plan for roadway characteristics and its own
a city, county, or state must be a knowledge of crash risk to pursue
data driven process. In doing so, systemic safety strategies. A systemic
35 agencies first begin by analyzing approach proactively identifies
their safety data to identify locations that may have a high risk
http://safety.fhwa.
dot.gov/systemic emphasis areas where concentrated of crashes but where the risk has
efforts are likely to yield the largest not yet resulted in actual crashes.35

1-26 UNIT 1: FOUNDATIONS OF ROAD SAFETY ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

Demographic data showing where for effective collaboration and
population growth has occurred, establishing a process to support
or where it is expected, can also collaborative efforts are two ways
influence an agency’s safety plans. to overcome these barriers. One
One of the most critical components way to create a foundation for
of the SHSP is an evaluation of past collaboration is to ensure that each
efforts, so that the agency can know agency understands the impact
what strategies are working and so that its actions have on road safety
that progress toward goals can be and that each makes safety its top
measured and tracked over time. priority. The example of a State
Strategic Highway Safety Plan shows
Road safety planning, like the field of this type of collaboration. The SHSP
safety itself, is multidisciplinary in process brings together all potential
nature and relies upon the expertise areas of safety emphasis, including
and involvement of numerous intersections, non-motorized
perspectives. Once developed, these users, rural crashes, and others,
safety plans influence activities and uses a data driven approach
ranging from roadway design and to identify priorities and areas
engineering to law enforcement and of need. This foundation can be
safety education. further strengthened by identifying
which agencies or organizations are
Each of the agencies and
responsible for implementing each of
organizations involved in
the strategies identified in the SHSP.
transportation safety brings a unique
and valuable perspective to bear on In the U.S., no single player manages
the roadway safety problem. Their all programs and disciplines that
competing philosophies, worldviews impact road safety. Therefore,
and problem solving approaches, collaboration among all players is
however, can make collaboration fundamental to consistently reduce
difficult. Creating a foundation serious injuries and fatalities.

EXERCISES

JJ FIND the website for your State or consider the many different types of
local road safety program. Identify programs and strategies that can be
initiatives that your State or local used to improve road safety.
agency is implementing in the areas of
JJ SELECT an area of concern, either a
planning, engineering, education, and
specific type of road user or an unsafe
enforcement.
behavior, and discuss how road safety
JJ CONSIDER a hypothetical situation in this topic area could be addressed or
where it is your job to convene a team improved through multiple disciplines.
of professionals to visit a high crash Possible topics include:
intersection and explore possible
JJ Older drivers
solutions to the safety problem. Create
a list of the people who should be JJ Underage drinking
included on that team and briefly JJ Fatigued or drowsy driving
describe each person’s role. Be sure to JJ Pedestrians

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 1: FOUNDATIONS OF ROAD SAFETY 1-27

 CHAPTER 4 FOUNDATIONS OF ROAD SAFETY

Road Users
Drivers of motor vehicles are far However, despite the priority given
from the only users of the road, to drivers of passenger vehicle,
despite accounting for the majority there remain many unresolved
of trips taken in the U.S. The public safety issues for these drivers. At
right-of-way on most roads is the core of most of these issues are
usually shared by a number of the driver’s actions while navigating
different users, traveling by a the road network. Engineers may
variety of modes for any number of work to make a road nominally
different reasons. Transportation safe by ensuring it follows the
professionals must understand latest recommendations and design
the mobility and safety needs of standards. However, drivers do not
different user groups and how always interact with the road system
they interact with one another to as road designers expect them to.
gain a better understanding of Thus, a nominally safe road may
safety problems and their be much less safe in a substantive
potential solutions. sense. While the common reaction
has been to assume that some
Road user groups include:
fault or “driver error” led to the
JJ Passenger vehicle drivers crash, this approach fails to take
and occupants into account a common behavioral
JJ Drivers of trucks principle known as behavioral
and other large vehicles adaptation. Simply put, behavioral
adaptation refers to the unconscious
JJ Motorcyclists
process by which people react to
JJ Pedestrians their environment -- people cannot
JJ Bicyclists be considered to be a constant in
the system.
Passenger Vehicle Drivers
Consider a town that wants to
and Occupants resurface and widen a two-lane
Passenger vehicles are typically collector roadway through an
defined as sedans, pickup trucks, older neighborhood with mature
minivans, and sport utility vehicles street trees. The existing road has
and represent the primary mode 9.5 foot wide lanes, a 30 mi/h (48
of transportation for the majority ki/h) speed limit, and street trees
of Americans. Since these vehicles between the roadway and sidewalk.
account for the vast majority of Design guidance may suggest a
registered vehicles and vehicle typical lane width of 12 feet and a
miles traveled, it is not surprising wider roadside clear zone. It is easy
that much of the transportation to assume that the safest choice
infrastructure prioritizes the needs would be to design a road with the
of these drivers. widest lanes possible and removal

1-28 UNIT 1: FOUNDATIONS OF ROAD SAFETY ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

 The intended speed of this road is 35 miles per hour, but the wide design of the road and
the number of lanes leads drivers to drive much faster.

of the roadside hazards. However, hazards, people will not maintain

after this resurfacing and widening their original behavior. In fact,
project was completed, both traffic the assumption should be that
speeds and crash severity along this people will adapt to this change
roadway may increase considerably. and unconsciously change their
On the surface, this may seem behavior accordingly, in this case by
counterintuitive. increasing their speed.
In essence, most people drive at Behavioral adaptation is not
a speed that feels safe to them.
specific to passenger vehicles.
To reach this “safe speed,”
When designing the transportation
people unconsciously assess the
infrastructure, engineers must
roadway and its characteristics.
consider how human behavior plays
Navigating a narrow, curvy road
affects all roadway users. Roadway
with significant roadside hazards is
more challenging than navigating a designers must design roads not
straight, wide road with large clear for the way in which they would
zones, so people unconsciously like users to behave, but for the
drive slower and more cautiously on way in which users actually behave.
the narrow road. When the driving Behavior of drivers and other road
task is made easier by widening users will be covered in a greater
the lanes and removing roadside detail in Unit 2.

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 1: FOUNDATIONS OF ROAD SAFETY 1-29

 Drivers of Trucks and Road designs that accommodate
Other Large Vehicles large vehicles can sometimes be
directly at odds with designs that
Much of the transportation favor pedestrians and bicyclists.
network across the country serves For example, a pedestrian is
an important commercial need. more comfortable crossing an
Truck drivers, in particular, play intersection if the turns are very
a significant role in the national
tight, where the distance between
economy and are responsible for
corners in minimized to shorten
moving goods between and within
the walking distance and decrease
cities and States. Large trucks
the time in the roadway. Large
account for only 4 percent of
trucks and buses, however, require
registered vehicles in the U.S., but
a larger turning radius (when
they make up 9 percent of total
vehicle miles traveled and accounted compared to passenger vehicles)
for 12 percent of total traffic fatalities in order to turn safely. When
in 2013.36 These large trucks share designing intersections for large
36 37 trucks, designers are tempted to
space on the roads with passenger
http://www-nrd. vehicles, and have their own safety increase the amount of space in an
nhtsa.dot.gov/ needs. Nationally in 2013, there were intersection and widen the corners.
Pubs/812150.pdf
just under 4,000 people killed in This change will make the turn
crashes involving large trucks, and easier, but it will also be more
71 percent of them were occupants uncomfortable (and possibly less
of the other vehicle involved in the safe) for pedestrians. As described
crash. However, large truck safety previously, these trade-offs need
38
has improved over time. Between to be assessed and discussed when
http://www. 2004 and 2013, the miles covered by
fhwa.dot.gov/
planning road projects.
policyinformation/ large trucks increased by roughly 25
statistics/2013/pdf/
mv1.pdf
percent, while fatalities involving Motorcyclists
large trucks decreased by about 20
percent (from 4,902 to 3,906).37 In recent years, motorcycling
has become increasingly popular
39 Commercial trucks are not the throughout the U.S. Since 2000 the
only large vehicles on the roads. number of registered motorcycles
https://www.fhwa.
Transit vehicles occupy space on
dot.gov/ohim/hs00/ in the U.S. has nearly doubled. 38 39
pdf/mv1.pdf our roadways as well, though they
The result was a 71% increase in
typically serve pedestrians and
the number of motorcyclist
bicyclists. Transit vehicles that share
fatalities (from 2,897 in 2000
40 space with passenger vehicles also
to 4,957 in 2012). Motorcyclists
have unique needs and challenges.
http://www-fars. represented 15 percent of all traffic
nhtsa.dot.gov/ Many of the safety issues associated
Main/index.aspx with transit vehicles are similar to fatalities in 2012, compared to
those of large trucks. Bus operators just 7 percent of fatalities in 2000.
have to consider how stopping
40
Motorcyclists are significantly
41 in traffic impacts the flow and overrepresented in traffic fatalities
operation of the transportation since they account for only
http://www-nrd.
nhtsa.dot.gov/ system, and must also consider the 3 percent of registered vehicles
Pubs/812035.pdf safety of their passengers boarding and 0.7 percent of total vehicle
and disembarking the vehicle. miles traveled in 2012.41

1-30 UNIT 1: FOUNDATIONS OF ROAD SAFETY ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

 parked vehicle to the front door
of a business. Some walking trips
are taken out of necessity – not
all households own a vehicle, 42
42
and children and individuals with
disabilities may not have the option https://info.ornl.gov/
to drive. Many more walking trips sites/publications/
Files/Pub50854.pdf
are taken by choice, especially for
exercise or health. A 2012 survey
found that 39 percent of trips taken
by foot are done for exercise or
personal health purposes. 43 Walking
43
is also more common in densely
populated urban areas, due to the http://www.
pedbikeinfo.org/
close proximity of destinations and data/factsheet_
other services like transit stations. general.cfm

Regardless of the reasons for

walking, this mode accounts for
nearly 11 percent of all trips taken
in the U.S., according to the 2009
National Household Travel Survey
(NHTS). 44 The NHTS shows that
44
about a third of all trips taken in
the U.S. are shorter than one mile, http://www.
pedbikeinfo.org/
In general, many of the roadway and 35 percent of these trips are cms/downloads/15-
modifications done to improve taken by foot. In the 2005 Traveler year_report.pdf
safety for passenger vehicles can Opinion and Perception Survey
pose a challenge for motorcyclists. (TOP), conducted by FHWA, data
Rumble strips can be difficult to showed that about 107.4 million
traverse, especially at low speeds. Americans (51 percent of the
Guard rails, in particular cable traveling public) use walking as a
barriers, can present a serious regular mode of travel. 45
45
hazard to a motorcyclist impacting
Pedestrians (along with bicyclists) http://www.fhwa.
one at a high speed. Within the
are among the most vulnerable road dot.gov/reports/
driving environment, motorcyclists traveleropinions/
users, and this is reflected in crash
are small compared to larger 1.htm
data. The 4,743 pedestrians killed
vehicles and can be difficult to see,
in 2012 represented 14.1 percent
especially early or late in the day
of total traffic fatalities in the U.S.
when lighting levels are lower.
that year. Between 2008 and 2012,
motor vehicle fatalities decreased 13
Pedestrians
percent, while pedestrian fatalities
Walking is the most basic form increased 8 percent. Within the
of transportation. At some point population of pedestrians, there
during a typical day, nearly every are certain groups which are
person is a pedestrian. People walk especially vulnerable. These include
to get to a bus station, to go from young children, older adults, and
home to school, or to get from a individuals with disabilities.

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 1: FOUNDATIONS OF ROAD SAFETY 1-31

 Before (left) and after (right) pictures of Stone Way North. (Source: Seattle DOT)

Road Diet
In 2008, Seattle Department of “sharrows”). The cross section reduced
Transportation implemented a road diet the number of travel lanes to add bicycle
on a 1.2-mile (1.9-kilometer) section of lanes and parking on both sides. The
Stone Way North from N 34th Street to N resulting corridor saw a decrease in the
50th Street. In addition to serving motor 85th percentile speed, while the overall
vehicles, this segment of Stone Way North capacity remained relatively unchanged
helps connect a bicycle path with a park. despite the reduction in the number
Within five blocks are eight schools, two of lanes. The number of bicyclists on
libraries, and five parks. the corridor increased by 35 percent,
but crashes involving bicyclists did not
The modified segment was originally increase. Pedestrian crashes declined by
a four-lane roadway carrying 13,000 80 percent following the project.
vehicles per day. For this corridor,
the city’s 2007 bicycle master plan Summarized from a 2011 Public Roads
recommended climbing lanes and shared article: http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/
lane markings (previously known as publicroads/11septoct/05.cfm

Young children are a vulnerable impaired. These pedestrians have

road user group, and may be more increased challenges in navigating
likely than adults to rely on walking the road safely, particularly at
as a primary transportation mode street crossings. Challenges faced
– especially before they are old by a blind or visually impaired
enough to drive. One area of concern pedestrian include finding the
is creating a safe environment for appropriate crossing point at an
young children when they walk to intersection corner or midblock
school. Safety professionals need location, determining the appropriate
to ensure that sidewalks and street time to cross, and crossing quickly
crossings have the appropriate and accurately. Both crossing and
measures to assist children in
traversing a sloped sidewalk can be
traveling safely, and educate
equally difficult for an individual in a
children about safe walking.
wheelchair, where even slight cracks
Another vulnerable portion of the or bumps in the sidewalk can present
pedestrian population includes major obstacles. The difficulties of
those who are blind or visually these challenges increase at locations

1-32 UNIT 1: FOUNDATIONS OF ROAD SAFETY ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

with unusual geometry, irregularly Drivers and pedestrians share
46
timed signals, or non-stop vehicle responsibility for many pedestrian
flow such as roundabouts and Source: “Identifying
fatalities, as both parties attempt
Countermeasure
channelized turn lanes. to navigate through the same Strategies to
Increase Safety to
space at the same time. Though
Older adults face many challenges Older Pedestrians,”
we know that certain factors are National Highway
as well. There are a number of Traffic Safety
likely to result in more severe
age-related changes that affect the Administration, 1.
functional ability of older adults pedestrian crashes, such as speed
to safely walk and cross the street.
47
, no single cause stands out as
These changes include diminished the major contributor to pedestrian 47
physical capability, sensory crashes. For this reason, no single
https://www.
perception, cognitive skills and lag countermeasure alone would likely aaafoundation.org/
make a substantial impact on the sites/default/files/
in reflexive responses. Eyesight 2011Pedestrian
deterioration can diminish an older number of pedestrian crashes. A RiskVsSpeed.pdf
person’s ability to see and read successful countermeasure program
guide signs, slow their reaction time should use a mix of engineering,
and decrease their ability to gauge environmental, educational and 48
a vehicle’s approaching speed or enforcement measures to improve
Source: “Identifying
proximity. 46 pedestrian safety. 48 Countermeasure
Strategies to
Increase Safety to
Older Pedestrians,”
National Highway
Traffic Safety
Administration, 36

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 1: FOUNDATIONS OF ROAD SAFETY 1-33

 Bicyclists bicycles. Intersections can also
pose a challenge to bicycle riders
Bicyclists were some of the first
when they include high volumes
users of U.S. roads, and the group
of turning traffic and a large
that made the earliest push to
number of lanes. These barriers
improve road conditions. In recent
to bicycling, busy street segments
years, bicycling has seen a rise in
and intersections, often discourage
popularity for both recreation
potential riders even when the rest
and transportation. Data from
of a bicycle network is comfortable.
the 2009 NHTS showed that while
Many bicyclists are willing to go out
only 1 percent of all trips are
of their way to use a route that has
taken by bicycle, the number of
lower vehicle volumes and speeds, or
bicycle trips doubled between
49 bicycle facilities that are separated
1990 and 2009.49
from traffic. Safe bicycle facilities
http://www.
pedbikeinfo.org/ While bicyclists account for only 1 can also improve connections to
cms/downloads/ percent of all trips, the 726 bicyclist shopping, transit, jobs, schools, and
15-year_report.pdf
fatalities in 2012 represented 2 essential services.
percent of all traffic fatalities
that year.50 While the number of Conclusion
50 bicyclists killed has risen only
Successful road safety programs
http://www-nrd. slightly since 2008, the decline in
will consider the needs of all users
nhtsa.dot.gov/ motor vehicle deaths means that
Pubs/812018.pdf when planning and developing
bicyclists account for an increasing
transportation projects. Each user
share of total traffic fatalities.
group plays an important role in
Bicyclists face unique challenges the transportation system, and
as road users. More often than not, each has unique safety needs that
bicyclists share space with motor safety professionals must consider.
vehicles and are considered legal Road user decisions are influenced
users of the road in most locations. by a variety of factors, and the
Many potential bicycle riders are combinations of factors that result
not comfortable sharing the road in particular travel behavior cannot
with heavy vehicular traffic and easily be categorized or understood
may be deterred from riding their in simple terms.

EXERCISES

JJ PROVIDE an example of a road index.aspx). Use the data available

project where the changes resulted in for the most recent year to document
improvements for one user group, but fatality numbers for the different road
negatively impacted another group. This user groups discussed in this chapter
example could be hypothetical or based (e.g. motorists, pedestrians, bicyclists).
on a real world experience. What other information on road user
JJ VISIT the Fatality Analysis Reporting safety can you find with the tools
System (FARS) Encyclopedia home page available in FARS, and what data is
(http://www-fars.nhtsa.dot.gov/Main/ not included?

1-34 UNIT 1: FOUNDATIONS OF ROAD SAFETY ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 1: FOUNDATIONS OF ROAD SAFETY 1-35

UNIT 2
Human
Behavior and
Road Safety
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading the chapters and completing JJ EXPLAIN why it is important to

exercises in Unit 1, the reader will be able to: consider the nature of human
behavior when designing and
JJ EXPLAIN the systems that drive human
implementing systems or programs
behavior and give examples of each
 CHAPTER 5 HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND ROAD SAFETY

Understanding Human Behavior

Introduction disease has been nearly eradicated
— the only human disease to be
Guinea worm disease is a parasitic eradicated besides smallpox2,3. How
infection that occurs in remote were such large advances made in
parts of Africa. Symptoms of Guinea only 30 years, and what does this
worm disease can be debilitating have to do with road safety?
and lead to secondary infections,
both of which can affect an infected Unlike smallpox, there are no known
person’s ability to perform everyday medicines or vaccines that prevent
tasks including working, harvesting Guinea worm disease. Eradication,
food and caring for children. The therefore, required a different
1
disease is caused by drinking water approach: changing human
contaminated with Guinea worm behavior. Cairncross, S.,
Muller, R., and
larvae. When a worm is mature,
it creates a painful blister on the
The Human Factor Zagaria, N. (2002).
Dracunculiasis
(Guinea Worm
infected person’s skin. If the person A report from the National Disease) and
immerses the affected body part Cooperative Highway Research the Eradication
Initiative. Clinical
in water, it can temporarily relieve Program (NCHRP) defines “human Microbiology
the pain from the blister. However, factors” as follows: Reviews, 223-246.
this also allows the worm to release
Human factors is an applied, scientific
eggs into the water, continuing the
discipline that tries to enhance the
infection cycle by spreading the 2
relationship between devices and
disease to others1.
systems, and the people who are meant World Health
Organization and
There were 3.5 million cases of to use them. As a discipline, human the Carter Center,
Guinea worm disease throughout factors approaches system design with Eradication of
Guinea Worm
the world in 1986. By 2015, there the “user” as its focal point. Human Disease: Case
were only 22 cases. In 30 years the factors practitioners bring expert Statement, 2016.
Available at: https://
www.cartercenter.
org/resources/pdfs/
health/guinea_
worm/2016-gw-case-
statement.pdf

3
WHO,
Dracunculiasis
Fact Sheet. May
2016. Available at:
http://www.who.
int/mediacentre/
factsheets/fs359/en/

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 2: HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND ROAD SAFETY 2-1
 knowledge concerning the capabilities two different systems – a deliberate,
4
and limitations of human beings that rational system (deliberative) and
John L. Campbell, are important for the design of devices an implicit, unconscious system
Monica G. Lichty; et
al. (2012). National and systems of many kinds.4 (intuitive)5.
Cooperative
Highway Research In road safety, the term human The deliberative system is a
Program Report factors is typically used to describe
600: Human
conscious system wherein a person
Factors Guidelines how people respond to the considers information using rational
for Road Systems roadway environment. However, thought, logic and reasoning in
(Second Edition).
Washington, D.C.: people are not simply users of the deciding on an action.
Transportation transportation system. Humans
Research Board.
also design, engineer, build and For example:
maintain the roadway environment,
When driving home after work,
the vehicles using it and the laws
5 a driver decides to change routes
governing behavior of roadway users
to avoid an area that is usually
Kahneman, D. (2011) and vehicle manufacturers. In that
Thinking, Fast and congested at this time of day.
sense, the entire transportation
Slow. Farrar, Straus
and Giroux system is a product of human In this example, the driver
factors. The term human factors considered the available information
conveys an oversimplified notion (time of day and previous
of the role of human behavior in experience with that location)
transportation safety. The human and made a conscious decision to
part of the equation is more complex take another route.
than simply a list of discrete factors.
The intuitive system is an implicit,
Key Principles of unconscious process by which
Human Behavior a person makes nearly
instantaneous decisions and
To understand human behavior, it is takes a resulting action.
important to bear in mind four key
principles. For example:

JJ Human behavior is guided by two As a driver approaches a signalized

different systems (deliberative intersection, the light turns yellow.
and intuitive). Without conscious thought, the
driver either proceeds through the
JJ Humans are not exclusively
intersection or comes to a stop.
logical, rational beings.
In this example, the driver receives
JJ Human behavior is heavily
information from the environment
influenced by the environment.
(the yellow light), combines it with
JJ Humans make mistakes. an understanding of the specific
circumstance based on the driver’s
Let’s discuss these concepts as they
previous experiences, and takes an
relate to road safety.
action almost immediately. It is
Human behavior is guided important to realize the intuitive
system acts nearly instantaneously
by two different systems
without the driver’s awareness of
Human behavior is largely guided by the process.

2-2 UNIT 2: HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND ROAD SAFETY ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS
We often incorrectly assume that Humans are not exclusively
human behavior is largely controlled
logical, rational beings
by the deliberative system when,
in fact, most behaviors are a result Although people take in and
of the intuitive system. In other interpret information, they do so in
words, most human behavior is not the context of a number of factors,
the result of conscious, rational such as prior experience, emotions,
deliberation. For most actions, we cultural norms, moral beliefs, social
don’t have enough time or available pressures, convenience, habits and
information to do a logical analysis financial considerations, among
before acting. The intuitive system many others. Rational calculations
allows us to act without this time- based on objective evidence are
consuming conscious decision- often not even possible, and when
making process. they are, they must compete with
these other influences. This is why
To think of this another way,
people often make decisions that are
consider the deliberative system
not necessarily the most appropriate
as similar to the decision making
choice for their health and well-
process of a computer. Computers
being.
function exclusively using a
deliberative system. They take We know that cooking dinner
in information, process it using at home may be healthier, but
explicit algorithms and deliver a sometimes it is easier and more
result. However, humans do not convenient to have a pizza delivered
function this way. They generally instead. We know we should exercise
make decisions that appear to reflect more and get the recommended
instinctual processes rather than amount of sleep each night, but
systematic rational considerations. work, family and other obligations

Flossing and human behavior

At some point in your life, you have they lack knowledge about the potential
probably been told that regular flossing consequences, benefits or alternatives.
is good for your dental health. Through Surely, if people simply were aware of the
the years, you’ve likely had conversations benefits of flossing or the consequences
about flossing with your dentist or dental of not flossing, they would change their
hygienist who encouraged you to floss behavior and become regular flossers. This
more. Perhaps they showed you the proper approach appeals to the belief that human
way to floss and sent you home with your behavior is rational.
own floss in an effort to encourage you
Although commonly used, this approach
to start. For a few days or weeks after the
fails to take into account the complexities
appointment, you may have deliberately
of human behavior. Other factors influence
flossed more regularly. But if you’re like
our behaviors – flossing is inconvenient,
most people, you soon reverted to old
takes time and can be uncomfortable. The
habits, and the floss sat unused in a
negative consequences of not flossing (e.g.,
cabinet. Why do we do this?
gum disease) are not immediately visible.
Typically, programs aimed at influencing Although people repeatedly hear messages
human behavior take an educational or explaining why flossing is important, rates
informational approach on the assumption of flossing among the general population
that people act a certain way because remain low.

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 2: HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND ROAD SAFETY 2-3
 can make this difficult. We know we
should get a flu shot, but a fear of
needles may keep us away.

Humans are largely intuitive beings

which means their actions are rarely
the result of a systematic, rational
decision making process. For years,
many people did not brush their
teeth daily, even though the benefits
of brushing were widely known.
6 It was not until mint flavoring
Duhigg, Charles.
was added to toothpaste that daily
The Power of Habit: brushing became the norm. That Optical Speed Bars
Why We Do What is, information about the benefits
We Do in Life and
Optical Speed Bars (OSBs) have
Business of brushing did little to change shown promise in reducing vehicle
behavior; what convinced people speeds in advance of hazardous
to brush was a desire for the clean locations7. OSBs are a series of white
rectangular markings, placed just
7 feeling they associated with the inside both edges of the travel lane
mint.6 Because the factors that and spaced progressively closer, to
Gates TJ, Qin
X, Noyce DA. affect human behavior are complex create the illusion of increasing speed
Effectiveness of and interrelated, behavior is not when traveling at a constant rate as
Experimental
easily changed. When attempting well as the impression of a narrower
Transverse-Bar lane8. A compelling characteristic of
Pavement Marking to change the behavior of others,
optical speed bars is that they operate
as Speed-Reduction we tend to assume that people are
Treatment on on intuitive, rather than conscious,
Freeway Curves. entirely logical and rational beings. decisions made by drivers/riders. By
In Transportation However, experience repeatedly creating a sense of increasing speed
Research Record: as riders approach a dangerous curve,
Journal of the shows this is not the case.
Transportation
they should induce riders to slow down
Research Board, No. This situation is not unique to – as an instinctive reaction rather than
2056, Transportation dental hygiene. We regularly do a conscious decision.
Research Board
of the National things that we generally realize are
Academies, not in our best interest. We don’t eat
Washington, D.C., social and organizational contexts,
the recommended amounts of fruits
2008, pp. 95–103. such as policies and social norms.
and vegetables. We don’t get enough
sleep. We don’t exercise as much as Given that most behavior is
8 we should. Think about examples intuitive, people generally do
from your own life. not know the true reasons for
Federal Highway
their actions, nor can they validly
Administration.
Engineering Human behavior is heavily articulate what might influence their
Countermeasures
for Reducing
influenced by the environment actions. People can usually provide
Speeds: A
Often the environment has a much explanations for their behavior after
Desktop Reference
of Potential stronger influence on a person’s the fact, but research shows people
Effectiveness.
behavior than internal conditions are often not aware of the strong
http://safety.fhwa.
dot.gov/roadway_ (e.g., attitudes and personality) influence of environmental factors
dept/horicurves/
commonly assumed to be influential. on their behavior. An example in
fhwasa07002/ch7.
cfm. The environment includes the Unit 1 of this book describes a town
physical environment, as well as that aims to resurface and widen a

2-4 UNIT 2: HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND ROAD SAFETY ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS
 Environment affects behavior
Research has shown that people are more no behavior modeling (eight donations
likely to help another person (in a non- in the modeled condition versus one
emergency situation) if they see someone donation in the control condition). Further,
else helping first. Social psychologist when people in the modeled condition
Robert Cialdini demonstrated this by were asked why they donated, no one
counting donations given to a street realized that they had been influenced
musician with and without a colleague first by the behavior of another person.
modeling the behavior by donating money. Instead, they attributed their donations
He found that many more people gave the to something else, such as enjoyment of
musician money when the behavior was the song or how they felt about the person
modeled than in the control condition with playing the music9,10,11. 9
Cialdini. R.B.
(20005). Basic
two-lane collector roadway through what they should do in a given Social Influence Is
Underestimated.
a neighborhood with mature trees. situation12. Psychological
However, after completing the Inquiry, 16: 158-161
project, both speeds and crash Humans make mistakes
severity increased. Behavioral
Both our deliberative and intuitive
adaptation refers to the unconscious 10
systems can lead us to make
process by which people react to
mistakes. Actions reached by a Cialdini, R.B.,
their environment. While driving, Demaine, L.J.,
deliberative process can be mistaken
people unconsciously assess the Sagarin, B.J., Barrett,
if we fail to consider all relevant D.W., Rhoads,
roadway and its characteristics and
information or if we process it K., & Winter, P.L.
modify their behaviors accordingly. (2006). Managing
incorrectly. Similarly, our intuitive social norms for
This may seem counterintuitive, system can lead to errors in persuasive impact.
situations with which we have little Social Influence,
but as discussed, human behavior is
1: 3-15
an intuitive process that is heavily or no experience. Experience helps to
influenced by the environment. A refine the intuitive processes, so the
wider road with limited roadside likelihood of mistakes declines with
11
hazards feels safer and people exposure to situations. However,
unconsciously adapt their behavior mistakes are inevitable and the Cialdini, R.B.
(2007). Descriptive
accordingly. You should assume transportation infrastructure needs social norms as
people would not maintain their to be designed with the recognition underappreciated
that road users will make mistakes sources of
original behavior when the driving
social control.
environment is changed. and that they will often make them Psychometrika, 72:
in predictable ways. 263-268
Roadway designers must design
roads not for the way in which they Have you ever looked down at your
would like users to behave, but for speedometer and realized that you
the way in which users actually were driving substantially over the
will behave. In general, people speed limit? You probably didn’t
don’t just do what they are told to make a conscious (deliberative) 12
do — by a sign, a law or another decision to exceed the speed limit.
Etzioni, Amitai.
person. Instead, they integrate Instead, you reached that speed by Human Beings Are
information from many parts of taking cues about the proper speed Not Very Easy To
Change After All,
their environment along with their from your environment (intuitive).
Saturday Review,
own historical experience as they Characteristics of the road, such as June, 1972.
determine (usually non-consciously) wide lanes, multiple travel lanes,

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 2: HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND ROAD SAFETY 2-5
 FIGURE 2-1: Example of unconscious clues leading to higher speed

presence of a median and long with very few other vehicles, the
gentle curves, convey the message only clear clue to one’s speed is
that the road can accommodate the speedometer.
high speeds. Additionally, the speed
Roads constructed according to the
of other vehicles is a particularly
recommended design standards may
salient indicator of the right speed.
be considered safe, but in reality,
Recall this example from Unit 1 they may only be nominally safe.
(Figure 1-1). Although the posted The fact that some road designs
speed limit is 35 mph, many people encourage higher speeds can
drive much faster than that. This is make it substantively unsafe. The
not because they all have a blatant transportation system is designed,
disregard for safety. Instead, they built, maintained, governed and
are unconsciously taking cues used by humans. It is often cited
from their environment, which is that human error contributes to
telling them it is safe to travel at a more than 90% of traffic crashes,
higher speed. Add to this the fact most often referring to a road user
that modern vehicles have been error. However, it is important to
engineered for occupant comfort, so remember that errors by road users
many of the auditory and haptic cues are not the only human errors that
(e.g., wind noise, bumps, road noise, can occur.
etc.) that previously gave drivers
For example:
feedback about their speed have been
eliminated. On a road On a rural two-lane road, an SUV

2-6 UNIT 2: HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND ROAD SAFETY ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS
driver over-compensates when a tire in airplane crashes, it is quite rare
slips off the roadway causing the that any single factor in a motor
vehicle to roll over and strike a tree vehicle crash was the sole reason for
on the opposite side of the road. the crash or for its severity.

Where was the human error in Meeting nominal safety does not
this example? Was it in the driver guarantee that a crash will never
who didn’t stay on the road and occur, nor does it guarantee that
overcompensated with steering? Was users will behave in the intended
the road maintained improperly or way. Those in charge of the road
inadequately? Could the crash have should use professional judgement
been prevented if edgeline rumble to prioritize safety improvements
strips had been installed, or if the and select appropriate designs
road had a paved shoulder instead within a range of options based on
of a soft gravel shoulder? Should the consideration of road user behavior.
tree next to the roadway have been Unit 3 discusses how many kinds
removed? Could SUVs be designed so of data, such as crash data and
they are less susceptible to roll over? behavioral observation, can be used
The answer is that a combination to evaluate the substantive safety of
of several of these caused the crash, the road.
not simply the driver’s error. Just as

EXERCISES

JJ MAKE a list of your own driving drivers have independently made the
behaviors. What behaviors involve the same mistake at the same location.
deliberative system? What behaviors What characteristics of the roadway —
are intuitive? as designed or built — may have
contributed to this cluster of crashes?
JJ WORK with your state department of What modifications might be made that
transportation to identify a crash cluster would not be offset by
in your area. It’s highly unlikely that many behavioral adaptation?

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 2: HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND ROAD SAFETY 2-7
 CHAPTER 6 HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND ROAD SAFETY

Changing Human Behavior

Let’s return to the Guinea worm though changing human behavior
disease example. You may be is exceedingly difficult, it is
wondering why something so possible to achieve behavior change.
seemingly unrelated to improving However, this requires that we take
safety in a modern transportation into account the nature of human
system was used to introduce this behavior instead of assuming that
unit. The fact that Guinea worm simply providing information is
disease is nearly extinct in only 30 sufficient.
years is a tremendous achievement.
The fact that it was done through Understanding factors that
behavior change alone, without the influence human behavior
use of vaccines or medication, is
To change human behavior,
unprecedented.
it is important to identify and
Road safety professionals would understand not only the target
be wise to consider the successful behavior but also any other factors
approach to eradicate Guinea worm that influence the behavior.
disease. Although the desired Attempting to change a behavior
behaviors may be different, the without a full understanding of
general strategies for influencing the many contributing factors will
human behavior are the same. Even almost certainly fail.

FIGURE 2-2: Guinea worm disease hotspots in Africa

2-8 UNIT 2: HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND ROAD SAFETY ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS
Other Factors Behaviors Outcome
Limited water availability

Money Drinking
contaminated
Lack of understanding water
Guinea worm
Lack of immediate disease spreads
consequences
Using drinking
water sources
Immediate benefit to relieve pain
Unavailability of other
treatment

FIGURE 2-3: Guinea worm disease factors, behaviors and outcomes

Doctors knew that Guinea disease was transmitted.

worm disease spreads by people
drinking contaminated water, and
JJ Lack of immediate consequences
– Guinea worm disease
contamination of the water supply
symptoms did not appear until
occurred when an infected person
used the water supply to temporarily one year post-infection.
relieve the symptoms of infection. Why were people using drinking
Hence, the eradication campaign water to relieve the pain caused by
focused on two main behaviors: the infection?
JJ Drinking contaminated water JJ Immediate benefit – Water
JJ Using drinking water sources submersion resulted in
to temporarily relieve the pain immediate pain relief.
caused by the infection JJ Limited availability of water –
Simply identifying these behaviors Because water is scarce, most
was not sufficient. In order to be water sources were used for
successful, public health officials drinking.
considered many other factors JJ Unavailability of alternative
influencing these behaviors.
treatments – The lack of medical
Why were people drinking infrastructure meant limited
contaminated water? access to treatment options.

JJ Availability - Uncontaminated JJ Money – People lacked financial

drinking water may not have resources to obtain medical
been available in the community. treatment even when available.

JJ Money – People and JJ Understanding – People lacked

communities lacked financial knowledge about how the
resources to obtain clean disease is transmitted.
drinking water.
A thorough understanding of the
JJ Understanding – People did factors that influence behavior is
not know that the water was necessary to develop a plan for
contaminated and/or how the behavior change.

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 2: HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND ROAD SAFETY 2-9
 To develop a plan, we cannot merely comprehensive approach.
look for the cause of the outcome,
instead we need to look for the Approaches to
weak links in the causal chain and Changing Behavior
intervene at these links. In the case
of Guinea worm disease, the limited We are constantly exposed to
attempts to influence our behavior.
availability of water and lack of
Consider the following things that
understanding about the disease
you may encounter in everyday life:
and its transmission were factors
influencing both behaviors. Thus, JJ A brochure in your doctor’s
these factors were targeted in the office about the benefits of
intervention. getting a flu shot
Public health officials informed the JJ A requirement that restaurants
people about the dangers of drinking include nutritional information
contaminated water and how the in their menu
water was becoming contaminated.
JJ Stores that charge for plastic
However, they knew that simply
shopping bags
providing this information would
not be sufficient. JJ Public service announcements
(PSAs) about bullying
In order to make the right behavior
the easy choice, officials combined JJ Cities that provide large recycling
education with environmental bins and small garbage bins
change – they educated people on
JJ A law requiring that everyone
guinea worm disease and made
wear seatbelts
clean water more accessible.
Water sources known to be Most of these attempts either
contaminated were treated to provide information (e.g., a brochure
prevent transmission, and new clean with information about flu shots
water sources were created. When or a PSA detailing the negative
water sources could not be treated, impact of bullying), or they change
villagers were given cloth filters to the environment in such a way
decontaminate their water before to encourage a different behavior
drinking. When people had access (e.g., stores that charge for plastic
to clean water, they were less likely shopping bags or cities that provide
to drink contaminated water, thus large recycling bins and small
13 significantly reducing the chance garbage bins). Understanding the
of infection13. This change to the nature of the problem is important
Cairncross, S.,
Muller, R., and environment (i.e., making clean in determining which approach has
Zagaria, N. (2002). water available) proved to be key in the best chance of success.
Dracunculiasis
eliminating the disease.
(Guinea Worm
Disease) and Education, safety messages
While this is an oversimplified
the Eradication
Initiative. Clinical description of the complex and
and raising awareness
Microbiology
Reviews, 223-246. multifaceted approach that occurred Education and awareness-raising
over 30 years, it highlights what can campaigns are often the first and
be accomplished when principles of only tools tried when attempting
behavior change are at the core of a to influence behavior. In general,

2-10 UNIT 2: HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND ROAD SAFETY ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS
 This tip card from the early 1900s was likely ineffective in changing the crossing habits
of people since it relied solely on providing information.

the goal of such campaigns is to example: does simply knowing that

communicate information with the you should floss convince you to
assumption that once the audience floss regularly?
is aware of the information, they
Consider the effect of an educational
will then act in the desired manner.
campaign on Guinea worm disease.
In other words, educational
Would an educational or awareness
campaigns appeal to the deliberative
raising campaign be enough to
system and assume that human
produce lasting and consistent
behavior is usually a product of
behavior change? On the one hand,
rational thought. Because of this,
there was a lack of knowledge
information alone almost never
about the disease among those
works. However, information
affected, especially about how the
can be helpful as part of a more
disease was transmitted. However,
comprehensive program.
this education cannot influence
Far too often information-based the additional — and likely more
approaches are used in isolation, important — factors contributing to
without careful consideration the problem. For example, education
of whether the problem can be will not improve the availability
effectively addressed through of clean drinking water or access
raising awareness alone. Is the to alternative medical resources,
information new to the audience? nor will it provide the financial
Is it likely that knowing this resources necessary to increase
information will produce the desired access to either. Thus, an education
outcome? To draw from a previous campaign, on its own, would not

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 2: HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND ROAD SAFETY 2-11
 Bus Stop

Shopping Center

FIGURE 2-4: Example of shopping center and bus stop

have been a successful tactic. What behavior is being targeted?

Instead, health officials needed a
Crossing Elm Street midblock.
more comprehensive approach.
What are the other factors influencing
The same considerations can be
this behavior?
applied to road safety problems.
Consider the following example: JJ Convenience – Crossing mid-
block provides a more direct
Your city manager notices an
route to the bus stop. People
increase in pedestrian crashes
coming from the shopping center
following the placement of a new
are likely carrying shopping
bus stop on Elm Street, a busy
bags, which could be difficult to
multi-lane road without a median.
carry long distances.
The bus stop is located in the middle
of the block across from a large JJ Previous experience – It is likely
shopping center (Figure 2-4). The that people have successfully
nearby intersections on either side crossed similar streets (or even
are signalized and have street lights, the same street) in this manner
crosswalks and pedestrian signals. many other times, so their
The intersection and crosswalks limited previous experience
meet all applicable design standards suggests this is a safe option. (we
and are therefore nominally safe. say limited experience because
Although city engineers intended people not likely to be aware of
that people would cross the street the location’s crash history).
at the intersections, observations
JJ Time pressure – Buses run on a
show that many people are crossing
schedule, and people may want
mid-block from the shopping
to cross as quickly as possible to
center to the bus stop, resulting in
be sure they catch the next bus.
frequent conflicts with vehicles. The
city wants to improve safety in this Is an educational or awareness
area and has decided to undertake a raising campaign targeting this
media campaign encouraging people behavior likely to be effective? No.
to cross only at crosswalks. In all likelihood, people who are

2-12 UNIT 2: HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND ROAD SAFETY ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS
crossing the street in this spot know can’t change the person, change the
there are crosswalks at the nearby world so that the person will follow.
intersections. They are crossing the
We know that people are crossing
street here because it is easier and
Elm Street mid-block because it is
more convenient, and their previous
quicker, easier and more convenient
experiences tell them they will be
than using the crosswalks at the
successful. Additional information
is unlikely to alter these factors; nearby intersections. Information or
therefore an informational or awareness campaigns are unlikely
awareness-raising campaign alone to influence this behavior because
will not be effective. However, that the behavior is not due to a lack of
does not mean that all hope is lost. awareness or information. Instead,
Improving the safety of pedestrians we need to change the environment
crossing Elm Street is still possible so that the pedestrians are no longer
with the right approach. crossing somewhere other than a
marked crosswalk.
Changing the environment Possible changes to the environment
A preferred alternative to education include building a wall or putting
is changing the environment. up a fence to deter people from
We know that people act based crossing at the mid-block, or
on information gleaned from the building a pedestrian bridge to keep
world around them, and that most people out of the flow of traffic.
of our behavior is unconscious and These solutions might be cost
driven by the intuitive system. By prohibitive, and research shows that 14
changing the environment, people most pedestrians will still cross a
Moore, R.L., Older,
can be moved towards the behavior street at ground level even when a S.J., Pedestrians
of interest. In other words – if you pedestrian bridge is available.14,15 and Motors are
Compatible in
Today’s World.
Traffic Engineering,
Institute of
Transportation
Engineers,
Washington, DC,
September, 1965.

15
Rasanen, M,
T. Lajunen, F.
Alticafarbay, and C.
Aydin, Pedestrian
Self Reports of
Factors Influencing
the Use of Pedestrian
Bridges, Accident
Analysis and
Prevention, 39, pp.
969-973, 2007.

FIGURE 2-5: Pedestrian hybrid beacon (Source: pedbikeimages.org/Mike Cynecki)

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 2: HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND ROAD SAFETY 2-13
 Another approach would be to move
the bus stop closer to the existing
crosswalks, assuming people will
choose to cross at the crosswalk
since it is now more convenient.
Finally, another alternative would
be to install a marked crosswalk
with a pedestrian hybrid beacon
close to the area where people
are crossing (Figure 2-5). This
solution recognizes the factors
influencing people’s behavior and
provides an alternative that would Seat belt usage in
improve safety and be acceptable to the United States
pedestrians.
Seat belt use in the United States has
16
We know that people respond a remarkably similar, though opposite
Tison, J. & Williams, in predictable ways to their trajectory to that of Guinea worm
A.F. (2012). environments — far more than to disease. Though seatbelts were required
Analyzing the First in U.S. vehicles starting in the late
Years of the Click It or internal conditions like attitudes
1960s, use of this equipment was low.
Ticket Mobilizations and personality. Environment can Observational surveys from the early to
(DOT HS 811 232).
Washington, D.C.:
include both the physical (built) mid-1980s found use of 5-14 percent.16
National Highway environment and things like By 2015, however, observed seatbelt use
Traffic Safety
policies, laws and social norms. had climbed to 88.5 percent.17
Administration.
Let’s revisit the speeding example As with Guinea worm disease, no single
from earlier in the unit (Figure 2-1). effort was responsible for increasing seat
Although the posted speed limit belt use in the United States. Instead,
17 efforts that focused on changing the
is 35 mph, in reality many people
Pickrell, T. M., & Li, drive much faster than that. What environment (e.g., enactment of seat belt
R. (2016, February). and child passenger safety laws) were
might we do to get drivers to slow
Seat Belt Use in coupled with high visibility enforcement
2015—OverallResults down on this road? One option is (e.g., Click-it-or-Ticket). Education played
(Traffic Safety to post additional speed limit signs a role in these efforts, but not in raising
Facts Research
Note. Report No. or run local PSAs about the dangers awareness for the dangers of not wearing
DOT HS 812 243). of speeding. However, consider seat belts. Rather, education was needed
Washington, DC:
whether informational signs would to inform people that belt use is required
National Highway and, especially, to create the perception
Traffic Safety result in lower speeds. Are drivers among the driving public that police
Administration. speeding because they are not aware were actively enforcing seat belt laws.
of the speed limit? Are drivers
unaware of the potential dangers of
high speeds? The answer to both of road users respond. In the previous
speeding example, the overall
these questions is “not likely.”
design of the road has already been
One example of environmental established, but the lanes could be
change to reduce driver speed is the narrowed or even reduced to one
use of traffic calming measures. in each direction to communicate,
Features such as speed humps and “This is a road where you should
mini roundabouts are examples of drive slower.” Traffic calming
physical alterations to the driving addresses the intuitive system in that
environment that influence how it results in drivers slowing down

2-14 UNIT 2: HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND ROAD SAFETY ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS
without being aware of doing so.18 and the many factors that influence
18
behavior is crucial to solving
Consider behavior in safety problems. Lewis-Evans, B.
& Charlton, S.G.
addressing travel safety (2006), Explicit and
People generally don’t simply implicit processes
Making strides in road safety is do what they are told to do. in behavioural
adaptation to
possible. However, as with the
Information and awareness-raising road width.
near eradication of Guinea worm Accident Analysis
disease, significant achievements campaigns are often the first tools & Prevention, 38,
used in efforts to influence behavior. 610-617.
will not happen overnight. When
implementing a program or However, these approaches are
intervention aimed at changing too often adopted without careful
behavior, it is important to consideration of whether the
remember that any road safety issue behavior is likely to be changed
is likely the result of a combination merely with information (which the
of factors. Consequently, it is public often already has).
unlikely that any one program or
The environment heavily influences
intervention will completely solve
the problem. However, combining human behaviors. We are constantly
behavioral science principles with processing information and
engineering design can help to adjusting our behaviors accordingly.
produce significant advances. Most of this behavior is unconscious
See Unit 4 for a discussion of and driven by the intuitive system.
how to identify and address
Changing behavior requires
road safety problems.
an understanding of all
Conclusion influencing factors.

In short, human behavior Before attempting to influence

is extraordinarily complex. behavior, it is essential to identify
Consequently, it is difficult to and understand the important
influence. Simple, common sense factors influencing a behavior.
approaches like merely raising Targeting a behavior without a full
awareness or otherwise providing understanding of these factors will
information about an issue virtually almost certainly be unsuccessful.
never succeed.
Because so much of what we do is
Humans are not exclusively intuitive and heavily influenced by
logical, rational beings. our environment, we sometimes
respond to the transportation
We often assume human behavior is
controlled by a logical deliberative infrastructure in ways not
process when, in fact, most anticipated by the engineers who
behaviors are a result of an intuitive designed it. By changing the 19
process. Many factors influence environment, people can be nudged
Thaler, R.H., and
behavior including education, towards the behavior of interest.19 Sunstein, C.R.
emotions, cultural norms, In other words, if you can’t change Nudge: Improving
Decisions About
religious beliefs, social pressures, the person (and you usually can’t!),
Health, Wealth, and
convenience, habits and finances. change the world so that the person Happiness.
Understanding human behavior will follow.

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 2: HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND ROAD SAFETY 2-15
 Bus stop with crossing pedestrians in Portland, Ore. (Source: pedbikeimages.org/Laura Sandt)

The transportation system is infrastructure) and the user when

designed, built, maintained, governed trying to understand behavior
and used by humans. and develop solutions to safety
problems.
Using the term human factors
to refer exclusively to the In sum, significant advances in road
user perspective (i.e., drivers, safety are possible, but changes
pedestrians, etc.) can easily convey will not happen overnight. Human
an oversimplified notion of the role behavior is not easy to change.
of humans in the transportation With thoughtful, comprehensive
system. From design to use, humans approaches that take into account
play a role in every step of the an understanding of human
transportation system. In that sense, behavior and the environment
the entire transportation system in which people live, we can
is a product of human factors. For develop programs, policies and
that reason, safety professionals countermeasures that have a better
must consider both the role of the chance of significantly improving
environment (e.g., transportation road safety.

EXERCISES

JJ CREATE a causal diagram to model the JJ Using the causal diagrams from
behavior(s) and environmental factor(s) exercise 1, IDENTIFY the weak links
that contribute to the following. in the causal chain and describe an
intervention aimed at changing the
JJ The flu
target behavior(s).
JJ Unhelmeted motorcyclist fatalities

2-16 UNIT 2: HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND ROAD SAFETY ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 2: HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND ROAD SAFETY 2-17
UNIT 3
Measuring
Safety
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading the chapters and completing JJ UNDERSTAND the challenges

exercises in Unit 3, the reader will be able to: and accuracy of data

JJ DESCRIBE why measuring safety JJ SELECT data for different

is important road safety objectives

JJ IDENTIFY the different types

of available data

3-b UNIT 3: MEASURING SAFETY ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

 CHAPTER 7 MEASURING SAFETY

Importance of Safety Data

Good quality safety data are the core Devices (MUTCD) and A Policy on
of any successful effort to improve Geometric Design of Highway and
road safety. Local, State, and Federal Streets, also known as the Green
agencies use crash data as well as Book1,2. However, most of these
1
roadway, vehicle, driver history, standards are engineering based
emergency response, hospital, and (i.e., nominal safety as discussed Manual on Uniform
Traffic Control
enforcement data to improve road in Unit 1), and were not necessarily
Devices (MUTCD),
safety. All of these data sources can based on an evaluation of actual Federal Highway
be used, in isolation or jointly, to road safety performance. Presently, Administration,
2009.
produce projects, programs, and transportation professionals use
guide policies that reduce injuries safety data (such as crash data,
and save lives. These types of data road characteristics, and traffic
2
are collectively categorized as safety volume) to evaluate road safety
data in this book. performance and inform their A Policy on
Geometric Design
decisions. This substantive approach of Highways and
Safety professionals in many
challenges professionals to quantify Streets, American
disciplines – highway design, Associations of
the expected consequences and State Highway
transportation planning,
outcomes of safety strategies in real Transportation
operations, road maintenance, Officials, 6th
measurements, such as the expected
law enforcement, education, edition, 2011.
number of crashes, injuries,
emergency response services, and fatalities.
policy makers, infrastructure
program management, road safety The selection of road safety
management, and public health – measures and treatments can
use safety data to identify problem benefit from an understanding of
areas, select countermeasures, and the intricacies and limitations of
monitor countermeasure impact. safety data. This unit presents many
kinds of safety data, explores the
Road safety management and current process used to collect data,
project development has become and discusses the impact that these
increasingly data-driven and processes have on data quality (i.e.,
evidence-based. This approach accuracy and reliability). The unit
to road safety emphasizes safety also discusses ways to improve data
performance (i.e., number of quality and analysis.
crashes), rather than solely adhering
to engineering standards, personal Relating Nominal and
experience, beliefs, and intuition.
Substantive Safety to Data
For example, in the past, road
improvements were considered The concepts of nominal and
“safe” if the improvements met substantive safety were first
the standards contained in the introduced in Unit 1 of this textbook.
Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Nominal safety refers to whether

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 3: MEASURING SAFETY 3-1

 or not a design (or design element) Use of Safety Data in Road
meets minimum design criteria Safety Management
based on national or State standards
and guidance documents, such as Data are integral to safety decision
the AASHTO Green Book or the making, both in prioritizing
MUTCD. Substantive safety refers to investments and in identifying
the actual safety performance, such analyzing the most effective
as expected number of collisions by techniques and interventions.
type and severity on a road. The more comprehensive and
accurate the data, the better the
The contrast of these concepts is resulting decisions. Understanding
directly linked to this discussion of contributing factors to crashes and
safety data. To determine if a road how best to implement potential
is nominally safe we do not need countermeasures is complex, and
safety data; we only need to know if it may involve a variety of agencies
all design standards were followed. and historical data challenges.
However, we need high quality Because of this complexity, both
safety data and data analysis to accurate data and high quality data
determine if a road is substantively analysis is necessary for road safety
safe. Typically, the analysis includes management. A great database is
estimating the expected number of only as useful as the analysis and
crashes and comparing it against the application of that data. Table 3-1
road’s actual safety performance. explores the relationship between
More information on safety analysis data quality and data analysis quality
is presented in Unit 4, Solving Safety and shows why agencies should
Problems. strive to improve both of these areas.

3-2 UNIT 3: MEASURING SAFETY ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

 HIGH QUALITY ANALYSIS LOW QUALITY ANALYSIS

BEST CASE MISSED OPPORTUNITY

The agency is likely to reach the best The agency needs to invest in high
HIGH QUALITY

safety decisions. Analysts are aware quality analysis. Otherwise, the agency
of data capabilities and limitations. has wasted money in databases
This is the most expensive to achieve, that are not being utilized to their
due to the need for good data and potential. Good data with poor
DATA

training on how to conduct analyses. analysis will lead to poor decisions.

PROMISING WORST CASE

LOW QUALITY

A robust analysis that recognizes Poor data and poor analysis will lead
the limitations of the data can to bad decisions. The agency may be
still produce useful results. better off relying on judgment.
The agency should focus on
DATA

improving data quality.

TABLE 3-1: Data and Analysis Quality Comparison

Crash data analysis using how specific planning guidance,

quantifiable metrics and design proposals, or engineering
scientifically defensible methods can countermeasures can save lives.
help decision makers improve road
safety by reducing more injuries and Safety professionals could seek to
saving more lives at a lower cost. improve safety by relying merely on
Accurate crash data help determine their gut judgment. The results of
crash and severity trends, such as such an approach, however, would
increases or decreases in certain be quite unreliable. As shown in
types of crashes. Data also help Table 3-1, safety professionals can
safety professionals pinpoint high improve their decision making
crash locations and identify high- process by using high quality data
risk users, such as younger drivers, together with robust analysis
older drivers, impaired drivers, processes. This unit will focus on
and motorcyclists. Examining the data itself. The use of the data in
the characteristics of crashes safety management is presented and
allows road safety professionals to discussed in Unit 4.
identify contributing crash factors
related to roadway environment, Good quality safety data and
design, or behavioral adaptations. analysis are the keys to identifying
This type of analysis will lead real safety issues on roads and
to a more effective selection of evaluating the best methods for
countermeasures that will reduce improving safety. The following
future crash occurrences or crash chapters provide an overview of
severity. Planners and engineers can different types of safety data and of
use crash data to show quantitative ways in which agencies can improve
information to decision makers on the quality of their data.

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 3: MEASURING SAFETY 3-3

 CHAPTER 8 MEASURING SAFETY

Types of Safety Data

As highway safety analysis
methods continue to evolve, it Chicago’s Use of Injury Data
is equally important to focus on to Benchmark Safety Goals
quality data to conduct these safety and Progress
analyses. Transportation agencies Chicago DOT completed a
can and should incorporate road comprehensive pedestrian crash
characteristics, traffic volume, and analysis in 2011 to inform the citywide
Chicago Pedestrian Plan. This analysis
enforcement and citation data,
evaluated various crash types,
and other information into their contributing environmental factors, and
safety analysis processes. This will different age groups using the Illinois
enable them to better identify safety Department of Transportation crash
problems and prescribe solutions data files. The findings present crash
that improve safety and make more density citywide, by ward, and around
schools. The data also highlighted
efficient use of safety funds. key crash conditions and served as a
benchmark for measuring the City of
Single sources of safety data also
Chicago’s road safety goals.
do not give a complete picture
of the safety risks on our roads. Reference: City of Chicago 2011 Pedestrian
For example, using crash data by Crash Analysis, Summary Report,
Chicago Department of Transportation,
itself leaves safety practitioners
Accessed September 2016 at https://www.
with purely reactive approaches— cityofchicago.org/city/en/depts/cdot/supp_
identifying locations where info/2011_pedestrian_crashanalysis.html
crashes have already happened.
By combining crash data with
other types of data, more details or geospatial position. These data
begin to emerge. For example, by should also have the ability to be
combining crash data and detailed linked to the State’s other road
road inventory information, safety safety databases, including citation
practitioners can develop a more data or injury surveillance systems.
in-depth understanding of the road Additionally, commercial motor
attributes that contribute to crash vehicle data could also be linked
Roadway
risk. This will allow them to adopt based upon common data elements
elements
a proactive approach, seeking out involved in crashes and inspections.
Physical those factors associated with a high
features of the Not all types of safety data are
risk of crashes and addressing sites
road such as available or used by all practitioners.
that share those “elements” before a
travel lanes, Safety data exist in distinct
shoulder width, crash occurs.
databases that are maintained by
pavement
condition,
Crash, roadway, and traffic data different agencies and often are
and roadside should be integrated or combined accessible only to those agencies.
characteristics using common or “linking” One role for safety professionals is
reference systems, such as mileposts to bring together safety databases

3-4 UNIT 3: MEASURING SAFETY ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

and analyze them using logical and of time it often takes for crashes to
statistically robust processes. be entered into a database. Crash
data is also the primary measure
Safety data can be categorized into
of effectiveness for safety efforts,
two groups based on criteria of core
since the goal is to decrease crash
data needs for safety evaluations,
occurrences and lower the severity of
data availability, accuracy, and
crashes that do occur. Crash records
usefulness to safety practitioners
typically provide details on events
and researchers. Some safety data
leading to the crash, vehicles, and
are used often and are critical to
people involved in crashes, as well as
safety analysis for many agencies.
the consequences of crashes, such as
Other safety data are used less
fatalities, injuries, property damage,
often but can be supplemental to
and citations.
specific safety analyses. This chapter
provides general information on Data collection process
safety data in these two groups:
Crash data collection begins when a
Critical data State highway patrol trooper or local
police officer arrives at the crash
JJ Crashes
scene. The officer completes a crash
JJ Traffic volume
report, documenting the specifics
JJ Road characteristics of the crash. While the specifics
Supplemental data and level of detail of the crash data
vary from State to State, in general,
JJ Conflicts and the most basic crash data consist of
avoidance maneuvers where and when the crash occurred,
JJ Injury surveillance and what type of crash it was, and who
emergency medical systems was involved. The specific data
JJ Driver history collected on crashes is determined
JJ Vehicle registrations by State agencies, local government
JJ Citations and enforcement agencies, and often a coalition of law
enforcement agencies. The exact data
JJ Naturalistic
fields and coding differ from State to
JJ Driving simulator
State. The level of detail in a crash
JJ Public opinion
report may also differ by the severity
JJ Behavioral observation of a crash. For instance, in some
States property damage only crashes
Crash Data (PDO) are self-reported and, thus,
Description often have less information than
injury crashes, which are reported by
Crash data is the most widely used
law enforcement officers.
type of safety data, and it is essential
in road safety analysis. Crashes States also differ in the threshold
are currently viewed as the most of what is required for a crash to be
objective and reliable measurements reported. Reporting of crashes can
of road safety. However, there vary by threshold requirements, such
are challenges with crash data, as “only injury crashes” or “PDO
such as human error in reporting, crashes over an estimated $2,000
unreported crashes, and the length in damage.” These thresholds are

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 3: MEASURING SAFETY 3-5

 B
Crash date and time: The date (year,
month, and day) and time (00:00-23:59)
when the crash occurred.
A
I Case identifier: The unique identifier
Roadway within a given year that identifies a
C
surface Crash county: The county or equivalent specific crash within a State.
conditions: The entity where the crash physically occurred.
roadway surface
condition at the
time and place
of a crash. A

B,C
J
Contributing I,J
circumstances, D,E,F,G,H
road: Apparent
condition of the
road that may
have contributed D
to the crash. Crash classification: Used to identify
K,L,M Driver ownership of the land where the crash
information occurred and identify the characteristics of
the crash with respect to its location on or
K
Weather off a trafficway.
conditions:
The prevailing
E
atmospheric Crash city/place: City/place (political
conditions that jurisdiction) in which the crash occurred.
existed at the
time of the Vehicle
crash. information
F
Type of intersection: An intersection
consists of two or more roadways that
intersect at the same level.
L
Contributing
circumstances,
environment: G
Relation to junction: The coding of
Apparent
this data element is based on the location
environmental
of the first harmful event of the crash. It
conditions
identifies the crash’s location with respect
which may have
to presence in a junction or proximity to
contributed to
components typically associated with
the crash.
junction or interchange areas.

M H
Light Crash location: The exact location on
conditions: the road where the first harmful event
The type/level of of the crash occurred. It is best if this
light that existed information includes a geolocation based
at the time of on a Geographic Information System
the motor (GIS) or Linear Referencing System (LRS)
vehicle crash. location coordinates.

3-6 UNIT 3: MEASURING SAFETY ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

N O R
Manner of crash/collision impact: The First harmful event: The first injury or Work zone-
identification of the manner in which two damage-producing event that related: A crash
motor vehicles in transport initially came characterizes the crash type. that occurs in
together without regard to the direction or related to a
of force. This data element refers only construction,
to crashes where the first harmful event P maintenance, or
Location of first harmful event relative
involves a collision between two motor utility work zone,
to the trafficway: The location of the first
vehicles in transport. whether or not
harmful event as it relates to its position
workers were
within or outside the trafficway.
actually present
at the time of
the crash. Work
zone-related
R crashes may also
include those
involving motor
vehicles slowed
N,O,P or stopped
Q because of
the work zone,
even if the first
harmful event
occurred before
the first
Q warning sign.
School bus-related: Indicates whether
a school bus or motor vehicle functioning
as a school bus for a school-related
purpose is involved in the crash. The
Crash sketch/ school bus, with or without a passenger
diagram on board, must be directly involved as
a contact motor vehicle or indirectly
involved as a non-contact motor vehicle
(children struck when boarding or
alighting from the school bus, two vehicles
colliding as the result of the stopped
school bus, etc.).

Crash
narrative

S
Source of
information:
Affiliation of
the person
completing the
crash report.
S

FIGURE 3-1 (above, left): Data elements on a crash report form. (Source: North Carolina DOT)

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 3: MEASURING SAFETY 3-7

 unrelated to the number of crashes National Highway Traffic Safety
that are actually occurring on a road, Administration’s (NHTSA’s) Fatality
but the reported numbers could look Analysis Reporting Systems (FARS).
quite different. Changes to the crash
The time between the crash
reporting thresholds can happen
occurrence and the availability
abruptly and may significantly affect
of the crash data from the State
the crash data. Consider how the
crash database varies and typically
safety of a road, based on reported
depends on the type of crash
crashes, would appear in the years
reporting system and the State
before and after a crash reporting
and local government capabilities.
threshold change from $1,000 to
This time period between crash
$4,000. You would expect to see
occurrence and the report’s
fewer reported crashes after the
availability for analysis defines the
change, since crashes with damage
timeliness of the crash data. While
below $4,000 would no longer be
some agencies can provide complete
reported, even though there may
data with a very short turnaround
be no real change in the number of
(i.e., less than a month), others take
crashes occurring.
significantly longer (i.e., up to two
After the crash investigation is years) due to backlogs and personnel
completed by the officer for the shortages. Agencies who have the
investigating agency, it usually majority of their crashes reported
undergoes an internal quality review. electronically from law enforcement
Passing the internal review, the typically have shorter turnarounds
crash report is sent to the State crash on the crash data.
database. In some cases, the data is
Common data elements
transmitted electronically, while in
other cases the State agency receives Common data elements for crash
a paper copy of the crash report. data include information on date,
location, injury severity, types of
The agency that maintains crash
vehicles, and characteristics of
data for the State may be the State
persons involved. Crash narratives
department of transportation
and diagrams are typically found in
(DOT), the department of motor
the original crash reports, though
vehicles (DMV), or a State law
generally not in the crash database.
enforcement agency. This agency
Narratives and diagrams are most
will in turn make the data available
useful when the safety professional
to various other agencies. Federal,
desires to know the exact location
State, and local governments, as
of the crash, such as the particular
well as metropolitan planning
approach of an intersection.
organizations, advocacy groups, auto
and insurance industries, and private NHTSA developed the Model
consultants request crash data to Minimum Uniform Crash Criteria
conduct various transportation (MMUCC) in 1998 as a model set
planning activities and analysis. of data elements that should
The agency maintaining the be collected to enable safety
data may provide raw or filtered professionals to conduct data-driven
datasets to local agencies and to analyses. States are encouraged
national databases, such as the to adopt MMUCC standards,

3-8 UNIT 3: MEASURING SAFETY ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

though they are not required to data. For example, by combining
match these recommendations. road characteristics with crash
MMUCC, currently in its fourth data, safety professionals are able
edition, recommends the crash data to identify road elements that may
elements listed below. Chapter 9 lead to higher frequency or injury
presents further information on severity of crashes, and therefore
MMUCC on page 3-30. develop a systemic approach to
reduce that crash risk at many of
Data sources and custodians
the locations that have those risk
Crash details may be available from elements. Using traffic volume,
different sources or systems. State agencies can calculate crash rates
agencies and institutions typically (e.g., crashes per road vehicle) to
maintain the State crash database. better identify locations requiring
These include State departments safety improvements.
of transportation, departments of
motor vehicles, departments of
Caution on the use of crash rates
public safety, or in some cases, State
universities under contract to a Crash rate calculation (crashes per
specific department. Local agencies, amount of traffic) is a simplistic
measure that may be useful when
such as cities or metropolitan
comparing sites with similar
planning organizations, may also characteristics and traffic volumes.
maintain their own crash databases However, the relationship between
within local record management crashes and volume is not linear and
systems. These local systems can therefore lead to wrong conclusions
are most frequently housed by if that assumption is made when
considering volume increases on a road
the local police, public works, or
or comparing roads of different types.
transportation departments. Unit 4 discusses how an analyst can use
safety performance functions to avoid
Transportation safety applications
this error.
Crash data serve as the primary
observable measure of safety Data challenges and gaps
(or lack thereof) on the road.
Transportation professionals can use Some of the most common issues
crash data to analyze a single crash, found in crash reporting include
a specific site, an entire corridor, incomplete data (for example a
or a large area, such as in regional driver’s blood alcohol content is
or Statewide planning. Crash data often missing), delays in entering
can be used to provide guidance to the data into databases, inaccurate
transportation decision makers and crash locations, and wrongly
to guide the formation of safety assigned fault and wrong choice of
legislation. crash type. Some of these issues can
be fixed by training police officers
Coordination or integration with
and those who enter the data into
other data sets
the database, as well as by using
In transportation departments, technology checks in data collection.
other data elements frequently used Agencies should periodically conduct
along with crash data include road independent quality checks on the
characteristics and traffic volume accuracy and reliability of their data.

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 3: MEASURING SAFETY 3-9

 Challenges with the Use of Crash Data to Systemically Identify High Risk Locations
The Oregon DOT identified pedestrian and of road information (e.g., bicyclist and
bicycle crashes as one of its primary focus pedestrian volumes, the presence of
areas for infrastructure funding. While crosswalks, turn lanes, driveway activity,
pedestrians and bicyclists account for more and sight distances). While the lack of
than 15% of all traffic fatalities statewide, these data does not preclude such an
the locations of serious injuries and analysis, it does reduce the certainty of the
fatalities appear to be random. Therefore, findings. An additional benefit from this
in 2013, ODOT set out to develop a effort is that it has helped ODOT identify
program that focuses the limited available current data deficiencies which ODOT is
funding for infrastructure countermeasures currently working to fix.
on locations with the greatest crash
potential. In order to identify these higher- Reference: Pedestrian and Bicycle Safety
risk locations, ODOT is working to discover Implementation Plan, Oregon Department
behavioral patterns and road conditions of Transportation, February 2014. Accessed
that lead to pedestrian and bicycle crashes. September 2016 at https://www.oregon.gov/
While a promising approach, this analysis ODOT/HWY/TRAFFIC-ROADWAY/docs/
is constrained by the limited availability pdf/13452_report_final_partsA+B.pdf

Traffic Volume Data AADT is the average number of

vehicles passing through a segment
Description from both directions of the mainline
Traffic volume data indicates how route for all days of a specified
many road users travel on a road or year. As AADT requires continuous
through an intersection. The most year-round counting, these data
prevalent type of volume data is are often unavailable for many road
segments. In these cases, ADT is
a count of daily use by motorized
used to estimate AADT by using
vehicle traffic. This type of traffic
shorter duration counts of that road
volume data can be measured
and then adjusting those volumes
in many ways depending on the
by daily and seasonal factors. Other
intended use. Volume measurements
data used for crash analysis include
include:
turning movement counts and
JJ Annual average TEV at intersections and VMT on a
daily traffic (AADT) road segment, which is a measure
JJ Average daily traffic (ADT) of segment length and traffic
volume. VMT are useful for highway
JJ Total entering vehicles (TEV)
planning and management, and a
for intersections
common measure of road use. Along
JJ Turning movement counts with other data, VMT is often used
JJ Vehicle miles traveled (VMT) to estimate congestion, air quality,
JJ Pedestrian counts and expected gas tax revenues, and
JJ Bicyclist counts can serve as a proxy for the level of
JJ Percentage of traffic for specific
a region’s economic activity. Volume
data is also occasionally collected
vehicle types (e.g., heavy trucks
for bicyclists and pedestrians at road
or motorcycles)
segments and crossing locations.

3-10 UNIT 3: MEASURING SAFETY ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

Data collection process
What’s the difference between
Volume data can be collected ADT and AADT?
automatically or manually. Vehicle
volume data is typically collected Short term traffic counts are typically
collected at a location for a 12-, 18-, or
using automated counters,
24-hour period. Average Daily Traffic
such as magnetic induction (ADT) is the count of traffic calculated
loops, pneumatic tube counters, to reflect the 24-hour (daily) volume
microwave, radar, or video detection. of the date it was collected. The
These automated counters can also Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT) is
be configured to classify vehicles calculated for an entire year from the
and produce counts by vehicle ADT by adjusting that simple average
traffic volume to take into account the
type (e.g., trucks, single passenger
different travel patterns that occur
vehicles, etc.). For shorter durations during short duration count periods. For
or occasional counts, transportation example, a summer traffic count taken
agencies use manual traffic counts in a beach vacation town would need
performed by observers, either in to be adjusted downward to reflect the
the field or through video cameras. average traffic volume for the year, since
Manual counting is also used often traffic would be much higher in
the summertime.
for bicyclist or pedestrian counts,
although there are a number of
additional technologies, such as best practices and provides guidance
infrared beams, that can be used to highway agencies in traffic
to collect non-motorized volume volume data collection, analysis,
data. These manual counts can range and reporting3. The TMG presents
in length from one-hour counts recommendations to improve
to full-day counts, depending on and advance current programs 3
the agency’s needs and practices. with a view towards the future of Traffic Monitoring
Fitness tracking apps may also traffic monitoring. Traffic data is Guide, Federal
provide additional information used to assess current and past Highway
to jurisdictions regarding where Administration,
performance and to predict future Office of Highway
bicyclist and pedestrian activity is performance. Some States are Policy Information,
occurring. Some care is needed when utilizing traffic data from intelligent September 2013.
using these data due to the self- transportation systems (ITS) to
selection bias present from users support coordination of planning
having to opt-in to the tracking and operations functions at the
and only using for specific types of Federal and State levels.
activities (e.g., fitness cycling rather
than commuting). Common data elements
Each State has its own traffic data Volume data must include the
collection needs, priorities, budget, counted volume, location, date, and
and geographic and organizational duration of the count. Depending
constraints. These differences on the method used, the volume
cause agencies to select different data may also contain information
equipment for data collection, use on vehicle classification, speed,
different data collection plans, or weight; lane position; weather;
and emphasize different data and directional factors. From these
reporting outputs. The FHWA Traffic data, transportation professionals
Monitoring Guide (TMG) highlights can calculate the average number of

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 3: MEASURING SAFETY 3-11

 vehicles that traveled each segment of estimates of total distance traveled.
road and daily vehicle miles traveled Annual traffic volumes are also
for specific groups of facilities, essential in network screening,
vehicle types, and vehicle speeds. diagnosis, and the selection of
countermeasures (see further
Data sources and custodians
presentation of these processes in
State highway agencies collect Unit 4). When selecting appropriate
and maintain traffic volume data crash modification factors (CMFs)
for State-controlled roads. These to estimate the benefit of potential
data are shared with the U.S. countermeasures, a safety
Department of Transportation in practitioner must use traffic volumes
order to monitor road usage and to confirm that the CMFs are suitable
safety trends. Local jurisdictions for the site in consideration.
also collect and maintain traffic
Coordination or integration with
volume data; the scope, consistency,
other data sets
and quality of these data varies by
jurisdiction. Other data elements frequently
used with traffic volume data
Transportation safety applications
in safety applications include
Agencies use volume data to support road characteristic inventories
activities in design, maintenance, and crash data. For example, an
operations, safety, environmental agency that uses traffic volume and
analysis, finance, engineering, crashes together can identify sites
economics, and performance with highest potential for safety
management. For instance, total improvements and target specific
traffic volume estimates or forecasts crash types. This allows them to
on a section of road are used to better identify and prioritize locations
generate State and nationwide for safety improvements.

Spatial Data and Road Safety

Many of the types of data presented in this
chapter can be stored in a spatial format
and displayed in a GIS. GIS is a particularly
powerful tool designed to store,
manipulate, analyze, and visualize data
that is linked to a location. This makes it
valuable to highway safety practitioners
who can use a common referencing system
for much of their highway data and link it
together in GIS. For example, a single GIS
database can contain road attributes, such
as number of lanes, pavement condition, This GIS map displays signalized
and lighting; crash information; and intersections as squares and crashes
traffic volumes. This information can then as dots and allows the analyst to easily
be used to analyze crash hotspots and identify crashes occurring within 150 feet
trends, such as multi-vehicle crashes in the of a signalized intersection (denoted by
vicinity of signalized intersections. circular areas around each intersection).

3-12 UNIT 3: MEASURING SAFETY ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

Data challenges and gaps
One of the biggest challenges in
collecting accurate volume data is
implementing a quality assurance
process to ensure that counts are
accurately recorded. Traffic volume
for most roads is also based on
sampling, which leads to estimates
of volume on much of the road. As
technology continues to develop and
become more prevalent on our roads
and in our vehicles, the accuracy will
improve considerably. Additionally,
pedestrian and bicyclist counts are
more susceptible to higher variability FIGURE 3-2: This image from the FHWA
due to their lower volumes; Model Inventory of Roadway Elements
thus, longer count durations and (v. 1.0) illustrates roadway elements.
additional locations are required for
accurate data applications. Ranging (LIDAR) technology. Some
States find it more cost effective to
Road Characteristics Data purchase these data from third party
Description providers.

Road characteristics data is also Common data elements

referred to as road inventory data. Transportation agencies typically
The most basic road characteristics collect those road characteristics
data typically includes road name or that they need or can be collected
route number, road classification, based on the available funds. Road
location coordinates, number of characteristics are collected for many
lanes, lane width, shoulder width, different purposes, such as road
and median type. Intersection
maintenance and improvement
characteristics typically include
projects. Given that States have
road names, area type, location
different priorities and funding
coordinates, traffic control, and
structures, the elements of road
lane configurations. The collection
characteristics data is not the
of these data elements supports
same from State to State or among
an enhanced safety analysis and
local agencies.
investment decision making when
combined with other datasets, such To provide guidance on road
as crash information. characteristics that are the most
needed for safety analysis, the FHWA
Data collection process
developed the Model Inventory of
Road characteristics data can be Roadway Elements (MIRE). MIRE
collected through several methods provides a recommended (but not
including photo or video logs, field required) list of road characteristics
surveys, aerial surveys, integrated elements specifically for safety
GIS and global positioning systems analysis. The elements are divided
(GPS) mapping, and vehicle- into the categories shown in Table
mounted Light Detection and 3-2. Chapter 9 presents further

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 3: MEASURING SAFETY 3-13

 information on MIRE on page 3-32. crossings as part of the Federal
Railroad Administration’s Railroad
Data sources and custodians
Grade Crossing Inventory. These
Road characteristics data are databases usually can be linked to
collected at both the local and the Statewide road inventory.
Statewide levels. At the local level,
Transportation safety applications
having data on details, such as
traffic control devices, sidewalks, or Road safety professionals can
the number of travel lanes, can be use road characteristics data to
beneficial for safety evaluations and access data about the physical
safety project prioritization. These characteristics of crash sites
data are maintained by the city or by or other priority sites. Road
a higher level agency such as a MPO. characteristics data is essential for
network screening, development
State road characteristics data or calibration of crash prediction
include physical road attributes, models, and related applications.
traffic control devices, rail grade These data are also valuable on the
crossings, and structures, such large scale level to estimate where
as bridges and tunnels. Each crashes are expected to occur on the
State highway agency, some system.
local transportation and public
works departments, and regional
Coordination with other data sets
planning agencies collect and Road characteristics data can be
maintain road characteristics data. linked with crash and volume data to
In addition, most States also have improve safety analysis and problem
supplemental inventory data for identification. Combining datasets in
bridges as part of the National this way allows safety professionals
Bridge Inventory and railroad grade to identify areas with a high

CATEGORY EXAMPLES OF MIRE DATA ELEMENTS

Roadway Segment Roadway classification

Paved surface characteristics
Number and type of travel lanes
Shoulder, median, and roadside descriptors
Pedestrian and bicyclist facilities
Traffic volumes

Roadway Alignment Curve and grade information

Roadway Junction Traffic control devices

Intersection features
Interchange and ramp descriptors

TABLE 3-2: Categories of MIRE Elements

3-14 UNIT 3: MEASURING SAFETY ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

 VOLUME DATA

Determine proportional Calculate

issues from specific predicted crashes
vehicle types from safety
performance
Calculate
functions
crash rates
Develop safety
performance
functions for
predicting crashes

Prioritize maintenance
CRASH DATA activities
ROAD DATA
Prioritize systemic
improvements
Determine
risk factors

FIGURE 3-3: Using Safety Data Together

potential for safety improvements consuming and expensive process.

(by means of a network screening Data collection that is done only
process) and identify appropriate for part of a road network results
countermeasures. However, the in gaps in inventories of road
road characteristics data must share features such as the location of
a common reference system with guardrails, shoulder widths, and
the crash and volume data in order rumble strips. Transportation
to link them together. The most agencies are continually looking for
common methods of linking road newer technologies to streamline
data with crash or volume data use the collection of this detailed data.
a linear referencing system, such as Also, it is more common for road
routes and mileposts, or a spatial characteristics data to be fuller
referencing system, where all files and more detailed for State system
share the same coordinate system. roads compared to local roads,
since local agencies typically have
Data challenges and gaps
less funding, fewer staff, and less
Collecting accurate road general prioritization for collecting
characteristics data can be a time- road characteristics data.

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 3: MEASURING SAFETY 3-15

 Observing interactions between road users, like these drivers and crossing pedestrians,
can be a good way to gain supplemental data about safety effects.

Supplemental Safety Data on road safety. These other

measures of safety are referred to
In addition to the critical
as surrogate measures. They occur
transportation safety datasets
more frequently than actual crashes
(crashes, road characteristics, and
and therefore enable agencies to
traffic volume), there are many
identify safety risks more quickly
other datasets that can be used and
and in a proactive manner (i.e.,
combined to conduct additional
before the crash occurs). However,
types of evaluations on the
by their nature of being surrogates,
effectiveness of programs, human
there is potential for inaccuracy in
behaviors and safe decision making,
determining which types of conflicts
and public opinions.
are good indicators of crashes.
Conflicts, Avoidance Maneuvers,
Surrogate safety data is collected
and Other Interactions
by in-field observers or through
Observing conflicts between road recordings that capture the
users, avoidance maneuvers, such as behaviors and interactions of road
swerving or hard braking, and other users. These recordings can be
interactions, such as failures to yield made through stationary cameras or
can provide valuable information dashboard-mounted video cameras.

3-16 UNIT 3: MEASURING SAFETY ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

Increasingly, researchers are using
programs to automatically identify Evaluation of Children Involved
potential events. This eliminates the in Off-Roadway Crashes Using
need to scan visually through the Trauma Center Records
entire video. Many off-roadway crashes are not
reported by law enforcement and
Observing interactions between are thus missed when conducting
road users can provide valuable safety evaluations using police crash
information on the safety effect reports. One group that is particularly
of certain road elements, such affected by this lack of data is young
as signals or signs, and help children injured by passenger vehicles
in driveways and parking lots. This
identify the probability of crashes
lack of information provides safety
under different conditions. If a professionals with little knowledge
reliable relationship between the about crash risk factors and actual
observations and crashes is known, incident rates that could be used
such studies may also provide to allocate resources and promote
insights into the potential for safety safety interventions and good design
and behaviors. A 2010 study (Rice et
issues between road users, such al.) in California used records from
as between vehicle drivers and eight trauma centers to identify the
pedestrians. frequency and characteristics of these
crashes. This study highlighted the
However, one of the biggest inconsistencies with external cause-
challenges for using observations of of-injury codes used by emergency
road user interactions is that they departments, but suggests that there
are surrogate measures of safety. is value to surveillance of off-roadway
pedestrian injuries at trauma centers as
To date, we lack good research
a way of identifying incidents that are
that would quantitatively equate not captured by other data sources.
surrogate measures of safety to
crash data. If such relationships Reference: Rice TM, Trent RB, Bernacki
K, Rice JK, Lovette B, Hoover E, Fennell
were known, safety professionals
J, Aistrich, AZ, Wiltsek D, Corman E,
could conduct evaluations with a Anderson CL, Sherck J. (2012). Trauma
large number of surrogate measures center-based surveillance of nontraffic
in a relatively short period of time. pedestrian injury among California
This contrasts with the need to wait children. Western Journal of Emergency
for years for sufficient crash data to Medicine; 13.2.
support a good analysis.

Injury Surveillance and Emergency

a traffic crash is only one type of
Medical Systems Data
injury in these medical systems,
Injury surveillance systems traffic crash injuries can be a useful
(ISS) typically provide data on source of data in bridging the gap
emergency medical systems (EMS), between traditional traffic safety
hospital emergency departments, and public health issues. Hospital
hospital admissions/discharges, records are also often the only
trauma registry, and long-term source of information on bicycle
rehabilitation. This information and pedestrian crashes that are not
is used to track injury causes, recorded by the police, such as those
severity, costs, and outcomes. that occur in non-roadway locations
Although an injury associated with like parking lots and driveways.

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 3: MEASURING SAFETY 3-17

 Hospitals often use the external demographics. It can also be used
cause of injury classifications to to identify the full magnitude of
code causes of patient injuries, crashes for a specific user group or
including those from traffic crashes. demographic that is not recorded
These data can provide a description or reported by law enforcement.
of injury severity, type of crash (e.g., For example, hospital data can
motor vehicle passenger, bicyclist), help safety professionals better
and, in some cases, the location of understand the number of bicyclist
incident. However, the data is often crashes, since many bicycle-related
incomplete or non-specific. In order crashes are not reported to law
to provide a more comprehensive enforcement.
understanding of motor vehicle
Hospital data are often difficult
crash outcomes, NHTSA developed
to use for those who administer
the Crash Outcome Data Evaluation
roads, primarily the State DOT. The
System (CODES), which links crash,
data is time consuming to acquire
vehicle, and behavior characteristics
and may not contain complete
to their specific medical and
data. Additionally, since there are
financial outcomes. Hospital injury
no personal identifiers relating
data most often includes date, injury
hospital injury data to specific crash
severity, cause, and demographic
records, the linkage is difficult and
information. Personal identifying
is seldom done. For these reasons,
information is not included.
State DOTs rarely use these data; it
Hospital data can be used by is most often employed by public
a variety of governmental and health researchers. However, there
non-governmental agencies to continues to be efforts at both
investigate the causes of injuries. Federal and State levels to develop
Based on this analysis, the agencies better ways to integrate injury
can develop a safety campaign surveillance and emergency medical
to reduce injuries to particular systems data with crash data.

Hospital data
can be used
to investigate
causes of
injuries, and
is often the
only source of
information on
some bicycle
and pedestrian
crashes.

3-18 UNIT 3: MEASURING SAFETY ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

Driver History Data information about registered
vehicles in a State and is also
Departments of Motor Vehicles
typically maintained by the DMV.
(DMVs) maintain driver history data
Vehicle registration systems may
on all licensed drivers in the State.
also contain information regarding
DMVs typically create a driver record
commercial vehicles and carriers
when a person enters the State
registered in a particular State and
licensing system to obtain a driver’s
licensed to travel in other States.
license or when an unlicensed
These data can provide information
driver commits a violation or is
on the vehicle population within a
involved in a crash. State driver
State or county to be used in large
history databases interact with the
scale safety analysis. These data
National Driver Register (NDR)
can also help identify owners in the
and the Commercial Driver License
event of a crash or traffic violation.
Information Systems (CDLIS) to
prevent drivers with a history of at- Typical vehicle registration data may
fault crashes or inordinate number include owner information, license
of citations from obtaining multiple plate number, vehicle make, model,
or subsequent licenses. and year of manufacture, body type,
vehicle identification number, and
The driver history data contain
miles traveled. Common data for
information such as:
commercial vehicles may include
JJ Basic identifiers (e.g., name, U.S. Department of Transportation
address, driver license number) (DOT) number, carrier information,
and inspection or out-of-service
JJ Demographics (e.g., age,
information.
birth date, gender)
Citations and Enforcement
JJ Information relevant to license
and driver improvement actions Citation data refers to data on
(e.g., license issue, expiration individual drivers that records any
and renewal dates, license illegal actions that were cited by a
class, violation dates, law enforcement officer. It includes
suspension periods) traffic violations, such as reckless
driving, driving under the influence,
One challenge with using these data
and not carrying adequate car
is that they are almost never shared
insurance; traffic crashes; driver’s
outside a DMV. State or local DOTs
license suspensions, revocations,
do not have access to these data
and cancellations; and failures to
while developing their HSIPs (or
appear in court. The data can also
conducting location specific safety
include the traffic infractions that
studies). Sharing driver history data
have been adjudicated by the courts.
nationally is limited and could be
improved by creating inter-agency These data are helpful in identifying
data sharing partnerships that and tracking those individuals
address privacy concerns and allow with a higher potential for unsafe
State DOTs to work with the data. driving behaviors. In an attempt to
control crash occurrences, States
Vehicle Registration Data
may monitor high-risk drivers
Vehicle registration data includes by reviewing their driver history

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 3: MEASURING SAFETY 3-19

 records, paying particular attention actual driving trips through
to driver citations. Ideally, States technology placed in the vehicle.
track a citation from the time it is This technology typically includes
issued by a law enforcement officer video camera views of the driver,
through its disposition in a court of speed and vehicle motion sensors,
law. Citation information tracked and location tracking equipment.
and linked to driver history files Data such as video might be
enable States to screen drivers with collected on a continuous basis, or
a history of frequent citations for only after certain events like hard
actions known to increase crash braking. Using data collected by
risk. States have found citation this equipment, researchers are
tracking systems useful in detecting able to gather information on the
repeat traffic offenders prior to underlying causes of crashes by
conviction. It can also be used to observing drivers in a natural driving
track the behavior of particular law situation. Frequently collected
enforcement agencies and the courts data include road environment
with respect to dismissals and plea information, such as weather;
bargains. Many law enforcement driver information, such as eye
agencies use citations as a method movements; and information
of tracking and measuring the on vehicle movement including
effectiveness of enforcement efforts. location on the road, acceleration,
deceleration, and speed.
Some constraints exist with the
use of citation and enforcement Strategic Highway
data to help prevent crashes. Some Research Program 2
States have difficulty in maintaining
The largest naturalistic study in the
accurate citation information
United States to date is the second
because local jurisdictions may Strategic Highway Research Program
collect different data elements (SHRP2), which included over 3,400
from varying citation forms. drivers participating in the study.
Obtaining and managing judicial SHRP2 data includes over 5,400,000
individual trips and over 36,000 crash,
information is also a challenge
near crash, and baseline driving events.
because of the various levels of court FHWA provides more information on
administration and jurisdiction. SHRP2 at https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/
Unfortunately, in some States goshrp2.
judges do not have access to the
offender’s driver history at the time These data are used to evaluate how
of sentencing, so many offenders drivers interact with and react to
escape the stricter penalties the road, other road users, and other
sanctioned for repeat offenses. environmental features. Driver
In addition, the traffic safety observation is used to understand
community often lacks access to fundamental issues of driver
adjudication information due to behavior and to develop improved
privacy concerns. safety countermeasures. The data
are primarily used in research
Naturalistic Driving Data
studies on a variety of topics. The
Naturalistic driving data are driver data from the SHRP2 program
behavior data collected during have been used to study safety

3-20 UNIT 3: MEASURING SAFETY ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

 Driving simulators like this one are often used to evaluate driver behavior under specific
conditions and in a cost-effective way.

issues including prevention of road insightful look at fundamental

departures, driver reaction to posted issues of road safety.
speed limits, and driver response
Driving Simulator Data
to curves in the road, in addition to
many non-safety-related topics. Due to the high cost of naturalistic
driving studies and the rarity of
A challenge with collecting a large
traffic crashes, driving simulators
amount of naturalistic data is the
are often used to efficiently and
high cost of recruiting participants,
safely evaluate driver behavior
instrumenting vehicles, and
under different conditions.
reducing and analyzing the data. Researchers are able to study
The process of coding (observing) many different conditions and
the behaviors of the driver while complex environments without
driving is time-consuming and is exposing drivers to danger
typically conducted on a frame-by- through replicating a wide range
frame basis, leading to expensive of road, traffic, and environmental
data collection and lengthy study conditions, as well as driver
periods. The data are highly private behaviors such as distractions,
(i.e., contains videos of driver faces), impairment, and fatigue. New types
and therefore are typically difficult of road designs can be guided by
to access or distribute. Despite these the use of simulators, particularly
challenges, naturalistic driving data complex features, such as urban
provides a unique and extremely highway interchanges.

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 3: MEASURING SAFETY 3-21

 Simulators can also be used 2014
for driver education to teach 60
64.3% 2015
60.7%
people about the effects of driver
distractions or to prepare young
drivers for different conditions
before they encounter them on the 40
road. Truck simulators are used to
replicate the driving environment 30.9%
28.7%
for different types of commercial 20
trucks and used to safely train
new drivers. 10.6%

Public Opinion Data 4.8%

0
DOT-Compliant Noncompliant No
Feedback from the general Helmets Helmets Helmet
public can be a useful source of
information for safety professionals. FIGURE 3-4: Observations of
Safety professionals can use motorcyclists showed how many were
information on road safety issues wearing DOT-compliant helmets (Source:
National Occupant Protection Use Survey)
and concerns from the public to
identify specific locations or types of
based on those who self-select
conditions where people have real or
to provide the information to the
perceived traffic safety concerns.
researching agencies. Findings
There are many different ways to will be subjective as each person
collect this information, such as a perceives a condition based on
phone-based survey, web-based their individual experiences only.
tools (pins on maps or online Different persons perceive different
forms), meetings, or intercept issues and recommend different
surveys. Common data collected “best” solutions for the same
are the type of concern, location, condition. Conclusions based on
and type of mode (i.e., walking, survey findings should be used with
bicycling, transit user, or driving). care.

These data are typically collected at Behavioral Observation

the local level, frequently as part of
Observational surveys of road user
a transportation planning process
behaviors are an effective method
or as a collaborative effort with law
of data collection on information
enforcement. Bringing residents
that may otherwise be inaccurately
and police officers to join the road
recorded due to self-reporting bias
safety audit teams or diagnosis
or are difficult to capture through
teams during their field visits is also
other means. Several examples
a beneficial way to learn about the
of data typically recorded using
experiences of the road users in the
direct observation are the use of
study area.
mobile devices (texting or calling),
These data may provide valuable right turn on red, safety belt use,
insights about what the travelling motorcycle or bicycle helmet use,
public perceives as dangerous; and traffic control violations, such
however, it may be a biased sample as rolling through stop signs.

3-22 UNIT 3: MEASURING SAFETY ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

These data are collected through Data Users
observing road users on the road.
While many agencies use safety
Large scale surveys collecting a high
data, most of them have different
number of observations will provide
goals. For example, a city traffic
the most accurate sample of the road engineer may have a specific scope
user population in the study area. for identifying and treating specific
Additionally, robust observation data high priority sites, whereas a safety
will cover differing road types and analysist with a State may be focused
land use characteristics and contain on safety at the system level.
observations at different times of Moreover, safety researchers and
day, week, and season. An example graduate students may be focused on
of a large-scale data collection a whole range of safety evaluations
effort is the National Occupant that are not intended to be action
Protection Use Survey conducted plans to improve safety at a specific
annually by NHTSA. In 2013, over site or system. Each type of data user
may have different levels of access to
52,000 occupants were observed in
these various types of safety data.
nearly 40,000 vehicles. The data,
summaries, and evaluations from The following tables provide
this program may be viewed on the common uses and data needs for
NHTSA website4. these different types of data users.
4
https://crashstats.
DATA TYPE USEFULNESS ACCESSIBILITY OFTEN PAIRED nhtsa.dot.gov

Road characteristics,
Crash Essential High
Traffic volumes
Crash,
Road characteristics Essential High
Traffic volumes
Crash,
ACADEMICS AND RESEARCHERS

Traffic volumes Essential High

Road characteristics
Naturalistic driving Supplemental Moderate
Conflicts/avoidance Road characteristics,
Supplemental Low
maneuvers Traffic volumes
Crash, Traffic volumes,
Citations Supplemental Low
Road characteristics

Driving simulator Supplemental Low Road characteristics

Crash,
Behavior observation Supplemental Low
Road characteristics
Injury surveillance Supplemental Very low
Driver history Supplemental Very low
Vehicle registration Supplemental Very low
Public opinion Supplemental Very low

TABLE 3-3 (above/next page): Data Use by Safety Professionals, Academics and Researchers

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 3: MEASURING SAFETY 3-23

 DATA TYPE USEFULNESS ACCESSIBILITY OFTEN PAIRED

Road characteristics,
Crash Essential High
Traffic volumes
Road Crash,
Essential High
characteristics Traffic volumes
Crash,
FOR SYSTEM LEVEL ANALYSIS
SAFETY PROFESSIONALS Traffic volumes Essential High
Road characteristics
Crash,
Public opinion Supplemental High
Road characteristics
Conflicts/avoidance Road characteristics,
Non-essential Low
maneuvers Traffic volumes
Citations Non-essential Low
Behavior
Non-essential Low
observation
Injury surveillance Non-essential Very low
Driver history Non-essential Very low
Vehicle registration Non-essential Very low
Naturalistic driving Non-essential Very low
Driving simulator Non-essential Very low

DATA TYPE USEFULNESS ACCESSIBILITY OFTEN PAIRED

Road characteristics,
Crash Essential High
Traffic volumes
Road Crash,
Essential High
characteristics Traffic volumes
Crash,
Traffic volumes Essential High
Road characteristics
SAFETY PROFESSIONALS

Crash,
FOR SPECIFIC SITES

Public opinion Supplemental High

Road characteristics
Conflicts/avoidance Road characteristics,
Supplemental Low
maneuvers Traffic volumes
Crash, Traffic volumes,
Citations Supplemental Low
Road characteristics
Behavior Crash,
Supplemental Low
observation Road characteristics
Injury surveillance Non-essential Very low
Driver history Non-essential Very low
Vehicle registration Non-essential Very low
Naturalistic driving Non-essential Very low
Driving simulator Non-essential Very low

3-24 UNIT 3: MEASURING SAFETY ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

 Other Types of Road Safety Data
Additional types of data can also be useful to road safety professionals. These types of
data may include:

Insurance data Safety program evaluation data

(e.g., carrier, policy number, expiration (e.g., surveys, assessments, inspections)
date, claims cost)
These data can provide feedback on the
These data can provide insights into effectiveness of a new safety program.
associations between insurance status and
safety. Maintenance data
(e.g., guardrail replacement)
Demographic data
(e.g., population by gender, age, rural/ These data may indicate where unreported
urban, residence, and ethnicity) crashes are occurring.

These data can be used for normalizing

crash data to a state’s general population.

EXERCISES

JJ IDENTIFY possible relationships JJ EXPLORE what type of safety analysis

between the safety data presented could be made possible using
in this chapter and census data (e.g., communication between vehicles
traffic safety vs. population density). (V2V) and also between vehicles
and infrastructure (V2I - i.e., roads,
JJ CONSIDER if, in the future, vehicles
intersections, etc.).
store pre-crash data in a “black box”
type of event recording device. What JJ DETERMINE how safety professionals
types of data would you like it to store can incorporate operational data, such
and how would you use this data (i.e., as those from dynamic tolling lanes and
what types of analysis would you speed sensors, into a safety analysis
recommend conducting)? program.

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 3: MEASURING SAFETY 3-25

 CHAPTER 9 MEASURING SAFETY

Improving Safety Data Quality

Quality Measures Of Data Accuracy

The previous chapters in this unit Accuracy is a measure of how

have made the case that data are reliable the data are and whether
critical when seeking to improve they correctly represent reality. For
road safety. However, simply having example, exact crash location is
data is not enough. Good decisions an important detail for accuracy. A
require good data. When collecting, crash occurring at the intersection
recording, maintaining, and of First Street and Main Street
analyzing safety data, road safety should be recorded as occurring at
professionals must focus on the that intersection. Accurate data are
quality of data. Data-driven analysis crucial during the analysis phase to
tools are continually advancing and generate road safety statistics and
can help set priorities and select to pinpoint safety problems. Errors
appropriate safety strategies, but may occur at any stage of the data
the need for quality data to drive collection process. Common data
these tools is clear. Professionals accuracy errors include:
commonly recognize that data
JJ Typographic errors (for data
quality can be measured on six
entered manually )
criteria – timeliness, accuracy,
completeness, uniformity, integration, JJ Inaccurate and vague
and accessibility. Each of these descriptions of the crash location
criteria are presented in this chapter.
JJ Incorrect descriptions or entry
Timeliness of road names, road surface,
Timeliness is a measure of how level of accident severity,
quickly an event is available within vehicle types, etc.
a data system. State and local JJ Subjectivity on details that rely
agencies can use technologies to on the opinion of the reporting
automate crash data collection and officer (e.g., property damage
quickly process police crash reports thresholds, excessive speed
for analytic use. However, some for conditions)
agencies still rely on traditional
methods, such as paper form data Technology can and is currently
collection and manual data entry; being used to improve accuracy and
these data collection methods can reduce errors. Automatic internal
result in significant time lags. Many data quality checks are important for
States, however, are moving closer this purpose. These types of checks
to real-time data collection methods would determine if two data fields
by using electronic reporting to contain possibly conflicting data,
improve the timeliness of data and if so, bring it to the attention
collection and submission. of the data analyst. An example of

3-26 UNIT 3: MEASURING SAFETY ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

 Many police officers now use in-car computers to complete and submit electronic crash
reports, increasing the timeliness of data availability. (Source: Town of Hanover, NH)

conflicting data fields would be a are typically not required to report

crash type recorded as “rear end” the crash and often agree to work
but the crash report says that one out the financial damages personally
car was hit on the “side”. or through their automobile
insurance policies. In some States,
Completeness even when PDOs are reported, they
Completeness is a measure of are not always added into the crash
missing information. It may range database.
from missing data on the individual In addition to the limitations from
crash forms to missing information absent data due to unreported
due to unreported crashes. crashes, fluctuations in the
Unreported crashes, particularly thresholds (i.e., dollar amounts) can
non-injury crashes, present a make it difficult to compare data
drawback to crash data analysis. from previous years. Unreported
Without knowing about these PDO crashes are one of many
crashes, we cannot recognize the measures of “completeness”
full magnitude of certain types of that road safety professionals
crashes (e.g., pedestrian involved must consider when collecting
crashes). Non-injury crashes, or and analyzing data. A lack of
property damage only (PDO) crashes, complete data hinders the ability to
involve damage less than a specified measure the effectiveness of safety
threshold (e.g., $1,000); these countermeasures (e.g., safety belts,
thresholds vary from State to State. helmets, and red light cameras) or
The parties involved in PDO crashes change in crash severity.

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 3: MEASURING SAFETY 3-27

 Uniformity
Crash Data Improvement Program
Uniformity is a measure of how
consistent information is coded in The Federal government established
the Crash Data Improvement Program
the data system or how well it meets
(CDIP) to provide states with a
accepted data standards. Numerous means to measure the quality of the
law enforcement agencies within information within their crash database.
each State, some of which are not It is intended to provide the states with
the primary users of the crash metrics that can be used to establish
data, are responsible for crash data measures of where their crash data
stand in terms of its timeliness, the
collection. The challenge for States
accuracy and completeness of the
is ensuring there is consistency data, the consistency of all reporting
among the various agencies when agencies reporting the information in
collecting and reporting crash data. the same way, the ability to integrate
One example of inconsistent or non- crash data with other safety databases,
uniform data can be the location of and how the state makes the crash data
accessible to users. Additionally, CDIP
a crash. If one agency, for example
was established to help familiarize the
the State highway patrol, uses collectors, processors, maintainers, and
GPS to document a crash at one of users with the concepts of data quality
several entrances (driveways) to a and how quality data help to improve
shopping center, but the city police safety decisions. CDIP also included a
use a linear reference system (e.g., guide that presents information on each
data quality characteristic and how to
distance from an intersection), there
measure them.
is a potential for inconsistent crash
location data. Reference: Crash Data Improvement
Program, National Highway Traffic Safety
The Model Minimum Uniform Administration, https://safety.fhwa.dot.
Crash Criteria (MMUCC) is used by gov/cdip/summary.cfm
States to ensure uniform crash data.
MMUCC is an optional guideline be linked together to merge the
that presents a model minimum information in each database into
set of uniform variables or data a combined database. Each State
elements for describing a motor maintains its own crash database.
vehicle crash. This uniformity However, crash data alone do not
assists transportation safety typically provide sufficient details
professionals and governments in on issues like environmental risk
making decisions that lead to safety factors, driver experience, or medical
improvements. Similarly, MIRE consequences. Linking crash data
provides a recommended list of to other databases, such as road
elements to use when reporting road characteristics, driver licensing,
and traffic characteristics, thereby vehicle registration, and hospital
increasing uniformity of road outcome data assists analysts
network data. More information on and planners in evaluating the
MMUCC and MIRE is presented at relationship of the circumstances
the end of this chapter. of the crash and other factors (e.g.,
Integration human, road, medical treatment) at
the time of the crash. In addition,
Data integration is a measure of integrated databases promote
whether different databases can collaboration among agencies, which

3-28 UNIT 3: MEASURING SAFETY ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

can lead to improvements in the problem solving. Thus, programs to
data and the data collection process. improve data should be in the work
programs of all agencies invested in
Some data are more challenging to
road safety. Data could be improved
integrate with other data sets. For
by changes in policy, technology,
example, hospital data are difficult
assessments, and training.
to integrate with crash data due to
the lack of a common identification Policy
system (as well as medical privacy
With so many agencies and
laws). This is different from crash,
organizations involved in the
road characteristics, and volume
data collection process, published
data, which can share a common
policy is a necessity. A standard
referencing system on the road and
set of procedures can provide a
thus be integrated and linked more
clear expectation of each agency’s
easily for analysis.
roles and responsibilities in data
Spatially-located data in a GIS collection. Federal guidance and
system can be integrated simply State legislation or administrative
based on spatial position. This policy and regulations generally
geographic integration can assist form a basis for policy. An
agencies in bringing together data example of Federal guidance
that were gathered by various comes from the provision in the
departments or agencies that may MAP-21 transportation legislation
use different data storage standards that requires States to collect a
and reference systems. comprehensive set of roadway and
traffic fundamental data elements
Accessibility (FDEs) on all public roads5.
Accessibility is a measure of how 5
Technology
easy it is to retrieve and manipulate
Moving Ahead for
safety data in a system, in particular Technology plays an important role
Progress in the 21st
by those entities that are not the in data collection improvement. Century Act, Section
data system owners. Complete, Federal legislation provides funds 1112, §148(f)(2)

accurate, and timely data easily that allow States to improve their
made available to localities, MPOs, data collection systems with
and other safety partners can greatly the latest technology for quality
enhance transportation planning data collection and integration.
and safety investments. Agencies Technology is not static and is
or departments who house safety always changing. Some technology
data, especially crash data, should examples that help facilitate data
consider how accessible the data collection include electronic crash
are to external parties and how the reporting systems, GPS location
process of obtaining data could be devices, barcode or magnetic
streamlined. strip technologies, wireless
communications, error checking,
Data Improvement Strategies and conflicting fields.
Local, State, and Federal agencies, Assessments
as well as non-governmental
organizations, require accurate Assessments are official evaluations
data to be available for analysis and that government agencies conduct

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 3: MEASURING SAFETY 3-29

 to determine the effectiveness of a used in policy development and
traffic safety process or program. A investment decisions, infrastructure
team of outside experts conducts a improvements, and safety planning.
comprehensive assessment of the Through proper education and
highway safety program using an training programs, law enforcement
organized, objective approach and can have a broader perspective
well-defined procedures that: of their contribution to reducing
crashes through improved
JJ Provide an overview of the
data reporting. Other examples
program’s current status
include training transportation
in comparison to
professionals on the latest data
pre-established standards
collection tools and technology,
JJ Note the program’s strengths advising court officials and
and weaknesses adjudicators on important changes
to safety legislation and penalties,
JJ Provide recommendations for and training personnel on how to
improvement handle crash reports with inaccurate
Both FHWA and NHTSA provide or missing information.
these types of assessments, such
as the Roadway Data Improvement
Federal Guidance
Program (RDIP), which can improve The following two sections present
the quality of an agency’s data examples of Federal guidance that
through expert technical assistance leads State agencies into improving
and fresh perspectives. When the quality of their safety data.
State agencies request an RDIP
assessment, an FHWA team reviews Model Minimum Uniform Crash
and assesses a State’s roadway Criteria
data system for the content of the Statewide motor vehicle traffic
data collected; for the ability to crash data systems provide the
use, manage and share the data; basic information necessary for
and to offer recommendations for effective road safety efforts at any
improving the road data. The RDIP level of government—local, State,
also examines the State’s ability to or Federal. Unfortunately, the use of
coordinate and exchange road data State crash data is often hindered by
with local agencies, such as those in the lack of uniformity between and
cities, counties, and MPOs6. within States. Data definitions, the
6 Training number and type of data elements,
and the threshold for collecting
Federal Highway Education and training of
Administration
data varies from jurisdiction to
Roadway Safety transportation professionals play jurisdiction. The Model Minimum
Data Program, a vital role in improving data Uniform Crash Criteria (MMUCC)
http://safety.fhwa.
dot.gov/rsdp/
and data collection. For example, was developed to help bring greater
technical.aspx law enforcement officers create uniformity to crash data collection
the crash data that is used by and provide national guidance to
safety professionals to conduct data collectors. MMUCC represents
studies and evaluate road safety. a voluntary and collaborative effort
Thus, law enforcement need to to generate uniform, accurate,
understand how crash data are reliable, and credible crash data to

3-30 UNIT 3: MEASURING SAFETY ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

support data-driven highway safety
decisions at a State and a national MMUCC Example Element
level. MMUCC serves as a foundation The following is the MMUCC format for
for State crash data systems. “Person Data Element Derived from
Collected Data.”
Since MMUCC is a minimum set of
recommended crash data, States PD1. Age
and localities may choose to collect Definition: The age in years of the person
additional motor vehicle crash- involved in the crash
related data elements if they feel
Source: This data element is derived from
the data are necessary to enhance
Date of Birth (P2) and Crash Date and
decision-making. Implementation Time (C3).
of MMUCC is a collaborative effort
involving the Governors Highway Attribute:
Safety Association, FHWA, NHTSA, • Age in years
and the Federal Motor Carrier Safety
Rationale: Age is necessary to
Administration (FMCSA).
determine the effectiveness of safety
The MMUCC Guideline is updated countermeasures appropriate for various
age groups.
every four or five years to address
emerging highway safety issues,
simplify the list of recommended elements, refer to the latest edition
data elements, and clarify of the MMUCC Guideline located at
definitions of each data element. www.mmucc.us.
MMUCC Data Elements The MMUCC data elements represent
a core set of data elements. The
MMUCC consists of data elements
fourth edition (2012) of the MMUCC
recommended to be collected by
Guideline contains 110 data elements
investigators at the crash scene.
and recommends that States collect
From the crash scene information,
all 110 data elements. To reduce the
additional data elements can be
data collection burden, MMUCC
derived to assist law enforcement.
recommends that law enforcement
Additional data elements are
at the scene should collect 77 of the
available through linkage to driver
110 data elements. From crash scene
history, hospital and other health/
information, 10 data elements can
injury data, and road inventory data.
be derived, while the remaining 23
Each group of data elements has a
data elements should be obtained
unique identifier that describes the
after linkage to other State data
type of data element and whether it
files. States unable to link to other
is derived or linked data.
State data to obtain the MMUCC
MMUCC data elements are divided linked data elements should collect,
into four major groups that describe at a minimum, those linked data
various aspects of a crash: crash, elements feasible for collecting on
vehicle, person, and roadway. Each the crash report. At the same time,
data element includes a definition, States should work to develop data
a set of specific attributes, and a linkage capabilities so they eventually
rationale for the specific attribute. are able to obtain, via linkage, all of
the information to be generated by
For the entire list of MMUCC data the MMUCC linked data elements.

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 3: MEASURING SAFETY 3-31

 ROADWAY SEGMENT ROADWAY ALIGNMENT

Segment location/linkage elements Horizontal curve data

Segment classification Vertical curve data
Segment cross section
Segment roadside descriptors
Other segment descriptors ROADWAY JUNCTION
Segment traffic flow data
Segment traffic operations/control data At-grade intersection/junctions
Other supplemental segment descriptors Interchange and ramp descriptors

FIGURE 3-5: MIRE Data Elements Category Descriptors (Source: MIRE version 1.0)

Model Inventory of Roadway Elements JJ Roadway junction descriptors

Critical safety data include not Most State and local transportation
only crash data, but also road agencies do not have all the data
inventory data, traffic data, and needed to use analysis tools such
other information. State DOTs need as SafetyAnalyst, the Interactive
accurate and detailed data on road Highway Safety Design Model, and
characteristics as they develop other tools and procedures identified
and implement strategic highway in the Highway Safety Manual.
safety plan (SHSPs) and look toward MIRE provides a structure for road
making more data driven safety inventory data that allows State and
investments. local transportation agencies to use
these analysis tools with their own
With the need for and availability of
data rather than relying on default
so many types of data, the question
values that may not reflect local
becomes “How can transportation
conditions.
agencies be sure that they are
collecting the necessary roadway As the need for road inventory
data to make effective road safety information has increased, new and
decisions?” MIRE is a vitally more efficient technologies to collect
important resource that defines the road characteristics have emerged.
data needed to help transportation However, the collected data need a
agencies build a road characteristics framework for common information
database that will lead to good sharing. Just as MMUCC provides
safety analysis. MIRE defines 202 guidance for consistent crash data
individual characteristics of the road elements, MIRE provides a structure
system that should be collected. for roadway inventory data elements
These characteristics are referred to using consistent definitions and
as data elements. The elements fall attributes. It defines each element,
into three broad categories: provides a list of attributes for
coding, and assigns a priority status
JJ Roadway segment descriptors
rating of “critical” or “value added”
JJ Roadway alignment descriptors based on the element’s importance
for use in analytic tools, such as

3-32 UNIT 3: MEASURING SAFETY ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

SafetyAnalyst. to integrate different types of
safety data. If all safety data are
The latest version of MIRE can be
referenced to the same system, the
viewed and downloaded from the
road characteristics data can be
FHWA Office of Safety site, http://
linked with the crash data, which
safety.fhwa.dot.gov/tools/data_tools/ would permit the State to identify
mirereport/. locations on all public roads where
Figure 3-5 displays a breakdown of crash patterns are occurring that
the major data element categories can be reduced through known
and subcategories contained in countermeasures.
MIRE. MIRE further breaks down
In most States, development of a
each subcategory into individual 7
common referencing system for all
data elements. For a complete listing
public roads will require significant Memorandum on
of MIRE data elements, refer to the
effort and cooperation with local Geospatial Network
MIRE publication. for All Public Roads,
agencies. The Federal Highway Office of Highway
While the complete list of MIRE Performance Monitoring System Policy Information,
requires GIS-based referencing for August 7, 2012.
elements is rather extensive, there Accessed October
are a basic set of elements within all roads in the Federal-aid highway 2017 at https://
MIRE called the Fundamental Data system, interstate highways, and www.fhwa.dot.gov/
policyinformation/
Elements (FDE) that an agency public roads not classified as local hpms/arnold.pdf
needs to conduct safety analyses roads or rural minor collectors.7
regardless of the specific analysis However, significant travel occurs
tools used or methods applied. As on local roads and rural minor
discussed, the need for improved collectors. Some local agencies
and more robust safety data is have or are developing, their own
increasing due to the development GIS-based referencing systems for
of a new generation of safety data roads in their inventory data. Light
analysis tools and methods. detection and ranging (LIDAR)
systems are often used to accurately
Linking Data Through A survey the road network. The State
Referencing System should work with local agencies
to incorporate these referencing
The types of road safety data systems into the State base map.
presented in this unit are only useful Once the referencing systems
as much as they are capable of being are combined, attribute data for
linked through a common geospatial additional mileage can be added
relational location referencing when either State or local agencies
system. States recognize that they develop or expand inventories.
must have a common relational Moreover, as stated above, this will
location referencing system (i.e., lead to the ability to link crashes
geographic information system or with inventory and traffic data,
linear referencing system) for all enabling the State to use the more
public roads if they are going advanced problem identification
methods on more and more miles of
public roads.

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 3: MEASURING SAFETY 3-33

 Conclusion as conflict observations, emergency
medical data, and citation data, can
Data are crucial to improving road be useful in a supplemental role for
safety. Safety data consist of various specific studies. Regardless of the
kinds of data that can be used type of safety data, the quality of the
to identify safety problems and data is vitally important. Agencies
priorities so that safety partners that collect safety data should
in many agencies can address strive to improve their timeliness,
important issues. Data such as crash accuracy, completeness, uniformity,
data, traffic volume data, and road integration, and accessibility to
characteristics data are often used maximize their potential to drive
and are critical for safety analysis good decisions.
by many agencies. Other data, such

EXERCISES

JJ SELECT a scenario below. Assume that JJ You are recommending safety

you are using crash data as your primary improvements to an interchange
data to inform your decisions. Explain that was identified based on having
how each of the six quality criteria a higher number of expected
discussed in this chapter could affect crashes than other interchanges of
your evaluation of the current safety the same type.
situation and your recommendations.
Given the scenario you selected above,
JJ You are prioritizing intersections in how do you think the availability of
a city to be treated with enhanced other types of data could affect your
visibility treatments, such as recommendations? Such data may
larger signs, wider markings, and include any of the data types covered
additional signal heads. in Chapter 3.2. (e.g., EMS and hospital
injury data, enforcement citations,
JJ You are developing a public
public complaints, or other data). What
outreach effort to communicate
additional information could this reveal?
the need to yield to pedestrians at
crosswalks. You wish to focus your JJ IDENTIFY programs or policies that exist
efforts to the areas of the city where in your state or local agency to improve
failing to yield to pedestrians is the data. This may include any of the types
most rampant. of safety data covered in Chapter 3.2.

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THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 3: MEASURING SAFETY 3-35

UNIT 4
Solving Safety
Problems
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading the chapters and completing JJ DEFINE the process of conducting
exercises in Unit 4, the reader will be able to: site-level and system-level
safety management
JJ IDENTIFY three major components
of road safety management JJ USE safety data to identify safety
issues and develop strategies to
solving those issues

4-b UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

 CHAPTER 10 UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS

Road Safety Management

Road safety management refers to
the process of identifying safety
problems, devising potential
strategies to combat those safety
problems, and selecting and
implementing the strategies.
Effective safety management is
also proactive and looks for ways
to prevent safety problems before
they arise. High quality safety data
should be used to determine the
nature of the road safety problems
and how best to solve them. As
discussed in Unit 3, the clearest and
most readily available indicators of
road safety problems are crash data.
These data can be used to identify
safety problems on a large or a small
scale. Other data, such as roadway
characteristics, traffic volume,
citations, and driver history, can be
integrated with crash data to assist
while the agency strives to improve
in identifying safety trends and high
its data, the data on hand should be
priority locations.
used in the process of identifying
Data quality issues should not safety problems and devising
solutions to those problems.
prevent a data-driven process
Every transportation agency will Data needs for safety analysis
acknowledge that it does not have
High quality safety analysis
perfect data. All data have issues
demands high quality data.
related to accuracy, coverage,
Unfortunately, poor data availability
timeliness, and other factors. One 1
and low quality limit the types of
agency’s crash data may have an
incomplete record of low severity analyses that can be conducted. Applying Safety
Data and Analysis to
crashes. Another agency may The data requirements depend on
Performance-Based
have very little data on the traffic the type of analysis and what safety Transportation
Planning,
volume on low volume rural roads. questions are being asked. Table
e-Guidebook,
However, data quality issues should 4-1 provides examples of various FHWA, http://safety.
categories of safety analysis and lists fhwa.dot.gov/tsp/
not prevent a transportation agency fhwasa15089/
from using the data to drive its the data that would be needed to appb.cfm
safety management efforts. Even conduct them.1

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS 4-1

 SAFETY ANALYSIS
QUESTION DATA NEEDS

How many fatalities Total crashes

BENCHMARKING
and serious injuries are
Total fatalities and serious injuries
occurring in my area?
High-level roadway data — roadway ownership,
How does this
functional classification
compare to other
areas of my State? Agency geographic boundary information
CONTRIBUTING FACTORS

What type of road users Crash severity — fatality, injury type,

are involved in crashes? property damage only
CRASH TRENDS AND

When are the Crash incidence data — time of day, day,

crashes occurring? month, weather, etc.

What are the major Crash type — road departure, intersection,

contributing factors head-on, angle, etc.
to crashes?
Contributing factors — age, impairment,
seatbelt usage, speed, etc.

What locations Crash severity

SITES FOR SAFETY IMPROVEMENT

(intersections or
Crash location
segments) show the
most potential for Roadway and roadside characteristics — intersection
safety improvements? control, number of lanes, presence and type of
shoulder, presence and type of median, posted
speed, horizontal and vertical alignment, etc.

Traffic volume data — intersection total entering

traffic volume, roadway segment volume per
million vehicle miles.

Calibrated safety performance functions,

if predictive methods are used

What are the common Crash severity

characteristics of
Crash location
locations with crashes?
SAFETY RISK FACTORS

Roadway and roadside characteristics — intersection

What are the
control, number of lanes, presence and type of
countermeasures
shoulder, presence and type of median, posted
to address these
speed, horizontal and vertical alignment, etc.
characteristics?
Traffic volume data — intersection total entering
How should we prioritize
traffic volume, roadway segment volume per
system-wide
million vehicle miles.
implementation?

TABLE 4-1: Safety analysis categories, questions, tools and data needs.

4-2 UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

Safety data as by the National Highway Traffic
Safety Administration (NHTSA) Performance
performance measures measure
and the Governors Highway Safety
A transportation agency has many Association (GHSA) that could be A numerical
types of data at its disposal for used to identify safety priorities.2 metric used
identifying safety problems, but the The sources of the data could be to monitor
State crash data files, the Fatality changes
agency must select which type(s)
in system
of data will be the performance Analysis Reporting System (FARS),
condition and
measures used to identify the road surveys conducted by the State, performance
safety emphasis areas. Federal or grant applications from law against
legislation has focused increasingly enforcement and other departments. established
The section on Network Screening visions, goals,
on fatal crashes and serious injury
in Chapter 11 presents a more and objectives.
crashes as performance measures
for road safety. detailed discussion of crash-based
performance measures and how they
Table 4-2 provides examples of can be used to identify sites that are 2
performance measures developed high priority for safety treatment. National Highway
Traffic Safety
Administration
DESCRIPTION SOURCES (NHTSA). 2007.
Performance
Measures
Number of traffic fatalities (three-year or five-year moving averages) FARS
Discussion. 408
Team Document
State crash
Number of serious injuries in traffic crashes #005, October
data files 29, 2007.
National Highway
Fatalities/VMT (including rural, urban, and total fatalities) FARS, FHWA Traffic Safety
Administration.
Number of unrestrained passenger vehicle occupant fatalities, seat positions FARS

Number of fatalities in crashes involving a driver or motorcycle operator

FARS
with a blood alcohol concentration of .08 g/dL or higher

Number of speeding-related fatalities FARS

Number of motorcyclist fatalities FARS

Number of unhelmeted motorcyclist fatalities FARS

Number of drivers 20 or younger involved in fatal crashes FARS

Number of pedestrian fatalities FARS

Observed seat belt use for passenger vehicles, front seat outboard occupants Survey

Number of seat belt citations issued during grant-funded Grant activity

enforcement activities reporting

Number of impaired-driving arrests made during grant-funded Grant activity

enforcement activities reporting

Grant activity
Number of speed citations issued during grant-funded activities
reporting

TABLE 4-2: Safety performance measures and data sources (Source: NHTSA 2007)

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS 4-3

 Components of Levels of safety management
safety management Although all road safety
The safety management process management follows the same
can be viewed in three general three general components listed
components. These components above, the specific steps of the
are carried out by the agency (or safety management process will be
agencies) responsible for managing different depending on the scope.
the safety of the road system: The process might be intended to
JJ Identifying safety problems – The address specific site-level issues,
agency uses crash data and other such as crash patterns at high
safety data to identify road safety priority intersections, curves, or
problems or problem locations. corridors. On a larger scale, the
JJ Developing potential safety process might be intended to
strategies – The agency develops address system-level issues, such as
potential strategies to address problems that can be addressed by
the identified safety problems. policies, design standards, or broad
These strategies might also be ranging campaigns of education or
referred to as countermeasures enforcement. The following chapters
or treatments. will discuss safety management for
JJ Selecting and implementing these two levels: Chapter 11 presents
strategies – The agency weighs site-level safety management;
the potential strategies and Chapter 12 presents system-level
decides which ones to implement. safety management.

4-4 UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

 CHAPTER 11 UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS

Site-Level Safety Management

Site-level safety management
1. NETWORK SCREENING
is the process of identifying and
addressing safety issues at high
priority sites. This contrasts with
2. DIAGNOSIS Site
safety issues that are addressed for
an entire transportation system (i.e., A narrowly
all roads in a city, county, or State). 3. COUNTERMEASURE defined
System-level safety management is SELECTION location of
interest for
covered in Chapter 12. safety analysis,
4. ECONOMIC APPRAISAL such as an
Agencies responsible for road
intersection,
safety often conduct some form road section,
of site-level safety management. interchange,
They identify particular sites of 5. PROJECT PRIORITIZATION or midblock
crossing.
concern and determine how best
to address the safety problems at
6. SAFETY EFFECTIVENESS
these priority sites. The methods EVALUATION
of identifying priority sites and
the safety strategies used to treat
the sites differ according to the
FIGURE 4-1: Schematic Illustrating the
type of agency. A department of
Steps of Site-level Safety Management
transportation (DOT) may install
a sign or pavement marking; a law
enforcement agency might increase When discussing site-level
enforcement in the area of the site. safety management, these three
Regardless of the type of agency, it components can be further divided
is important to conduct site-level into six distinct steps. This six-
safety management in a manner that step process is common to the
uses good analysis methods driven engineering discipline and is
presented in Part B of the first
by safety data.
edition of the Highway Safety
3
Chapter 10 presented road safety Manual3 (HSM). The process, shown
management in terms of three in Figure 4-1, will be the framework Highway Safety
Manual, First
general components: for the discussion of site-level safety edition, American
management in this chapter. The Association of
JJ Identifying safety problems material presented in this chapter is State Highway
Transportation
JJ Developing potential based on the guidance presented in Officials, 2010.

safety strategies the HSM and material from a series

of documents entitled “Reliability
JJ Selecting and of Safety Management Methods”
implementing strategies published by FHWA. These FHWA

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS 4-5

 SAFETY
MANAGEMENT
COMPONENTS STEPS OF SITE - LEVEL SAFETY MANAGEMENT
4 IDENTIFY Step 1. Network screening: Identify locations that could benefit
SAFETY
Srinivasan, R., F. Gross, from treatments to reduce crash frequency and severity.
PROBLEMS
B. Lan, G. Bahar
(2016), Reliability of
Safety Management Step 2. Diagnosis: Identify crash trends and patterns based on
Methods: Network reported crashes, assess the crash types and severity levels,
Screening, Report No.
FHWA-SA-16-037, and study other elements that characterize the crashes.
Federal Highway
Administration, DEVELOP
Washington, D.C. Step 3. Countermeasure selection: Identify appropriate
POTENTIAL
countermeasures to target crash contributing factors and
SAFETY
SOLUTIONS reduce crash frequency and severity at identified locations.
5

Srinivasan, R., G. Step 4. Economic appraisal: Estimate the economic benefit and
Bahar, F. Gross (2016), cost associated with implementing a particular countermeasure
Reliability of Safety or set of countermeasures.
Management Methods:
Diagnosis, Report No.
FHWA-SA-16-038, SELECT AND Step 5. Project prioritization: Develop a prioritized list of
Federal Highway IMPLEMENT
safety improvement projects, considering available resources.
Administration, STRATEGIES
Washington, D.C.

Step 6. Safety effectiveness evaluation: Evaluate how a particular

countermeasure (or group of countermeasures) has affected
6
crash frequency and severity where it was installed.
Bahar, G. R. Srinivasan,
F. Gross, (2016),
Reliability of Safety TABLE 4-3: Steps of the Site-level Safety Management Process
Management Methods:
Countermeasure
Selection, Report No.
FHWA-SA-16-039,
documents provide in-depth JJ Safety effectiveness evaluation
Federal Highway guidance and examples on the - The safety effectiveness
Administration, following topics: evaluation guide describes
Washington, D.C.
various methods and the
JJ Network screening – The network latest tools to support safety
screening guide describes various effectiveness evaluation.7
7
methods and the latest tools to
Srinivasan, R., F. Gross, support network screening.4 JJ Systemic safety programs - The
G. Bahar (2016), systemic safety programs guide
Reliability of Safety JJ Diagnosis - The diagnosis describes the state-of-the-practice
Management Methods:
Safety Effectiveness information guide describes and the latest tools to support
Evaluation, Report No. various methods and the latest systemic safety analysis.8
FHWA-SA-16-040,
Federal Highway tools to support diagnosis.5
Administration, The six steps of the site-level safety
Washington, D.C. JJ Countermeasure selection - management process relate to the
The countermeasure selection three general components of safety
information guide describes management as shown in Table 4-3.
8 various methods and the Each step is presented in more detail
See next page. latest tools to support through the following sections
countermeasure selection.6 in this chapter.

4-6 UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

Step 1. Network screening intersection that has many crashes,
8
but a closer examination reveals
Network screening refers to the
that most crashes are low speed, low (from previous page)
process of selecting high priority Gross, F., T. Harmon,
severity rear-end crashes. The crash G. Bahar, K. Peach
sites that need safety treatment,
severity method would lower the (2016), Reliability of
often through an analysis of crash Safety Management
priority of this intersection in favor Methods: Systemic
data. There are many ways in
of other sites where more serious Safety Programs,
which an agency can use crash data Report No.
crashes occur.
to prioritize sites, ranging from FHWA-SA-16-041,
Federal Highway
simplistic methods, which are easy Some agencies prioritize sites Administration,
to understand and implement but by the historical crash rate. This Washington, D.C.
can be inaccurate or ineffective, method incorporates traffic volume
to more advanced methods, which to augment the crash data. The
require statistical expertise and crash frequency at a site is divided Crash
more data but provide a better by the traffic volume – either the frequency
prioritization of sites.
annual average daily traffic (for road
The number
For many years, the most prevalent segments), total entering volume of observed
methods for ranking specific sites (for vehicle traffic at intersections), crashes
for safety improvements were based or other volumes, such as pedestrian per year.
on historical crash data alone. Many crossing volume. The typical unit
agencies still use these methods for this method is crashes per
to allocate their road safety funds. 100 million vehicle miles traveled
Crash
Agencies that prioritize sites by for road segments or crashes per severity
historical crash frequency identify 100 million entering vehicles for
those sites that have the highest intersections. Crash rate in these The level of
number of crashes in a certain injury severity
units is calculated as: of the crash
time period (typically three to five
as an event,
years). This serves to assist agencies Crash rate per (C×100,000,000) typically
in addressing the magnitude of 100 million vehicle = determined
the problem, that is, attempting miles traveled (V×365×N×L) by the highest
to address the highest number of severity injury
crashes. By its nature, this method of any person
C = Number of crashes in the study period involved in
typically identifies sites that have the crash.
high amounts of traffic (either V = Traffic volumes using average annual
vehicles, pedestrians, or other road daily traffic (AADT) volumes
users). However, this method may
N = Number of years of data
miss abnormally hazardous sites Crash rate
that do not present a relatively L = Length of the roadway segment in miles The number
large number of crashes. Another of observed
variation of the crash frequency crashes
method uses crash severity, in This approach of prioritizing sites by per unit of
which agencies weight the crash crash rate serves to counteract the traffic volume
bias of crash frequency that overly passing through
frequency by giving greater weight
the location.
to higher severity crashes. This prioritizes sites with high volume,
method counteracts some of the since higher volume decreases
bias in the crash frequency method. the crash rate. However, it may
For example, a general high crash inefficiently prioritize sites with
frequency may prioritize a busy very low volumes.

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS 4-7

 Agencies might use a combination
of these two methods. They may set Comparing road segments by
a minimum crash rate to generate crash frequency and rate
an initial list of priority sites and Road Segment A: A three-mile section of
then prioritize that group by crash road that has had four crashes over five
frequency or severity. Regardless, years and has a traffic volume of 4,000
these simplistic methods are known vehicles per day.
to have potential biases. One of Road Segment B: A three-mile section
the most prevalent biases is that of road that has had 10 crashes over five
the crash history used to prioritize years and has a traffic volume of 12,000
sites with these methods usually vehicles per day.
reflects only the short-term trend If an agency is comparing these
of crashes. Given that the year- segments based on crash frequency,
to-year occurrence of crashes at they would prioritize road segment B
a location is random, it can be for having 10 crashes compared to road
segment A which had four crashes.
the case that a short-term crash
history (one to three years) may If comparing these segments based on
be relatively high, but in the long crash rate, the agency would calculate
the crash rate of road segment A as
Regression- run (ten years), the crashes would
(4 crashes x 100,000,000) / (4,000
to-the-mean return to a lower amount, even if vehicles per day x 365 x 5 years x 3 miles)
no safety improvements were done. = 18.2 crashes per 100 million vehicle
The fact that
This effect creates selection bias or miles traveled. Following the same
a short term
regression-to-the-mean (RTM) bias in calculation, road segment B has a rate of
examination of
the safety analysis of this location. 15.2 crashes per 100 million vehicle miles
crash history
traveled. According to crash rate, the
at a location is
As the years progressed, many agency would prioritize road segment A.
likely inaccurate
transportation safety professionals The prioritization of these two segments
(e.g., lower or
changes when traffic volume is taken
higher than recognized that while these into account.
its true safety simplistic methods did identify
performance).
sites that benefited from safety
When a longer pushed forward a movement to
time period of improvement, they were not the
locations where safety funds could identify “sites with promise.”9 The
crash history is
examined, the be spent the most effectively. The main idea was to identify sites that
crash frequency selection of high crash sites was experienced more crashes than
will “regress” subject to RTM bias. Also, sites would be expected from a site with
to its “mean” that particular set of characteristics.
with high numbers of crashes were
and provide a In many cases, these abnormally
better picture typically complex and required
expensive reconstruction in order performing sites could be addressed
of the long term
average crash to reduce crashes appreciably. The with low cost safety treatments,
frequency. such as larger signs or pavement
question became, “How could road
markings with greater visibility. This
safety funds be spent in a way that
approach uses statistical regression
provided the biggest bang for the
9 models that predict crashes for a
buck?”
given set of characteristics. These
Hauer, E. (1997),
Observational Before As the science of road safety models demonstrate the advantage
After Studies in Road advanced, researchers developed of bringing together different types
Safety, Elsevier
Science, New York.
more advanced approaches of safety data, which in this case
for prioritizing sites for safety could include crash data, roadway
improvements. Dr. Ezra Hauer characteristics, and traffic volume.

4-8 UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

The most basic of these regression of the specific site. This means
methods calculates predicted that the predicted crash value is Predicted
crashes. This method requires unaffected by the bias caused by crashes
information about certain geometric RTM. Using SPFs, transportation The frequency
and operational characteristics, such agencies can predict crash values for of crashes per
as traffic volume, number of lanes, many sites and prioritize the sites year that would
and type of road. be predicted
according to the highest predicted for a site based
An SPF is developed or calibrated values. Another use of the predictive on the result
using data from an entire method is in systemic safety of a crash
treatments, presented in Chapter 12 prediction
jurisdiction or State, so it is
model, called
independent of the crash history under Risk Based Prioritization. a safety
performance
ACCOUNTS ACCOUNTS ACCOUNTS function (SPF).
FOR TRAFFIC FOR FOR CRASH
PERFORMANCE MEASURE VOLUME RTM BIAS SEVERITY

1. Average crash frequency No No Not explicitly*

2. Crash rate Yes No Not explicitly*

3. Equivalent property damage only

No No Yes
(EPDO) average crash frequency

4. Relative severity index No No Yes

5. Critical rate Yes No Not explicitly*

6. Excess predicted average crash

No No Not explicitly*
frequency using method of moments

7. Level of service of safety Yes No Not explicitly*

8. Excess predicted average crash

Yes No Not explicitly*
frequency using SPFs

9. Probability of specific crash types Not affected

No Not explicitly*
exceeding threshold proportion by RTM bias**

10. Excess proportion of Not affected

No Not explicitly*
specific crash types by RTM bias**

11. Expected average crash frequency

Yes Yes Not explicitly*
with empirical Bayes adjustments

12. EPDO average crash frequency

Yes Yes Yes
with EB adjustment

13. Excess expected average crash

Yes Yes Not explicitly*
frequency with EB adjustment
* While these measures do not explicitly ** These two measures will not be affected by
mention severity, analysts can adapt any of the RTM only if they are based on data from a
measures to consider any severity level. long time period.

TABLE 4-4: Performance Measures for Network Screening (Source: Highway Safety Manual, 1st ed.)

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS 4-9

 10 Where can I get safety performance functions for my State?
Srinivasan, R.,
SPFs can be obtained in two ways: The crashes predicted by the SPF are
D. Carter, and
K.Bauer (2013), compared to the crashes observed on the
1) SPFs can be developed from scratch
Safety Performance State’s roads, and an analyst calculates
Function Decision using crash, roadway, and traffic volume
a calibration factor to adjust the SPF
Guide: SPF data from roads and intersections in the
prediction appropriately for the State.
Calibration vs SPF State. This requires significant data to be
Development, collected on hundreds of sites. A statistical
Report No.
SPF development or calibration is typically
expert must use these data to develop SPFs handled by the State DOT. FHWA provides
FHWA-SA-14-004,
Federal Highway that are tailor made for that State. guidance on deciding between developing
Administration, a new SPF or calibrating an existing one.10
Washington, DC. 2) SPFs can be obtained from national
resources, such as the HSM; then States that decide to develop new SPFs
calibrated for the particular State of can refer to guidance in a related FHWA
interest. This requires data to be collected publication.11 NCRHP provides guidance
11
on a smaller number of sites than is for those who decide to calibrate
R. Srinivasan and required for developing a new SPF. existing SPFs.12
K. Bauer (2013),
Safety Performance
Development The first edition of the HSM lists site (see more detailed discussion
Guide: Developing
Jurisdiction-Specific several benefits of the predictive of the EB method later in this step).
SPFs, Report method, including: Some agencies may also calculate
FHWA-SA-14-005,
Federal Highway
excess crashes as a measure for site
JJ RTM bias is addressed as the
Administration, prioritization. This is the difference
Washington, DC method concentrates on long-
between the expected crashes and the
term expected average crash
observed crash frequency at the site.
frequency rather than short-
12 term observed crash frequency. Performance measures
Bahar, G (2014),
User’s Guide to
JJ Reliance on availability of in network screening
Develop Highway limited crash data for any one
Safety Manual site is reduced by incorporating The key to effective network screening
Safety Performance
predictive relationships based on is selecting an appropriate performance
Function Calibration
Factors, HR 20- data from many similar sites. measure. Network screening
7(332), National methods should appropriately
Cooperative JJ The method accounts for the account for three major factors that
Highway Research
Program, American
fundamentally nonlinear can affect the screening outcome:
Association of relationship between crash
State Highway and
frequency and traffic volume. JJ Differences in traffic volumes
Transportation
Officials, Standing
Agencies can also use the predicted JJ Possible bias due to RTM
Committee on
Traffic Safety, crashes in combination with actual JJ Crash severity
Washington, DC.
crash history at the site of interest to
calculate expected crashes. A method Table 4-4 lists the thirteen
called empirical Bayes (EB) brings performance measures discussed in
Expected these two values together to reflect the HSM with an indication of their
crashes, a crash frequency that incorporates ability to account for these major
excess the general crash prediction from the factors. While some measures directly
crashes SPF with the real world experience account for crash severity (e.g.,
See next page. of crash history at the site to provide relative severity index), analysts
an accurate estimation of how many can adapt any of the measures to
crashes should be expected at the account for crash severity.

4-10 UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

Accounting for differences such as SPFs, are more appropriate
than linear relationships, such as Expected
in traffic volumes crashes
crash rates to account for differences
As discussed earlier, analysts have in traffic volume among sites. The frequency
traditionally used crash rates to of crashes
SPFs are a more reliable method to
account for differences in traffic per year that
account for differences in traffic represents the
volume among sites. Crash rate
volume among sites because they combination of
is the ratio of crash frequency to the predicted
reflect the nonlinear relationship
exposure, which is typically the between crash frequency and traffic crashes and
traffic volume. Crash rates implicitly the observed
volume. The SPF is an equation that
assume a linear relationship crashes that
represents a best-fit model that actually
between crash frequency and traffic relates annual observed crashes to occurred at
volume; however, many studies the site characteristics including the site.
have shown that the relationship annual traffic volume and other
between crashes and traffic volume site characteristics. Typically, SPFs
is nonlinear, and the shape of this are estimated for a particular crash Excess
relationship depends on the type type for a type of facility (e.g., crashes
of facility. Nonlinear relationships, run-off-road crashes on rural two
The difference
between the
40 expected
crashes and the
Predicted Crash Frequency

observed crash
30 frequency at
the site.

20

10

0 Traffic Volume (AADT) 100,000

FIGURE 4-2: Example of SPF for multi-vehicle crashes on rural, 4-lane freeways

10
Predicted Crash Frequency

0 Traffic Volume (AADT) 100,000

FIGURE 4-3: Example of SPF for single-vehicle crashes on rural, 4-lane freeways

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS 4-11

 lane roads) using data from an
entire jurisdiction or State. Figure SPF Example 1
4-2 and Figure 4-3 show example Some States use Safety Analyst, a
SPFs where the points represent software tool from AASHTO, to identify
observed crashes at specific traffic sites that may benefit from a safety
volumes for individual sites, and treatment.14 The following is an SPF
from Safety Analyst that predicts
the solid line represents the best-
the total number of crashes on rural
fit model (i.e., the SPF). If the multilane divided roads:
relationship between exposure and
crash frequency were linear, then P = L × e-5.05 × (AADT)0.66
the solid line would be a straight P is the total number of crashes in one
line instead of a curve. These two year on a segment of length L.
figures also demonstrate the nature
This is a relatively simple SPF where the
13 of SPFs – each curve is different. For predicted number of crashes per mile
the rural, four lane freeways used in is a function of just AADT. For example,
R. Srinivasan and this example, multi-vehicle crashes if the AADT is 45,000, then the predicted
K. Bauer (2013),
Safety Performance rise exponentially with more traffic number of crashes for a one mile segment
Development volume (Figure 4-2) but single- based on the SPF will be the following:
Guide: Developing
Jurisdiction-Specific vehicle crashes behave differently; P = 1 × e-5.05 × 450000.66
SPFs, Report they level off with increasing levels =7.55 crashes per year
FHWA-SA-14-005,
of traffic volume (Figure 4-3).
Federal Highway
Administration,
Washington, DC. An SPF produces the average number
of crashes that would be predicted
not always be possible due to
for sites with a particular set of
the availability of data or lack of
14 characteristics. By comparing a
statistical expertise. In that case,
site’s observed number of crashes
http://www. the SPFs developed from another
safetyanalyst.org/ with the predicted number of
jurisdiction could be calibrated using
crashes from an SPF, it may be
data from the jurisdiction with the
possible to identify sites that
study sites.15
15 experience more crashes than one
would expect from a site with that
G. Bahar and E.
Avoiding bias due to
particular set of characteristics.
Hauer (2014), Users
Guide to Develop Sites where the observed number regression-to-the-mean
HSM SPF Calibration of crashes is larger than the As previously discussed, RTM
Factors, NCHRP
Project 20-7(332). predicted number of crashes from describes the situation when
an SPF warrant further review and periods with relatively high crash
diagnosis. Two measures in Table
frequencies are followed by periods
16 4-4, level of service of safety (LOSS)
with relatively low crash frequencies
and the excess predicted average
Susan Herbel, simply due to the random nature of
crash frequency using SPFs, use
Lorrie Laing, crashes. Figure 4-4 illustrates RTM,
Colleen McGovern the observed crash frequency and
(2010), Highway
comparing the difference between
predicted frequency from an SPF to
Safety Improvement short-term average and long-term
Program (HSIP) identify sites with promise.
average crash history.16 Due to RTM,
Manual, FHWA-
SA-09-029, Ideally, SPFs should be estimated the short-term average is not a
Federal Highway using data from the same reliable estimate of the long-term
Administration,
Washington, DC. jurisdiction as the site(s) being crash propensity of a particular
studied.13 However, that may site. If an agency selects sites based

4-12 UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

 SPF Example 2
Bauer and Harwood17 provide a more a crash prediction that is more tailored to
complex SPF for fatal and injury crashes on characteristics of the site, such as curve 17
rural two lane roads. This model provides radius and vertical grade of the road:
Bauer, K. and
NFI = exp [-8.76+1.00×ln(AADT)+0.044×G+0.19×ln(2×5730/R)×IHC Harwood, D., Safety
+4.52×(1/R)(1/Lc)×IHC ] Effects of Horizontal
Curve and Grade
NFI = fatal-and-injury crashes R = curve radius (ft); missing for tangents Combinations on
Two-Lane Highways,
per mile per year
IHC = horizontal curve indicator: Federal Highway
AADT = annual average daily traffic 1 for horizontal curves; 0 otherwise Administration,
Report No. FHWA-
(vehicles/day)
LC = horizontal curve length (mi); HRT-13-077, January
G = absolute value of percent grade; 0% not applicable for tangents 2014.
for level tangents; ≥ 1% otherwise
ln = natural logarithm function

on high short-term average crash One approach to address RTM bias

history, crashes at those sites may is to use the EB method. The EB
be lower in the following years due method is a statistical method
to RTM, even if the agency does not that combines the observed crash
install countermeasures at those frequency (obtained from crash
sites. reports) with the predicted crash
frequency (derived from the
If RTM is not properly accounted for,
appropriate SPF) to calculate the
sites with a randomly high count
expected crash frequency for a site of
of crashes in the short term could
interest. This method pulls the crash
be incorrectly identified as having
count towards the mean, accounting
a high potential for improvement,
for the RTM bias.
and vice versa. In this case, scarce
resources may be inefficiently used The EB method is illustrated in
on such sites while sites with a truly Figure 4-5, which illustrates how
high potential for cost effective the observed crash frequency is
safety improvement remain combined with the predicted crash
unidentified. frequency based on the SPF.18 The
18
Short Term Susan Herbel,
average Lorrie Laing,
Observed Crash Frequency

Colleen McGovern
(2010), Highway
Safety Improvement
Program (HSIP)
Manual, FHWA-
Long Term SA-09-029,
average Federal Highway
Administration,
Washington, DC.
Short Term
average
Years

FIGURE 4-4: Chart to illustrate RTM phenomenon (Source: HSIP Manual, 2010)

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS 4-13

 Observed number

Crash Frequency
SPF
Expected number using Eb

Predicted number from SPF

aaDT

FIGURE 4-5: Schematic to illustrate the empirical Bayes method (Source: HSIP Manual, 2010)

EB method is applied to calculate average crash frequency are provided

an expected crash frequency in Part B of the HSM. For example,
or corrected value, which lies if the observed crash frequency in a
somewhere between the observed particular site was nine crashes per
value and the predicted value from year, the predicted crash frequency
the SPF. from the SPF was 6.4 crashes per
year, and the w was 0.3, then Nexpected
Mathematically, the expected will be as follows:
number of crashes can be written
as a function of the predicted value Nexpected = 0.3 × 6.4 + (1 - 0.3) × 9
from the SPF and the observed = 8.22 crashes per year
crashes in the following manner:
Equation 1 We can prioritize sites by calculating
the difference between the EB
Nexpected = w × Npredicted + (1 - w) × Nobserved expected crashes at a particular
site and the predicted crashes from
Nexpected = expected average crash frequency an SPF. By comparing EB expected
for a certain study period crashes at a particular site instead
of observed crashes, we account for
w = weighted adjustment to be placed
possible bias due to RTM.
on the SPF prediction (0 < w < 1)
The first eight measures presented
Npredicted = predicted average crash frequency
in Table 4-4 do not account for
predicted using an SPF for the study
possible bias due to RTM. Measure 9
period under the given conditions
(probability of specific crash types
Nobserved = observed crash frequency at the exceeding threshold proportion) and
site over the study period measure 10 (excess proportion of
specific crash types) are not affected
The weight w is a function of the by RTM unless they are based on
predicted crash frequency (Npredicted) short-term crash history. Measure
and a statistical parameter called the 11 (expected average crash frequency
overdispersion parameter of the SPF. with EB adjustments), measure
Procedures to estimate the expected 12 (EPDO average crash frequency

4-14 UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

with EB adjustment), and measure screening. Diagnosis is the process
13 (excess expected average crash of further investigating the sites
frequency with EB adjustment) and issues identified from network
account for possible bias due to RTM screening. The intent of diagnosis
using the EB adjustments. is to identify crash patterns and the
factors that contribute to crashes
Accounting for crash severity at the identified sites. Thorough
The severity of crashes at a location diagnosis can also identify potential
can (and should) have a bearing on safety issues that have not yet
the priority of the site for safety manifested in crashes. Diagnosis
treatment. Three of the measures in often involves a review of the
Table 4-4, measure 3 (EPDO average crash history, traffic operations,
crash frequency), measure 4 (relative and general site conditions. While
severity index), and measure 12 safety professionals could review
(EPDO average crash frequency with these data from the office, a field
EB adjustment), directly account for visit provides the opportunity to
crash severity. Measures 3 and 12 use observe road user behavior and
the EPDO method, which converts site characteristics that are not
all crashes to a common unit, available in the data. Sometimes,
namely property damage only (PDO) safety professionals may also
crashes. Using these measures, the conduct a field review at night or
analyst assigns points to each crash at other times that crash history
based on its crash severity level. has indicated to be of concern. It
A PDO crash typically receives one is important to diagnose the cause
point and the points increase as the of the problem before developing
severity of the crash increases. potential countermeasures, just
as a doctor examines symptoms
While other measures do not
to diagnose an underlying disease
explicitly mention severity, analysts
before formulating a prescription.
can adapt any of the measures to
Otherwise, resources may be
consider any severity level. For
misallocated if a countermeasure
example, an analyst could use
that does not target the underlying
crash frequency and focus on the
issues is selected and implemented.
frequency of fatal and severe injury
crashes to priority rank sites. It is The Haddon Matrix is a framework to
important to note that the severity identify possible contributing factors
distribution of crashes may be a (e.g., driver, vehicle, and roadway/
function of site characteristics environment) which are cross-
including AADT. For example, referenced against possible crash
sections with higher AADT values conditions before, during, and after
may be associated with lower speeds a crash to identify possible reasons
and consequently fewer severe for events. This comprehensive
crashes. understanding of crash contributing
factors is important for the diagnosis
Step 2. Diagnosis of safety problems. An example of
Diagnosis is the second step in the Haddon Matrix is presented later
the roadway safety management under Countermeasure Selection on
process, following network page 4-20.

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS 4-15

 The HSM recommends that for stop-controlled intersections,
diagnosis include the following signalized intersections, and two-
parts: lane roads, so the method would be
applied separately to the three types
JJ A review of safety data of facilities and separately for urban
JJ An assessment of supporting and rural environments. Another
documentation method would be to investigate
sites that experience a gradual or
JJ An assessment of field conditions sudden increase in mean collision
frequency.21
Safety data review
Following the detailed review of
19 An analyst can conduct a detailed
the crash data, the analyst can
review of the crash data from police
Kononov, J. create collision diagrams, condition
(2002), Identifying reports to identify patterns. This
diagrams, and crash maps to
Locations could involve reviewing the crash
with Potential summarize the crash information
type, severity, sequence of events,
for Collision by location. A collision diagram
Reductions: and contributing circumstances.
Use of Direct is a tool to identify and display
Different visualization tools, such
Diagnostics and crash patterns. Many resources,
Pattern Recognition pie charts, bar charts, or tabular
including the HSM, provide guidance
Methodologies, summaries, can be used to display
Transportation on developing collision diagrams.
various crash statistics. In addition
Research Record Examples of collision diagrams are
1784, pp. 153-158. to reviewing descriptive statistics,
shown in Figure 4-6 and Figure 4-7.
analysts can use various methods
Each crash at the site is displayed
to identify underlying safety issues
according to where it occurred,
20 based on the recognition of crash
what type of crash it was, how
patterns.
Heydecker, B. J., and severe it was, and various other
J. Wu (1991), Using
One method would be to identify characteristics. An analyst uses
the Information
in Road Accident locations that have a proportion of symbols to visually represent many
Records Proc., 19th of these characteristics.
a specific collision type relative to
PTRC Summer
Annual Meeting, the total collisions that is higher
Condition diagrams include a
London. than some average or threshold
drawing with information about
proportion value for similar road
the site characteristics including
types. Kononov found that looking
21 information about the roadway
at the percentage distribution of
(e.g., number of lanes, presence
Hauer, E. (1996), collisions by collision type can reveal
of medians, pedestrian and bicycle
Detection of Safety the “existence of collision patterns
Deterioration facilities, shoulder information),
in a Series of susceptible to correction” that may
surrounding land uses, and
Accident Counts. or may not be accompanied by the
Transportation pavement conditions. Condition
overrepresentation in expected
Research Record diagrams can be overlaid on top of
1542, 38-43. or expected excess collisions.19
collisions diagrams to gain further
Heydecker and Wu originally
Hauer, E. (1996), insight to the crash patterns.
Statistical Test proposed this method.20 The method
of the Difference is identical for different location Crash mapping involves the use of
between Expected
Accident types. However, only similar geographic information systems
Frequencies, location types should be analyzed (GIS) to integrate information
Transportation
together because collision patterns from the roadway network with
Research Record
1542, 24-29. will naturally differ. For example, information from geocoded crash
the collision patterns are different data. If the geocoded crash data are

4-16 UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

 FIGURE 4-6:
Example
Collision
Diagram at an
Intersection

FIGURE 4-7:
Example
Collision
Diagram at
a Ramp

accurate, then crash mapping can Assess field conditions

provide valuable insights into crash
locations and crash patterns. Field observations are useful for
supplementing crash data and can
Assess supporting help the analyst understand the
behavior of drivers, pedestrians,
documentation
and bicyclists. The first stage of
This step involves a review of the field investigation should
documented information about be an on-site examination of a
the site along with interviews of road user’s experience. Those
local transportation professionals conducting the assessment should
to obtain additional perspectives travel through the site at different
on the safety data review from times of the day using different
the previous step. Examples of modes of transportation (e.g.,
supporting documentation include driving, walking, and bicycling).
traffic volumes, construction plans Assessors should observe the mix
and design criteria, photos and of vehicle traffic and other road
maintenance logs, weather patterns, users. They should also observe
and recent traffic studies in the area. traffic movements, conflicts, and

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS 4-17

 ROAD SAFETY AUDIT TRADITIONAL SAFETY REVIEW

Safety review team within the project team

Independent, multi-disciplinary team
with only safety and/or design experience

Considers all potential road users (pedestrians,

Often concentrates only on motor vehicles
bicyclists, motor vehicles, transit users)

Accounts for road user capabilities Safety reviews do not normally

and limitations consider human factor issues

Always generates a formal report Often does not generate a formal report

Often does not generate a formal

Always generates a formal response report
response report

TABLE 4-5: Differences between Road Safety Audit and Traditional Road Safety Review
(Source: FHWA)

operating speeds. Those conducting JJ What elements of the road may

the field review could determine present a safety concern, and to
whether the road and intersection what extent, to which road users,
characteristics are consistent and under what circumstances?
with driver expectation and if
JJ What opportunities exist to
roadside recovery zones are clear
eliminate or mitigate identified
and traversable.
safety concerns?
Road safety audits The multidisciplinary audit team
One method to assess field consists of people who represent
conditions is a road safety audit different areas of expertise, such as
(RSA). This is the formal safety engineering (e.g., design, traffic,
performance examination of and maintenance), law enforcement,
22 safety educators, public officials,
an existing or future road or
“Road Safety Audits intersection by an independent, community traffic safety advocates,
(RSA),” accessed and others. Any phase of project
August 7, 2013,
multidisciplinary team. An RSA
http://safety.fhwa. qualitatively estimates and reports development (planning, preliminary
dot.gov/rsa/ engineering, design, construction)
on existing and potential road safety
issues and identifies opportunities and any sized project from minor
for safety improvements for all intersection and roadway retrofits
road users. FHWA encourages to mega-projects are eligible for
States, local jurisdictions and tribal an RSA.
governments to integrate RSAs into
Most State DOTs have established
the project development process for
safety review processes. However,
new roads and intersections and to
RSAs and a traditional safety reviews
conduct RSAs on existing ones.
are different. Table 4-5 shows the
The purpose of an RSA is to answer difference between an RSA and a
the following questions: traditional safety review.22

4-18 UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

 factors. Analysts can use the Haddon
International Road Matrix to identify human, vehicle,
Assessment Programme and roadway factors contributing
The International Road Assessment to the frequency and severity of
Programme (iRAP) conducts safety crashes prior to, during, and after
inspections on high-risk roads in more the crash event. Then, analysts
than 70 countries. The iRAP inspectors can identify targeted reactive and
perform a detailed road survey, focusing
proactive countermeasures to
on road attributes that are known to be
associated with crash risk. These include address or mitigate the underlying
intersection design, number of lanes, contributing factors for the given
roadside hazards, and provisions for site. Chapter 6 of the 1st edition of
pedestrian crossings. The inspectors the HSM provides further discussion
use these data to develop a star rating, of the Haddon Matrix.
which reflects the level of safety of the
road, and provide detailed feedback to The Haddon Matrix is comprised
the government agency in the form of an of nine cells to identify human,
assessment report. iRAP also provides
a Road Safety Toolkit, which helps vehicle, and roadway factors
engineers, planners, and policy makers contributing to the target crash
develop safety plans for all road users.23 type or severity outcome before,
23
during, and after the crash. Pre-
crash factors speak to the factors http://www.irap.net/
Step 3. Countermeasure or actions prior to the crash that http://toolkit.irap.
selection contributed to the occurrence of the org/

crash. Crash factors speak to those

After diagnosing the safety factors or actions that occurred at
issues at the site, analysts select the moment of the crash. Post-crash
countermeasures to address factors speak to factors that come
the contributing factors for into play after the crash that affect
observed crashes. The first part the severity of the injuries or speed
of countermeasure selection is 24
of response. Examples of human
to identify countermeasures to factors include fatigue, inattention, Haddon, W., Jr.
target the underlying safety issues. age, and failure to wear a seat belt. (1972). A logical
framework for
Analysts can use tools like the Vehicle factors include bald tires, categorizing
Haddon Matrix and resources like airbag operations, and worn brakes. highway safety
phenomena and
the NCHRP Report 500 series to Examples of roadway factors include activity. Journal of
identify targeted countermeasures pavement friction, weather, grade, Trauma 12: 193–207.
to address or mitigate underlying and limited sight distance.
contributing factors.
Table 4-6 is an example application
25
Identifying contributing factors of the Haddon Matrix from the
Highway Safety Improvement Susan Herbel,
The Haddon Matrix is a tool Lorrie Laing,
Program (HSIP) Manual for crashes
Colleen McGovern
originally developed for injury in an urban area.25 The top-left (2010), Highway
prevention, but it is directly cell identifies driver behaviors or Safety Improvement
Program (HSIP)
applicable to highway safety in characteristics that may contribute Manual, FHWA-
both diagnosis and countermeasure to the likelihood or the severity of SA-09-029,
Federal Highway
selection.24 The Haddon Matrix is a collision, such as poor vision or Administration,
useful to gain a comprehensive reaction time, alcohol consumption, Washington, DC.
understanding of crash contributing speeding, and risk taking. These

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS 4-19

 factors should be considered when important to stay informed of the
26
selecting countermeasures. For available resources and tools.26
Highway Safety example, based on these human
Improvement Some of the most useful resources
Program Manual. factors, successful countermeasures
and tools for countermeasure
Federal Highway may be those that improve visibility
Administration, guidance and selection are listed
Washington, D.C., or reduce speeding. The matrix in its
below (alphabetically):
2010, Chapter 3 entirety provides a range of potential
issues that can be addressed through JJ Bicycle Safety Guide and
a variety of countermeasures Countermeasure Selection System
including education, enforcement, (BIKESAFE, www.pedbikesafe.
engineering, and emergency org/bikesafe) – This resource
response solutions. provides practitioners with the
latest information available
Countermeasure for improving the safety and
resources and tools mobility of those who bike.
The online tools provide the
Diagnosing a roadway safety
user with a list of possible
problem and identifying effective
engineering, education, or
countermeasures is a skill
enforcement treatments to
developed through education,
improve bicycle safety and/or
training, research, and experience.
mobility based on user input
Many resources are available to
about a specific location.
help transportation professionals
analyze and develop JJ Countermeasures That Work: A
countermeasures. Since the Highway Safety Countermeasure
transportation field continuously Guide for State Highway Safety
generates new knowledge and Offices – This document serves
countermeasure approaches, it is as a basic reference to help state

VEHICLE/ PHYSICAL SOCIO-

PERIOD HUMAN EQUIPMENT ENVIRONMENT ECONOMIC

PRE- Poor vision or Failed brakes, Narrow Cultural norms

CRASH
reaction time, missing lights, shoulders, permitting
alcohol, speeding, lack of warning ill-timed signals speeding, red
risk taking systems light running, DUI

CRASH Failure to Malfunctioning Poorly designed Lack of

use occupant safety belts, guardrails vehicle design
restraints poorly engineered regulations
air bags

POST- High Poorly designed Poor emergency Lack of support

CRASH
susceptibility, fuel tanks communication for EMS and
alcohol systems trauma systems

TABLE 4-6: Haddon Matrix for crashes in an urban area (Source: HSIP Manual)

4-20 UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

 highway safety offices (SHSOs) JJ Highway Safety Manual (www.
select effective, evidence-based highwaysafetymanual.org) –
countermeasures for traffic This document provides
safety problem areas related science-based knowledge
to user behaviors, such as and tools to conduct safety
alcohol-impaired and drugged analyses, allowing for safety
driving, seat belts and child to be quantitatively evaluated
restraints, and aggressive alongside other transportation
driving and speeding.27 27
performance measures, such
as traffic operations, Goodwin, A.,
JJ Crash Modification Factors Thomas, L., Kirley,
Clearinghouse (www. environmental impacts, B., Hall, W., O’Brien,
and construction costs. N., & Hill, K. (2015).
cmfclearinghouse.org) – This Countermeasures
website offers transportation that work: A
JJ National Cooperative Highway highway safety
professionals a central, online
Research Program (NCHRP) countermeasure
repository of crash modification guide for State
Report 500 Series (safety. highway safety
factors (CMFs) that indicate the
transportation.org/guides.aspx) offices, Eighth
safety effect on crashes due to edition. (Report No.
– This resource is a collection DOT HS 812 202).
infrastructure improvements.
of 23 reports in which relevant Washington, DC:
The website also provides National Highway
information is assembled into Traffic Safety
additional information and
single concise volumes, each Administration.
resources related to CMFs. Accessed February
This site is funded by FHWA. pertaining to specific types 2017 at www.nhtsa.
of highway crashes (e.g., gov/staticfiles/
nti/pdf/812202-
JJ FHWA Proven Countermeasures run-off-the-road, head-on) Countermeasures
(safety.fhwa.dot.gov/ or contributing factors (e.g., ThatWork8th.pdf
provencountermeasures) – aggressive driving) related
FHWA regularly compiles a list to behaviors, vehicles, and
of countermeasures that have
roadways. Countermeasures
been shown to be effective in
are categorized as proven,
reducing crashes but have yet
tried, and experimental.
to be widely applied on a
national basis. JJ Pedestrian Safety Guide and
Countermeasure Selection System
JJ Handbook for Designing Roadways
(PEDSAFE, www.pedbikesafe.
for the Aging Population (safety.
fhwa.dot.gov/older_users/ org/pedsafe) – This resource
provides practitioners with the
handbook) – This FHWA guide
provides practitioners with a latest information available 28
practical information source that for improving the safety and
Brewer, M., D.
links aging road user performance mobility of those who walk. Murillo, A. Pate
to highway design, operational, The online tools provide the (2014). Handbook
for Designing
and traffic engineering features. user with a list of possible Roadways for the
This handbook supplements engineering, education, or Aging Population,
Report No.
existing standards and guidelines enforcement treatments to FHWA-SA-14-015,
in the areas of highway improve pedestrian safety and/ Federal Highway
Administration,
geometry, operations, and or mobility based on user input Washington, D.C.
traffic control devices.28 about a specific location.

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS 4-21

 29 Identifying and selecting
Guidance on CMF application
www.
countermeasures
cmfclearinghouse.
FHWA provides an extensive selection
org
After identifying potential of guidance on selecting and applying
countermeasures to target CMFs through the CMF Clearinghouse
the underlying issues, safety (www.cmfclearinghouse.org). They
present answers to frequently asked
professionals must estimate the
questions, such as “How can I apply
safety impact of countermeasures, multiple CMFs?” and “How do I choose
individually and in combination. It between CMFs in my search results that
is important to consider positive and have the same star rating but different
negative safety impacts. Subsequent CMF values?” The website also houses
steps of the roadway safety an archive of annual webinars in which
experienced CMF users talk about
management process (i.e., economic
issues related to applying CMFs in
appraisal and project prioritization) real world situations.
include the consideration of other
parameters, such as constructability,
environmental impacts, and cost. then that countermeasure is
The agency that will be making the expected to increase crashes.
final decision on countermeasure JJ A CMF of 1.0 implies that a
selection should make sure to countermeasure will not have
coordinate with other safety any effect on safety.
partners to ensure that the
countermeasure is appropriate for all For example, if the expected number
parties. For example, a DOT should of crashes without a countermeasure
coordinate with law enforcement is 5.6 crashes per year, and the CMF
and emergency response to make for the particular countermeasure
sure that a proposed engineering is 0.8, then the expected number of
installation will interfere with crashes with the countermeasure is:
enforcement activities or impede
5.6 crashes per year x 0.8 =
emergency responders.
4.48 crashes per year
For infrastructure improvements,
It is important to recognize that
CMFs associated with different
some countermeasures may decrease
countermeasures provide a
some types of crashes but increase
mechanism for determining
other types. For example, installing
the safety effect of different
a traffic signal would be expected to
countermeasures. A CMF is a
decrease severe collisions, such as
multiplicative factor used to
right angle and left turn crashes, but
compute the expected number of
it would be expected to increase less
crashes after implementing a given
severe crashes, such as rear ends.
countermeasure at a specific site.
The CMF Clearinghouse and the first
JJ If the CMF for a particular
edition of the HSM provide CMFs
treatment is less than 1.0, then
for a variety of countermeasures.29
that countermeasure is expected
Only those CMFs that passed a set
to reduce crashes.
of inclusion criteria based on quality
JJ If the CMF for a particular and reliability were included in the
treatment is greater than 1.0, HSM. The CMFs in the clearinghouse

4-22 UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

are provided for any published critical for practitioners to use
study, regardless of quality, and engineering judgment when a CMF
are continuously updated based on is not available for the situations
the latest research. The CMFs in encountered as there are some cases
the clearinghouse are reviewed and for which a CMF that was developed
given a star quality rating ranging for different conditions might be the
from one to five stars, based on the best available.
quality of the study. Higher stars
imply a better quality CMF. Step 4. Economic appraisal
CMFs should be applied to situations An economic appraisal of alternative
that closely match those from countermeasures should be
which the CMF was developed. conducted to ensure that safety
Several variables can be used to funds are being used as efficiently
match a CMF to a given scenario as possible. This appraisal helps
including roadway type, area type, transportation agencies achieve
segment or intersection geometry, their desired safety performance the
intersection traffic control, and fastest and at the lowest possible
traffic volume. However, it is cost. An agency can compare

Calculating benefits due to crash reduction

A city has a stop-controlled intersection in the calculation of the crash reduction
with an expected crash frequency of 10 benefit.30 This CMF applies only to serious
crashes per year, consisting of one A-injury and minor injury crashes, so they do not 30
crash, one B-injury crash, two C-injury use it to estimate any reduction to fatal or Rodegerdts et al.,
crashes, and six PDO crashes. PDO crashes (see note). “NCHRP Report
572: Applying
The city is considering installing a They multiply the CMF by the expected Roundabouts in
roundabout at the intersection. Based on crashes before roundabout installation the United States.”
a search of the FHWA CMF Clearinghouse, to determine the expected crashes after Washington, D.C.,
Transportation
they decide that they will use a CMF of 0.19 installation:
Research Board,
National Research
A- B- C- Council, (2007)
CRASH SEVERITY FATAL INJURY INJURY INJURY PDO

I Expected Crashes per Year 0 1 1 2 6

before Roundabout

II CMF N/A 0.19 0.19 0.19 N/A

III Expected Crashes per Year 0 0.19 0.19 0.38 6

after Roundabout (I x II)

IV Crash reduction benefit (I 0 0.81 0.81 1.62 0

minus III)

Thus, the benefit of a roundabout NOTE: A roundabout would also likely bring
installation is expected to be a reduction of a reduction to fatal and PDO crashes (i.e.,
0.81 A-injury crashes, 0.81 B-injury crashes, additional CMFs could be incorporated), but
and 1.62 C-injury crashes per year. the example has been simplified to a single
CMF for illustration purposes.

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS 4-23

 the benefits expected from the
INJURY COMPREHENSIVE
countermeasure to the estimated SEVERITY LEVEL CRASH COST
costs of the countermeasure.
Fatality (K) $4,008,900
Some safety countermeasures have
a higher-cost value than others. Disabling Injury (A) $216,000
Geometric improvements to the
road, such as straightening a tight Evident Injury (B) $79,000
curve to reduce run-off-road Fatal/Injury (K/A/B) $158,200
crashes, tend to be very expensive.
Installing a curve warning sign Possible Injury (C) $44,900
and in curve delineation may
address the same problem, but PDO (O) $7,400
at a much lower cost. Although
both countermeasures address the TABLE 4-7: Crash Costs by Severity Level
same problem, the actual safety in the Highway Safety Manual, 1st ed.
benefit may not be the same. Safety
professionals take the relative costs
and benefits into consideration crashes reduced. This monetary
when prioritizing among value is also called the crash cost.
countermeasures. Part of calculating Crash costs are based on costs to
the cost of a countermeasure society, such as lost productivity,
is considering how those costs medical costs, legal and court costs,
vary over time, while taking into emergency service costs, insurance
consideration any maintenance administration costs, congestion
costs and long term effectiveness. costs, property damage, and
31 workplace losses.31
Blincoe, L. J., Miller, Estimating benefits The benefit from the
T. R., Zaloshnja, E.,
and Lawrence, B. The primary benefit of a countermeasure is the sum of the
A. The economic countermeasure is a reduction crash costs for crashes prevented by
and societal
impact of motor in crash frequency or severity. the countermeasure. Assigning costs
vehicle crashes, To estimate the safety benefits, to crashes is a topic that is under
2010. (Revised), constant discussion and revision
a safety professional should use
National Highway
Traffic Safety CMFs, such as those discussed nationwide. States differ widely
Administration, in the countermeasure selection in the dollar amount that they
Report No. DOT HS
812 013, Washington, step. CMFs can be applied to the assign to crashes, though all States
DC, May 2015. actual crashes or expected crashes apply higher values to more severe
based on the EB method. Expected crashes. The CMF Clearinghouse
crashes are preferred because they provides a synthesis of crash costs
32 account for possible bias due to RTM. that are used by various States.32
The estimated change in crashes
http://www. Additionally, the first edition of the
cmfclearinghouse. represents the expected benefit from
HSM provided a list of crash costs by
org/resources_ the countermeasure.
servlifecrash severity level (Table 4-7). However,
costguide.cfm since the publication of the first
For each proposed countermeasure,
the change in crash frequency and/ HSM in 2010, the USDOT has issued
or severity needs to be converted periodic recommendations that
to monetary value, based on the dramatically raised the values. For
monetary value of the type of instance, the monetary value of a

4-24 UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

fatal crash was listed as $4 million in similar countermeasures. Table 4-8
33
the HSM, but recommended as over illustrates the types of startup and
$9 million in a 2013 policy memo ongoing costs that would be incurred Trottenberg,
Polly, and Robert
from USDOT.33 for various countermeasures. Rivkin, “Revised
Departmental
Although countermeasures are Service life Guidance 2013:
Treatment of the
primarily expected to reduce
Value of Preventing
crashes, there might be other Another important consideration Fatalities and
benefits, including reduced travel when calculating the benefits Injuries,”
and costs of a countermeasure USDOT Office of
times or lower fuel consumption. For the Secretary of
example, a roundabout can decrease is the length of time that the Transportation, 2013.

total delay at an intersection if countermeasure will last. This

is referred to as the service life.
applied and configured properly.
Countermeasures, such as road
An AASHTO publication provides
edgelines or pavement reflectors,
guidance on estimating these other
will have a much shorter service 34
non-safety benefits.34
life (e.g., three to five years) than
User and Non-User
Estimating costs countermeasures, such as traffic Benefit Analysis for
Highways, American
signal installation or sidewalk
Association of
The costs of the proposed construction (e.g., 20 years or State Highway
countermeasure include the startup more). Many States have a standard Transportation
Officials, September
cost and the ongoing operational and list of the service life values used 2010
maintenance costs. These costs can for common countermeasures.
usually be estimated based on costs The CMF Clearinghouse provides a
of materials, labor cost per person- survey of service life values used by
hour, cost of additional right-of- various States for many different
way, and past experience with countermeasures.35 35
http://www.
cmfclearinghouse.
Calculating monetary benefit of crash reduction org/resources_
servlifecrash
The previous example showed that a city USDOT, and experiences of other cities costguide.cfm
calculated a crash savings of 0.81 A-injury and States and determined a standard set
crashes, 0.81 B-injury crashes, and 1.62 of crash costs they will use for all benefit/
C-injury crashes per year by installing cost calculations. They apply these costs
a roundabout. The city has examined to determine the monetary benefit of the
guidance from the HSM, guidance from expected crash reductions:

A- B- C-
CRASH SEVERITY FATAL INJURY INJURY INJURY PDO

IV Crash Reduction Benefit 0 0.81 0.81 1.62 0

V This City’s Standard Crash Cost $5 mil $400,000 $100,000 $60,000 $10,000

VI Monetary benefit of crash 0 $324,000 $81,000 $97,200 0

reduction (IV x V)

Thus, the city expects a total monetary benefit of $324,000+$81,000+$97,200 =

$502,000 per year due to reduction in crashes.

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS 4-25

 ONGOING COST
COUNTERMEASURE STARTUP COST DURING SERVICE LIFE

Install curve Low – sign material, minimal

None
warning sign labor for installation

High – Design plan, purchase

Low – maintenance of
of additional right-of-way,
Install roundabout grass and decorative
material, labor, traffic control
vegetation
during construction

High – Timing plan, material, Moderate – electricity,

Install traffic signal labor for installation, traffic bulb replacements, repairs,
control during construction modifications to timing

TABLE 4-8: Examples of Countermeasure Costs

The service life is used in the

calculation of the present value Calculating the present value
of the benefits and costs of the of a crash reduction benefit
proposed countermeasure. The From the previous example, the city
calculation of present value includes plans to install a roundabout and
a discount rate that reflects the time expects to see a benefit from crash
value of money (i.e., present dollars reductions resulting in savings of
$502,000 per year. They estimate that the
are worth more than future dollars).
roundabout will have a service life of 20
Present value of countermeasure years and they determine that a discount
benefits is calculated as follows: rate of 5% is appropriate. They calculate
the present value of benefits as:
( 1+i) y - 1
PV = A × (1+0.05)20-1
i× (1 +i) y PV = $502,000 ×
0.05×(1+0.05)20
PV = present value of benefits
= $6,256,030
A = annual benefit (i.e., monetary value of
crashes prevented)

i = discount rate costs, the final present value must

also include the startup cost in the
y = service life of countermeasure
year of installation (see examples
Calculating present value in this way in Table 4-8).
36 assumes a uniform annual benefit.
The HSIP Manual demonstrates Methods for
Herbel, Susan,
Lorrie Laing, Colleen how to calculate present value if the economic appraisal
McGovern, Highway benefits or costs each year are not
Safety Improvement There are several methods for
Program the same.36
(HSIP) Manual,
using the values of estimated
Federal Highway The present value of annual costs benefits and costs to evaluate the
Administration, economic effectiveness of safety
(i.e., operational and maintenance
FHWA-SA-09-029,
January 2010 costs) can be calculated in the same improvement projects at a particular
manner as for benefits. However, for site. In particular, these methods

4-26 UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

are useful in situations where a The formula for NPV is:
safety professional is considering
several alternatives and desires to
NPV = PVB − PVC
choose the countermeasure with the PVB = Present value of benefits
greatest benefit for the cost.
PVC = Present value of costs
The HSIP Manual contains guidance
on three methods - net present A countermeasure will result in a
value, benefit/cost ratio, and cost net benefit if the NPV is greater than
effectiveness index.37 Net present zero. Table 4-9 summarizes the 37
value (NPV) is generally regarded NPV calculations of four alternative
Herbel, Susan,
as the most economically countermeasures. Lorrie Laing, Colleen
appropriate method, though the McGovern, Highway
For Alternative A, the NPV can be Safety Improvement
other two methods have certain Program
calculated as follows:
advantages, as discussed below. (HSIP) Manual,
Federal Highway
The following sections provide NPV = $1,800,268 − $500,000 Administration,
quoted guidance from the HSIP = $1,300,268 FHWA-SA-09-029,
Manual on economic appraisal. January 2010.
The same calculation is performed
Net Present Value for the other three countermeasure
alternatives, and rank each
The NPV method, also called the
net present worth (NPW) method, countermeasure based on its NPV.
expresses the difference between the As shown, all four alternatives
present values of benefits and costs are economically justified with a
of a safety improvement project. NPV greater than zero. However,
The NPV method has two basic Alternative B has the greatest NPV
functions: 1) determining which for this site based on this method.
countermeasure(s) is/are most Benefit/Cost Ratio and Analysis
cost efficient based on the highest
NPV and 2) determining whether The benefit/cost ratio (BCR) is
a countermeasure’s benefits are the ratio of the present value of a
greater than its costs (i.e., the project’s benefits to the present
project has a NPV greater than zero). value of a project’s costs.

PRESENT PRESENT NET

ALTERNATIVE VALUE OF VALUE OF PRESENT ALTERNATIVE
COUNTERMEASURE BENEFITS (I) COSTS (II) VALUE (I-II) RANK

A $1,800,268 $500,000 $1,300,268 3

B $3,255,892 $1,200,000 $2,055,892 1

C $3,958,768 $2,100,000 $1,858,768 2

D $2,566,476 $1,270,000 $1,296,476 4

TABLE 4-9: Net Present Value (Source: HSIP Manual, Chapter 4)

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS 4-27

 The formula for BCR is: cost analysis, transportation
professionals compare all of
BCR = PVB / PVC
the benefits associated with
PVB = Present value of benefits a countermeasure (e.g., crash
reduction), expressed in monetary
PVC = Present value of costs
terms, to the cost of implementing
Table 4-10 shows an example the countermeasure. A benefit/cost
of using BCR to prioritize four analysis provides a quantitative
alternatives. measure to help safety professionals
prioritize countermeasures or
A project with a BCR greater than 1.0
projects and optimize the return
indicates that the benefits outweigh
on investment.
the costs. However, the BCR is not
applicable for comparing various Cost-Effectiveness Index
countermeasures or multiple
In situations where it is not
projects at various sites; this requires
an incremental benefit/cost analysis. possible or practical to monetize
countermeasure benefits,
An incremental benefit/cost analysis transportation professionals can
provides a basis of comparison of the use the cost-effectiveness index
benefits of a project for the dollars method in lieu of the NPV or BCR.
invested. It allows the analyst to Cost-effectiveness is simply the
compare the economic effectiveness amount of money invested divided
of one project against another; by the crashes reduced. The result
however, it does not consider budget is a number that represents the
constraints. Optimization methods cost of the avoided crashes of
are best for prioritizing projects a certain countermeasure. The
based on monetary constraints. countermeasure with the lowest
An in-depth explanation of value is the most cost-effective and
incremental benefit/cost analysis
therefore ranked first.
and an example is provided in
Chapter 4 of the HSIP Manual. Cost-Effectiveness Index = PVC/CR
When conducting a benefit/ PVC = Present value of project cost

PRESENT PRESENT BENEFIT/

ALTERNATIVE VALUE OF VALUE OF COST ALTERNATIVE
COUNTERMEASURE BENEFITS (I) COSTS (II) RATIO (I/II) RANK

A $1,800,268 $500,000 3.6 1

B $3,255,892 $1,200,000 2.7 2

C $3,958,768 $2,100,000 1.9 4

D $2,566,476 $1,270,000 2.0 3

TABLE 4-10: Example of Benefit/Cost Ratio Prioritization (Source: HSIP Manual, Chapter 4)

4-28 UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

 PRESENT TOTAL COST-
ALTERNATIVE VALUE OF CRASH EFFECTIVE- ALTERNATIVE
COUNTERMEASURE COSTS REDUCTION NESS INDEX RANK

A $500,000 43 $11,628 1

B $1,200,000 63 $19,048 3

C $2,100,000 70 $30,000 4

D $1,270,000 73 $17,397 2

TABLE 4-11: Cost-Effectiveness Index (Source: HSIP Manual, Chapter 4)

CR = Total crash reduction therefore ranked first. Alternative

A is ranked first, since it has the
The Cost-Effectiveness Index
lowest cost associated with each
is a simple and quick method
crash reduction.
that provides an indication of a
project’s value. Transportation The above example uses the number
professionals can use this formula of crashes to determine the cost-
and compare its results with other effectiveness index. Transportation
safety improvement projects. The professionals can use this same
Cost-Effectiveness Index method, method using EPDO crash numbers,
however, does not account for value which has the advantage of
differences between reductions in considering severity.
fatal crashes compared to injury 38
crashes, and whether a project is Step 5. Project prioritization
Highway Safety
economically justified.38
If a transportation agency Improvement
Program Manual.
Table 4-11 summarizes the is considering installing Federal Highway
calculations using the cost- countermeasures at one or more Administration
(Washington D.C.,
effectiveness index method to rank sites out of a group of potential 2010), Chapter 4
alternative countermeasures, given sites, they will need to prioritize
the present value of the costs and which projects they will implement.
the total crash reduction. Ideally, the agency would implement
all projects that bring a safety
For Alternative A, calculate the cost-
benefit (e.g., all those with a NPV
effectiveness index as follows:
greater than zero or a BCR greater
Cost-effectiveness index = 500,000/43 than one). However, all agencies
= 11,628 work within a limited budget and
must prioritize where safety funds
Calculate the Cost-Effectiveness
are spent.
Index for the remaining alternatives
and rank each countermeasure based The agency can use steps 1 through
on its Cost-Effectiveness Index 4 of this process to determine
value. With this method, the lowest which countermeasure(s) would be
index is the highest priority and used at each potential treatment

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS 4-29

 site and to conduct an economic Incremental BCR =
appraisal of the expected effect of
(Benefit of Project A − Benefit of Project B)
the countermeasure. The next step
is to determine project priorities. (Cost of Project A − Cost of Project B)
The HSM discusses how projects
can be prioritized by economic If the incremental BCR is greater
effectiveness, incremental than 1.0, the project with the
benefit/cost analysis, or various higher cost is compared to the next
optimization methods. project on this list; however, if the
incremental BCR is less than 1.0,
Prioritizing by the project with the lower cost is
economic effectiveness compared to the next project on the
list. This process is repeated and the
Projects can be prioritized by ranking
project selected in the last pairing
projects or project alternatives
is the considered the best economic
by the economic appraisal values
investment.
produced in step 4. An agency
might select those projects with the
Prioritizing by
highest NPV, the highest BCR, or
the highest cost effectiveness index. optimization methods
When using NPV the goal of a safety Optimization methods take into
professional should be to implement account certain constraints when
all projects that have an NPV prioritizing projects. Linear
greater than zero, since each one programming, integer programming,
brings a safety benefit. However, and dynamic programming (refer
this is not possible since funds are to Chapter 8, Appendix A, HSM,
limited, thus the goal should be to 2010) are optimization methods
implement the group of projects consistent with an incremental
that have the greatest combined benefit/cost analysis, but they also
NPV when added together (NPV is account for budget constraints in
an additive property). Maximizing the development of the project
the NPV of a group of projects is list. These optimization methods
different from prioritizing projects are more likely to be incorporated
with high NPV. In other words, it into a software package, rather
may be best to implement numerous than manually calculated. Multi-
low cost projects with low NPV than objective resource allocation is
one high cost project with a high another optimization method.
NPV – but not higher than the NPV It incorporates nonmonetary
of all the low cost projects added up. elements (including decision factors
not related to safety) into the
Prioritizing by incremental prioritization process.
benefit/cost analysis
Safety professionals may use
This method involves ranking all software applications to select
projects with benefit cost ratio and rank countermeasures. The
39 greater than 1.0 in increasing order SafetyAnalyst tool from AASHTO
of their estimated cost. An analyst includes economic appraisal
http://www.
safetyanalyst.org/ calculates an incremental BCR and priority ranking tools.39 The
as such: economic appraisal tool calculates

4-30 UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

 40
Gross, F., B.
Persaud, and
C. Lyon (2010),
A Guide for
Developing Quality
Crash Modification
Factors, Report
FHWA-SA-10-032,
Federal Highway
Administration,
Washington,
D.C. Available
at http://www.
the BCR and other metrics for a set for the countermeasure, which cmfclearinghouse.
org/resources_
of countermeasures. The priority- quantifies the effect on crashes (see develop.cfm.
ranking tool ranks proposed CMF discussion in Step 4). Accessed July 2016.
improvement projects based on
Two documents entitled A Guide
the benefit and cost estimates
to Developing Quality Crash
from the economic appraisal tool. 41
Modification Factors40 (from FHWA)
The priority-ranking tool can also
and Recommended Protocols for Carter, D., R.
determine an optimal set of projects Srinivasan, F.
Developing Crash Modification Gross, and F.
to maximize safety benefits.
Factors41 (from NCHRP) provide Council (2012),
Recommended
Step 6. Safety guidance on the different methods
Protocols for
for conducting evaluations. The Developing Crash
effectiveness evaluation following is an overview of study Modification
Factors, Prepared
Once a countermeasure has been designs and methods for conducting as part of NCHRP
implemented at a site, or group of evaluations. Project 20-07 (Task
314), Washington,
sites, it is important to determine D.C. Available
whether it was effective in
Categories of Study Designs at http://www.
cmfclearinghouse.
addressing the safety problem. For Study designs fall into two broad org/resources_
a safety professional to evaluate the develop.cfm.
categories - experimental and Accessed July 2016.
countermeasure, he or she must observational. Experimental studies
determine how the countermeasure are conducted when sites are
affected the frequency, type, and selected at random for treatment. 42
severity of crashes. For example, There is general consensus that
did the installation of a roundabout Elvik, R. (2011a),
experimental studies are the most
Assessing Causality
reduce the frequency of angle rigorous way to establish causality.42 in Multivariate
crashes? If so, by how much? Did In contrast, observational studies Accident Models,
Accident Analysis
it cause an increase to any other are conducted when sites are not and Prevention, Vol.
types of crashes? A countermeasure selected as part of an experiment but 43, pp. 253-264.
evaluation can result in a CMF selected for other reasons including

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS 4-31

 safety. Truly experimental studies from a before-after study. In a
are not common in road safety typical before-after study, an
partly because of potential liability analyst deals with same roadway
considerations (i.e., a random unit located in a particular place,
selection may result in an agency most likely used by the same road
being held liable for failing to treat users during the before and after
some sites that have demonstrated period. Since most of these factors
high crash history). Observational can be assumed to be constant or
studies are more common in almost constant in the before and
countermeasure evaluations after periods, they are less likely
because most transportation to cause significant biases. On
agencies prioritize installation sites the other hand, “cross-sectional
based on some kind of past safety studies compare different roads,
performance (see Step 1, Network used by different road users, located
Screening). at different places and subject
to different weather conditions.
Observational studies of
Besides, these roads will differ in
countermeasures can be broadly
very many other ways that are not
classified into cross-sectional
43 measured.”43 However, there are
studies and before-after studies. In
issues in both types of studies that
Elvik, R. (2011a), cross-sectional studies, an analyst
need to be addressed, and they are
Assessing Causality compares a group of sites with a
in Multivariate briefly discussed below.
Accident Models,
certain feature to a group of sites
Accident Analysis without that feature. For example, Cross sectional studies
and Prevention, Vol. an analyst might compare the
43, pp. 253-264.
safety performance of a group of Analysts use cross-sectional studies
stop-controlled intersections to to compare the safety of a group of
that of a group of yield-controlled sites with a feature with the safety of
intersections to determine the effect a group of sites without that feature.
of the type of traffic control on The resulting CMF can be derived by
crashes. Cross-sectional studies can taking the ratio of the average crash
also be thought of as “with/without” frequency of sites with the feature
studies. In before-after studies, an to the average crash frequency of
analyst takes a group of sites and sites without the feature. For this
compares the safety performance in method to work, the two groups
the period before a countermeasure of sites should be similar in their
is implemented to the period after characteristics except for the
the countermeasure is implemented. feature. In practice, this is difficult
For example, in a before-after study, to accomplish and multiple variable
an analyst could evaluate the effect regression models are used. These
of converting a stop-controlled cross-sectional models are also
intersection to a roundabout by called SPFs. The coefficients of the
comparing safety data before the variables from these equations are
roundabout conversion to the safety used to estimate the CMF associated
data afterwards. with a treatment.

CMFs that result from cross- Guidance from FHWA on developing

sectional studies are not considered CMFs says that “the basic issue
to be as robust as those resulting with the cross-sectional design is

4-32 UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

 Using cross-sectional modeling to calculate a CMF for widening shoulders
A CMF can be obtained from a cross estimated to predict the number of crashes
sectional model. Suppose the intent is per mile per year on rural two-lane roads in
to estimate the CMF for shoulder width mountainous roads with paved shoulders
based on the following SPF, which was (Appendix B of Srinivasan and Carter, 201144):
44
AADT AADT
Y = exp [ 0.8727 + 0.4414 × ln( ) + 0.4293 × ( ) -0.0164 × SW ] Srinivasan, R. and
10000 10000
D. Carter (2011),
Where, AADT is the annual average daily be estimated as the ratio of the predicted Development of
traffic and SW is the width of the paved number of crashes when the shoulder Safety Performance
shoulder in feet. If the intent is to estimate width is six feet to the predicted number Functions for North
Carolina, Report
the CMF of changing the shoulder width of crashes when the shoulder width is FHWA/NC/2010-
from three to six feet, then the CMF can three feet: 09, Submitted to
NCDOT, December
AADT AADT
exp [ 0.8727 + 0.4414 × ln( ) + 0.4293 × ( ) -0.0164 × 6 ] 2011.
10000 10000
CMF =
exp [ 0.8727 + 0.4414 × ln( AADT ) + 0.4293 × ( AADT ) -0.0164 × 3 ]
10000 10000
This ratio simplifies to: of possible values (i.e., the confidence
interval). This range can be calculated by
CMF = exp [-0.0164 × (6-3) ] = 0.952 using the standard deviation of the CMF. In
This CMF of 0.952 indicates that changing order to estimate the standard deviation,
the shoulder width from three to six feet the standard error of the coefficient of SW
would be expected to reduce crashes (since is needed, which was reported to be 0.0015
the CMF is less than 1.0). Specifically, the in the original study. The high and low ends
expected change in crashes would be a of the confidence interval are calculated
4.8% reduction (1.0 – 0.952 x 100 = 4.8). using -0.0164+0.0015, and then using
-0.0165-0.0015, and the difference between
However, it is important to recognize that the two is divided by two. The equation is
this CMF of 0.952 is the midpoint in a range given below:

exp [-0.0164+0.0015 × (6-3) ] - exp [-0.0164-0.0015 × (6-3) ]

StDev(CMF) = = 0.004
2
The approximate 95% confidence confidence interval is below 1.0, the CMF is
interval for the CMF is (0.952-1.96×0.004, statistically significant, thereby indicating
0.952+1.96×0.004), which translates to a that widening the shoulder from three to six
range of 0.944 to 0.960. Since the entire 95% feet is very likely to reduce crashes. 45
Gross, F., B.
Persaud, and
that the comparison is between two issue is not completely resolved C. Lyon (2010),
distinct groups of sites. As such, A Guide for
since it is difficult to properly
Developing Quality
the observed difference in crash account for unknown, or known Crash Modification
experience can be due to known or but unmeasured, factors. For Factors, Report
FHWA-SA-10-032,
unknown factors, other than the
these reasons, caution needs to Federal Highway
feature of interest. Known factors, Administration,
be exercised in making inferences Washington,
such as traffic volume or geometric
about CMFs derived from cross- D.C. Available
characteristics, can be controlled at http://www.
for in principle by estimating a sectional designs. Where there are cmfclearinghouse.
sufficient applications of a specific org/resources_
multiple variable regression model develop.cfm.
and inferring the CMF for a feature countermeasure, the before-after Accessed July 2016.
from its coefficient. However, the design is clearly preferred.”45

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS 4-33

 46
Gooch, J.P., Gayah,
V.V., and Donnell, E.T.
(2016), Quantifying
the Safety Effects of
Horizontal Curves
on Two-Way, Two-
Lane Rural Roads,
Accident Analysis
and Prevention, Vol.
92, pp. 71-81.

47
Holmes, W.M., (2013).
Using Propensity Scores
in Quasi-Experimental
Designs. SAGE
Publications.

48
Wood, J., Porter, R.,
(2013). Safety impacts One way to account for some of Other types of cross-sectional
of design exceptions
on non-freeway the limitations of cross-sectional methods include case control and
segments. Transport. regression models is to use the cohort methods. “Case-control
Res. Rec.: J. Transport.
Res. Board 2358, 29–37. propensity scores-potential studies select sites based on outcome
outcome method. This method status (e.g., crash or no crash) and
uses the “individual traits of a then determine the prior treatment
49 site to calculate its propensity (or risk factor) status within each
score, defined as a measure of the outcome group.”49 Another critical
Gross, F., B. Persaud,
and C. Lyon (2010), likelihood of that site receiving a component of many case-control
A Guide for studies is the matching of cases with
Developing Quality specific treatment. Sites with and
Crash Modification controls in order to control for the
without the treatment are then
Factors, Report effect of confounding factors. In
FHWA-SA-10-032, matched based on their propensity
Federal Highway cohort studies, sites are assigned to
scores.”46 The matched data are
Administration, a particular cohort based on current
Washington, D.C. then used to estimate a cross
Available at http://
treatment status and followed over
sectional regression model. The
www.cmfclearing time to observe exposure and event
house.org/ propensity score method has been frequency. One cohort may include
resources_ develop.
cfm. Accessed July
shown to reduce selection bias by the treatment and the other may be
2016. accounting for the non-random a control group without the
assignment of treatment sites.47 treatment. The time to a crash in
Recently, the propensity score these groups is used to determine a
50 method is starting to be used in relative risk, which is the percentage
See next page. place of traditional cross-sectional change in the probability of a crash
methods to conduct evaluations.48 given the treatment.50

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Before after studies hazard locations are vulnerable to
50
the RTM bias. This potential bias
An analyst can use a before-after is greatest when sites are chosen Carter, D., R.
study to evaluate a countermeasure because of their extreme value (e.g.,
Srinivasan, F.
Gross, and F.
by comparing the crashes before the high number of crashes or crash Council (2012),
countermeasure was installed to the rate) in a given time period. A simple Recommended
Protocols for
crashes after installation. This study before-after evaluation has a high Developing Crash
design is advantageous because likelihood of showing a much greater Modification
the only change that has occurred Factors, Prepared
benefit from the safety treatment as part of NCHRP
at the site is the countermeasure than actually occurred. Project 20-07 (Task
installation (assuming the analyst 314), Washington,

has researched the site histories As discussed earlier under the D.C. Available
at http://www.
to discard any sites at which other network screening section, the EB cmfclearinghouse.
significant changes occurred). method is one of the methods that org/resources_
has been found to be effective in develop.cfm.
Accessed July 2016.
There are issues for consideration dealing with the possible bias due to
with this study design as well. RTM. The following steps are needed
The analyst must know when the to conduct an EB before-after
countermeasure was installed and evaluation:
must have data, such as crash and
1. IDENTIFY a reference group of
traffic volume, available in the before
sites without the treatment, but
and after periods. For high-cost,
similar to the treatment sites
high-profile countermeasures, such
in terms of the major factors
as road widening or traffic signal
that affect crash risk including
installation, the installation records
traffic volume and other site
will be readily available. However, for
characteristics. One way to
low-cost countermeasures, such as
identify a reference group that
sign installations, there may be little
is similar to the treatment is to
to no documentation on when they
use the propensity score method
were installed. discussed earlier under cross-
The analyst might simply compare sectional studies.
the number of crashes per year 2. Using data from the reference
before the countermeasure to the site, ESTIMATE SPFs using data
number of crashes per year after the from the reference sites relating
countermeasure, known as a simple crashes to independent variables,
or naïve before-after evaluation. such as traffic volume and other
Although a simple before-after site characteristics. As discussed
evaluation can be done easily in the following steps, SPFs
using only crash data, it is prone to are used in the EB method to
significant bias. One of the most predict the average number of
influential biases for this method crashes based on AADT and site
is the possible bias due to RTM. As characteristics. By selecting
discussed earlier, RTM describes a the reference group to be
situation in which crash rates are similar to the treatment group
artificially high during the before in terms of the major risk
period and would have been reduced factors, we can reduce the
even without an improvement to possible bias due to confounding
the site. Programs focused on high- on these predictions.

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS 4-35

 Using an EB before-after evaluation to develop a CMF for signal phasing changes

This example is an illustration of an EB In this example:

before-after evaluation that was conducted
51 as part of NCHRP Project 17-35.51 The 1
countermeasure was a change from w= = 0.243
Srinivasan, R. et ( 1 + 0.5641 × 5.535 )
permissive to protected-permissive left turn
al., Evaluation of
Safety Strategies phasing at signalized intersections in North
at Signalized Carolina. Data from twelve locations were The EB estimate of the crashes in the before
Intersections, period (EBb) = 5.535*0.243 + 10*(1-0.243) =
NCHRP Report 705, used in this evaluation. A reference group
Washington, DC. of 49 signalized intersections was identified 8.917 crashes.
for the development of SPFs. The analysis The predicted number of crashes from the
looked at total intersection crashes, injury SPF in the after period was 11.391 (Pa).
and fatal crashes, rear end crashes, and left
The formula for the EB expected number
turn opposing through (LTOT) crashes. In
of crashes that would have occurred
this example, only the data for LTOT crashes
in the after period had there been no
will be used. countermeasure is given by:
The SPF for LTOT crashes based on the data
from the reference group was:
π = EBb × ( Pa / Pb )

LTOT crashes/intersection/year = In this example, the EB expected number

of crashes in the after period had the
e-0.3696 (MajAADT/10000)0.5564 countermeasure not been implemented
e0.6585×(MinAADT / 10000) (π) is equal to:

Where, MajAADT is the major road AADT

8.917 × ( 11.391 / 5.535 )
and the MinAADT is the minor road AADT.
= 18.350 crashes
The overdispersion parameter (k) for this
SPF was 0.5641. The variance of this expected number of
crashes is also estimated in this step:
In the first site of this study, there were 10
observed crashes in the before period (Xb),
Var( π ) = π × ( Pa / Pb ) × ( 1 - w )
and the predicted number of crashes from
the SPF in the before period was 5.535 (Pb). Where, Pa is the SPF predictions in the after
The formula for obtaining the EB estimate period. In this example, the variance of ππ
of the expected crashes in the before period is estimated as follows:
(EBb) is as follows:
Var( π ) = 18.350 × ( 11.391 / 5.535 )
EBb = w × Pb + ( 1 - w ) × Xb × ( 1 - 0.243 ) = 28.603

Where, Xb is the observed crashes in the This process was repeated for all 12 sites.
before period, and w is the EB weight that is Based on the data for all the 12 sites that
calculated as follows: were used in the evaluation, the actual
crashes in the after period were 115, the EB
1 expected crashes had the countermeasure
w= not been implemented was 131.933 with a
( 1 + k × Pb ) variance of 140.080.
Where, k is the overdispersion parameter
for the estimated SPF. (continued on next page)

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 The formula for the CMF and its standard CMF is the midpoint of a range of possible
deviation (StDev) are as follows: values (i.e., the confidence interval). The
standard deviation of the CMF can be
λsum estimated as follows:

πsum
StDev( CMF ) =
CMF =
Var ( πsum ) 2
1+ 1 140.080
π2sum 0.8652 ( + )
115 131.9332

StDev( CMF ) = 140.080

(1+ )2
131.933 2
Var ( λsum ) Var ( πsum )
CMF 2
+
λ2sum π2sum = 0.111

Var ( πsum ) Based on this standard deviation

(1+ )2 of the CMF, the approximate 95%
π2sum confidence interval is (0.865-1.96×0.111,
0.865+1.96×0.111), which translates
to a range of 0.647 to 1.083. Since this
Where, λsum is the total number of crashes confidence interval includes values greater
that occurred in the after period, for all than 1.0, the CMF is not statistically
the treated sites in the sample, πsum is the different from 1.0 at the 95% confidence
total number of expected crashes in the level. This indicates that there is less
after period had the countermeasure not confidence that this countermeasure
been implemented, and Var represents the will reduce crashes compared to a
variance. Since crashes are assumed to countermeasure whose CMF is significantly
be Poisson distributed, Var(λsum) is usually different from 1.0.
assumed to be equal to λsum. So, (Var(λsum))/
(λsum2 ) will be equal to 1/λsum.

In this example, the overall CMF was

calculated as:

115
131.933
CMF = = 0.865
140.080
1+
131.9332

This CMF of 0.865 indicates that the

countermeasure (changing from permissive
to protected-permissive left turn phasing)
would decrease crashes, since the CMF
is less than 1.0. It would be expected
to decrease crashes by 13.5%
(1.0 – 0.865 x 100 = 13.5).

Again, it is important to recognize that the

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS 4-37

 3. In estimating SPFs, CALIBRATE The expected number of crashes
52
annual SPF multipliers to without the treatment along with
Gross, F., B. account for the temporal effects the variance of this parameter and
Persaud, and
C. Lyon (2010), (e.g., variation in weather, the number of reported crashes after
A Guide for demography, and crash the treatment is used to calculate
Developing Quality the CMF and the standard deviation
Crash Modification
reporting) on safety. The annual
Factors, Report SPF multiplier is the ratio of the of the CMF. This procedure is
FHWA-SA-10-032, observed crashes to the predicted repeated for each treated site. Once
Federal Highway
Administration, crashes from the SPF. In using CMFs have been calculated for each
Washington, the annual SPF multipliers from individual site in a group of treated
D.C. Available sites, the CMFs can be combined to
at http://www. the SPFs to account for temporal
cmfclearinghouse. effects, it is assumed that the calculate the overall effectiveness
org/resources_
trends in the crash counts are of the countermeasure. More details
develop.cfm.
Accessed July 2016. similar in the treatment and on this procedure are provided in
reference groups. the previously mentioned guidance
documents.52,53
53 4. USE the SPFs, annual SPF
multipliers, and data on traffic In some cases, treatments may
Carter, D., R.
volumes for each year in the be installed system-wide for a
Srinivasan, F. particular type of facility. For
Gross, and F. before period for each treatment
Council (2012), example, a jurisdiction may decide
site to estimate the number of
Recommended to increase the retroreflectivity
Protocols for crashes that would be predicted
of all their stop signs. Since sites
Developing Crash for the before period in each site.
Modification are not specifically selected based
Factors, Prepared 5. CALCULATE the EB estimate on their crash history, the bias
as part of NCHRP
Project 20-07 (Task of the expected crashes in the due to RTM is minimal. However,
314), Washington, before period at each treatment it is still necessary to account for
D.C. Available
at http://www. site as the weighted sum of the changes in traffic volume and other
cmfclearinghouse. actual crashes in the before trends. To evaluate the safety of
org/resources_ such installations, an EB method
develop.cfm.
period and predicted crashes
Accessed July 2016. from Step 4. could still be used, and while a
reference group is not necessary,
6. For each treatment site, a comparison group is necessary
54 ESTIMATE the product of the EB in order to account for trends.
estimate of the expected crashes SPFs can be estimated using the
B. Persaud and in the before period and the SPF
C. Lyon (2007), before-data from the treatment
Empirical Bayes predictions for the after period sites and these SPFs can be used
Before After divided by these predictions for to account for changes in traffic
Studies: Lessons
Learned from the before period. This is the EB volumes. In addition, SPFs could be
Two Decades of expected number of crashes that estimated for a group of comparison
Experience and
Future Directions,
would have occurred had there sites and the annual factors from
Accident Analysis been no treatment. The variance these SPFs can be used to account
and Prevention, of this expected number of for trends. Further details about
39(3):546-55.
crashes is also estimated in such evaluations can be found
this step. elsewhere.54

4-38 UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

 CHAPTER 12 UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS

System-Level Safety Management

System-level safety management
involves addressing road safety System-wide vs. systemic?
issues that affect the broad System-wide is a general term that refers
transportation system, as opposed to treating safety issues across an entire
to treating specific high priority transportation system using policies or
campaigns. Systemic is a more specific
sites. The size and scope of the term that refers to identifying a subset
transportation system depends of a transportation system based on
on the agency or jurisdiction. For risk factors and implementing safety
a State DOT, the transportation efforts that address the particular
characteristics of that subset.
system would consist of all State- See page 4-41 for more discussion
owned roads, signals, bridges, and on the systemic approach.
other features across the entire
State, whereas the transportation
system for a town would consist of Identifying safety problems
a much smaller area and roadway
To identify safety problems on a
network. Road safety at a system-
system-level, safety professionals
level often has to do with policies,
analyze safety data that apply
whether design policies for the
to the entire jurisdiction. They
construction and operation of roads
examine crash data and link crashes
and intersections, driver policies for
to other safety data to determine
licensing, or vehicle policies that the nature and locations of safety
require certain safety technologies. problems. Problem identification on
Other system-level efforts would a system-level involves identifying
include broad media or enforcement crash trends and using risk-based
campaigns. methods to prioritize safety efforts.

Recall that Chapter 10 presented Identifying crash type trends

road safety management in terms of
three general components: Safety professionals can examine
crash types and contributing factors
JJ Identifying safety problems to determine the nature of crashes
within their agency’s jurisdiction.
JJ Developing potential
This type of examination may reveal
safety strategies
crash trends, such as those related
JJ Selecting and to alcohol involvement, seat belt
implementing strategies use, driver age, or vulnerable road
users. For example, crash data
This chapter will discuss how each of might show that crashes involving
these components can be addressed unbelted occupants have been
at a system-level. increasing over the past several

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS 4-39

 years, or it might show that the
number of crashes involving Florida’s emphasis on
unbelted occupants is significantly motorcyclist safety
higher than other nearby agencies, The State of Florida examined its crash
such as adjacent counties or data to identify emphasis areas in the
States. This would lead an agency development of their SHSP in 2012. One
to consider how to increase seat area that continued to be a focus was
belt use, perhaps through media motorcyclist safety. The data indicated
that crashes involving motorcycles
campaigns, increased enforcement, had decreased somewhat during the
or educational campaigns in schools. time period analyzed (2006 to 1010)
This type of agency-wide analysis but remained a significant portion of
of crash data can demonstrate the crashes on Florida roads. Florida’s
broad scale trends that need to safety professionals recognized that
since Florida hosts numerous national
be addressed through broad scale
motorcycle events, the state’s SHSP
efforts. should have motorcycle safety as an
emphasis area.
It is important that safety
professionals are specific when
2,850 Serious Injuries
identifying safety problems in 2,758
2,813
crash trends. For example, “crashes
2,548
involving teen drivers” is not
2,324
defined well enough, because the
causes of crashes for 16 year-olds
is markedly different from those
of older, more experienced teens.
Crashes in which teens are victims
of other drivers’ errors require
different solutions from those where
the teen was at fault. Similarly, the
550 550 Fatalities
cause of crashes depends greatly on 532
402 383
the specific time, place and driving
environment. A better target crash
type would be “crashes occurring
between 7-9 a.m. involving 16-year 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Strategic old drivers.”

FIGURE 4-8. Florida motorcycle crash
highway
safety plan Example of safety trend 2006-2010

A statewide-
problem identification in
coordinated State Highway Safety Plans to as emphasis areas. The analysis
safety plan can involve an examination of crash
that provides a A good example of identifying
proportions between categories of
comprehensive safety problems from crash type
framework trends can be seen in how States crashes, crash trends, crash severity
for reducing develop strategic highway safety plans (e.g., fatal and serious injury), or
highway more advanced crash modeling
(SHSPs). The development of a SHSP
fatalities and techniques. As presented in the
serious injuries involves the identification of safety
on all public problems on the State and local call-out boxes, Ohio and Florida
roads. roads. A State analyzes safety data conducted analyses of their crash
to determine the priorities, referred data and identified areas of concern.

4-40 UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

 Ohio’s emphasis on
older driver safety
Ohio developed a SHSP in 2014 in which
they identified fifteen emphasis areas. One
of the emphasis areas was the safety of
older drivers (65 and older). The crash data
showed that older driver-related crashes
accounted for 18% of highway deaths and
16% of serious injuries. They recognized
that these numbers would likely increase
with an aging population. The crash trends
over the time period examined (2003 to
2013) showed a slight upward trend to
older driver serious injuries and a slight
downward trend to older driver fatalities.
This contrasted to other types of crashes
that experienced significant declines.
These reasons motivated Ohio to make
older driver safety an emphasis area in their
2014 SHSP.

Risk based prioritization – may indicate a higher-than-average

risk for heart disease, even if the
the systemic approach
person has not yet experienced heart
Chapter 11 presented various problems. Similarly, a section of
methods of selecting high priority road with certain characteristics,
sites through a process of network such as sharp curvature, old
Systemic
screening based on crash data. Many pavement, or lack of visibility, may
safety professionals recognize that be at risk for run-off-road crashes, The process of
this process of identifying specific identifying road
even if none have occurred yet.
or intersection
locations using past crash data does Agencies can be proactive in their characteristics
not adequately address the fact that approach to safety management that increase
there may be locations that pose by identifying and treating these the risk of
a safety threat but have not yet sites before crashes occur. These crashes and
selecting
experienced many (or any) crashes. treatments are often low cost, such
locations
This recognition led to an increased as signs and markings, so many for safety
use of risk-based prioritization, also systemic-identified locations can be treatment
called the systemic approach.55 treated within an agency’s limited based on the
budget. presence of
In this approach, a transportation these risk
agency identifies priority locations An agency using the systemic factors.
based on the presence of risk factors approach selects the focus crash
rather than crashes. In the medical type(s) and identifies risk factors
field, doctors pay attention to factors associated with the focus crashes. 55
that may elevate a person’s risk for Risk factors are site characteristics http://safety.fhwa.
disease. A history of smoking, poor (e.g., design and operational dot.gov/systemic/
eating habits, and a lack of exercise features) that are common across

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS 4-41

 locations with the focus crash when selecting potential strategies
type(s). The agency can identify risk as they may provide unique
factors by analyzing crash data from perspectives. Safety professionals
their jurisdiction or by reviewing should seek to involve local officials,
previous research studies. Using citizens, and safety partners to
the list of risk factors as a guide, the produce effective multidisciplinary
agency identifies a list of sites with strategies. For example, addressing
those specific characteristics, and a particular safety problem with
then develops targeted treatments law enforcement and education
to address or mitigate the specific can be far more economical than
risk factors. The agency can apply implementing a multimillion-
crash history and other thresholds dollar engineering fix. On the other
to reduce the list of sites based on hand, law enforcement tends to
available resources and program be effective only during the time
objectives. in which it is active, so a more
permanent engineering measure
The systemic approach has two
may be needed in some cases. It is
attractive features. First, an agency
often the case that a combination
can employ the systemic approach
of strategies is necessary to
even for roads or intersections where
effectively address the multitude of
crash data are not fully available
contributing factors.
(e.g., where location accuracy is
questionable or underreporting is On a system level, agencies must
a problem). For instance, locating think broadly across the many
crashes accurately and precisely in disciplines represented by those
rural areas or on non-State owned who have a stake in road safety.
urban roads can be difficult. Second, Potential strategies might address
the systemic approach is useful infrastructure policies and practices
for treating safety issues where (e.g., design standards, speed limits,
crashes are highly dispersed, such etc.) or they may be directed at
as on rural or low volume roads. specific population focused efforts
Specifically, agencies can use the (e.g., seat belt laws, helmet laws,
systemic approach to address young driver restrictions, etc.).
existing and potential safety issues
across a large portion of the network Just as the identification of problems
(e.g., shoulder rumble strips on all was based on safety data, so too
rural, two-lane roads with a certain must the development and selection
shoulder width and traffic volume of strategies be driven by the data.
level). If an agency identified concerning
trends in certain types of crashes,
Developing potential then they should further examine
the crash data to determine how
safety strategies
best to address the safety problem.
After safety professionals analyze For example, Figure 4-9 shows an
data and identify safety problems, example of alcohol-related crashes
they must develop potential where an agency identified a spike in
strategies to address the problems. frequency (or high pole) of crashes
It is important to engage safety occurring near 2:00 AM. Further
stakeholders and other partners examination revealed that bars in

4-42 UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

 Case Study: Systemic Analysis in Thurston County, Washington
The Thurston County Public Works JJ Speed differential between posted
Department in Washington conducted approach speed and curve advisory
a systemic safety analysis for their road speed of 0, 5, and 10 miles per hour
network. Based on a review of severe
crashes, Thurston County decided to focus JJ Presence of a visual trap (a minor road
on roadway departure crashes in horizontal on the tangent extended)
curves on arterial and collector roadways
Thurston County decided that a risk factor
when it found that:
could be worth one point or a one-half
1. Most of the severe crashes occurred point. Those factors present in at least 30%
due to roadway departures, and that of the severe (fatal and injury) crashes and
overrepresented by at least 10% (when
2. 81% of the severe curve /roadway
comparing the proportion of all locations
departure crashes occurred on arterial
with the proportion of severe crash
and collector roads. Because this
effort coincided with ongoing efforts locations) were used as a guideline to have
to identify and upgrade warning a high confidence and assigned one point
signs for horizontal curves on their in the risk assessment process. The risk
County road system, Thurston County factors that had a lower confidence in their
chose to focus on currently signed relative data were assigned one-half point.
horizontal curves.
Thurston County then tallied the number
Thurston County accessed an inventory of risk factors present for each of the
of their roads and intersections through curves. The risk factor totals for the ten
a database maintained by the Statewide curves with the highest scores ranged
County Road Advisory Board. In addition, from 4.5 to 6.0. All 270 signed curves
Thurston County assembled crash data were prioritized for potential low cost
for the 2006-to-2010 timeframe from the safety investments. They identified the
Washington State DOT crash database. following low-cost, low-maintenance
They linked the road, intersection, and countermeasures with documented
curve data with crash data and used these crash reductions to implement at the
data to identify risk factors. Thurston
selected locations:
County assembled a list of 19 potential risk
factors and then performed a descriptive JJ Traffic signs – enhanced curve
statistics analysis to identify 9 risk factors delineation with the addition of
for use in screening and prioritizing chevrons and larger advance
candidate locations. The identified risk warning signs
factors were:
JJ Pavement markings – dotted extension
JJ Roadway class of major rural collector
lines at intersections and recessed
JJ Presence of an intersection raised pavement markers

JJ Traffic volume of 3,000 to 7,500 JJ Shoulder rumble strips

56
annual average daily traffic
JJ Roadside improvements – object
“Thurston County,
JJ Edge clearance rating of 3 removal, guardrail, and slope flattening Washington, Public
Works Department
JJ Paved shoulders equal to or Systemic analysis provided Thurston Applies Systemic
greater than 4 feet in width County a proactive, data-driven, and Safety Project
defensible approach to identifying curves Selection Tool”
JJ Presence of a vertical curve FHWA-SA-13-026,
for improvement prior to a severe crash June 2013. http://
JJ Consecutive horizontal curves occurring, rather than reacting after an safety.fhwa.dot.gov/
(windy roads) incident has occurred.56 systemic/

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS 4-43

 20
Example of a high pole in a jurisdiction
where bars close at 2:00 a.m.

NUMBER OF COLLISIONS
15

10

0
0:00 2:00 4:00 6:00 8:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00 20:00 22:00
TIME OF DAY

FIGURE 4-9. Example of “high pole” in crash data (Source: NCHRP Report 501)

that jurisdiction closed at 2:00 AM.

This could lead to potential strategies, Consider How Specific Behaviors
such as increased enforcement of Influence the Safety Problem
impaired driving at that time of night Safety professionals must identify
and in the vicinity of bars. and target road user behaviors that
contribute to the identified safety
It is also important to use the data problem. The target behavior should
to determine the necessary scope of be specific. For example, “safe driving”
the intervention. If the data show is not a specific behavior that can be
that the problem exists year-round, changed because it involves a number of
different behaviors. However, “speeding
then the solution needs to match
on Main Street” is a specific behavior
that. For example, a “safe ride that can be targeted. It is also important
program” for drinkers to get home to consider the factors influencing this
on New Year’s Eve is not going to behavior. Why are people speeding on
significantly impact the problem of Main Street? Which social, cultural, or
impaired driving overall. environmental factors are influencing
this behavior? Does it vary by time of day
Critical thinking is needed to or week, perhaps reflecting the kind of
develop effective solutions to the drivers who are speeding?
safety problems at hand. Analysts
should look for characteristics of 1. ASK the questions, “Is this
crash trends that could be addressed information sufficient for action
57 by practical strategies. An NCHRP item development? If not, what
Bahar, G., M. report on an integrated safety further information is needed to
Masliah, C. Mollett, management process states that
and B. Persaud, act on this finding?”
Integrated Safety
safety professionals should use
Management safety data to perform “further 2. CONSIDER cross tabulations of
Process, National analyses of those characteristics
Cooperative
two variables within the subset
Highway Research that are found to be significantly of data that pertains to the
Program, Report or practically over-represented on activities under consideration
501, Transportation
Research Board a percentage or rate basis.”57 The if one or more of the following
of the National report gives a set of guidelines to be types of conditions hold:
Academies,
considered in analyzing crash data to
Washington, D.C.,
2003 identify trends and develop potential JJ If the activities are time
safety strategies: critical (e.g., all selective

4-44 UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

 enforcement strategies), 17- to 20-year-old causal
perform a time-of-day by driver crashes. As another
day-of-the-week analysis. example, insight into youth
As an example, alcohol- alcohol enforcement activities
related crashes will likely be can be attained by comparing
over-represented in the early alcohol-related crashes of 16-
morning and on weekend to 20-year-old causal drivers
days. A logical approach is to against alcohol-related crashes
perform a cross tabulation of of their 21-year-old and older
time-of day by day-of-the- counterparts. Each of these
week to determine the best types of comparisons can
times and days for driving show differences between the
under the influence (DUI) respective subpopulations.
selective enforcement. The
goal of the procedure at 4. USE the results of each analysis
this point is to determine to determine what further
additional details (who, what, information is needed before
where, when, and how) for the best decision can be made,
those crash types identified and repeat the analysis with the 58
by the analyses performed to additional information.
Bahar, G., M.
this point. 5. PERSIST and maintain a thread Masliah, C. Mollett,
and B. Persaud,
JJ If the over-represented of evidence until the information Integrated Safety
variable is not constant available has been exhausted. Management
Process, National
over all crash severities, If the information generated Cooperative
cross tabulate the variable indicates a significant factor, Highway Research
create further subsets of the data Program, Report
by severity (e.g., nighttime, 501, Transportation
rural, and older-driver (e.g., youth-pedestrian crashes), Research Board
crashes tend to be more and repeat the entire analysis. of the National
Academies,
severe).
6. REJECT any strategies and Washington, D.C.,
2003
JJ If the activities can be activities at this point that
targeted to geographic the data clearly show to be
location, age group, counterproductive (i.e., activities
59
gender, race, or any other that will consume resources
demographic factor within that could be better applied Goodwin, A.,
Thomas, L.,
the crash records, consider elsewhere). Maintain a list of Kirley, B., Hall, W.,
these variables for cross all potential strategies and O’Brien, N., & Hill,
K. Countermeasures
tabulation with other over- corresponding activities that will
That Work: A
represented variables. be subjected to further analysis Highway Safety
in the optimization procedure.58 Countermeasure
3. CONSIDER creating subsets Guide for State
Highway Safety
of the data for additional Many system-level safety strategies
Offices, Eighth
comparisons where activities focus on behaviors of drivers edition, National
are to be targeted to a particular and other road users. Resources Highway
Traffic Safety
subgroup of the population. For like Countermeasures That Work Administration,
example, insight into a graduated provide a useful listing of potential Report No. DOT
HS 812 202,
driver’s license strategy can be safety strategies for system-level Washington, DC,
obtained by comparing 16-year- safety management.59 The excerpt 2015.
old causal driver crashes against from Countermeasures That Work in

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS 4-45

 FIGURE 4-10. Potential Safety Strategies to Address Speeding and Aggressive Driving

1. Laws

COUNTERMEASURE EFFECTIVENESS COST USE TIME

†
1.1 Speed limits  $ High Short

1.2 Aggressive driving laws  $ Low Short

† When enforced and obeyed

2. Enforcement

COUNTERMEASURE EFFECTIVENESS COST USE TIME

2.1 Automated enforcement  $$$† Medium Medium

2.2 High-visibility enforcement  $$$ Low†† Medium

2.3 Other enforcement methods  Varies Unknown Varies

† Can be covered by income from citations

†† For aggressive driving, but use of short-term, high-visibility enforcement campaigns for
speeding is more widespread

3. Penalties and Adjudication

COUNTERMEASURE EFFECTIVENESS COST USE TIME

3.1 Penalty types and levels  Varies High Low

3.2 Diversion and plea agreements  Varies Unknown Varies

4. Communications and Outreach

COUNTERMEASURE EFFECTIVENESS COST USE TIME

4.1 Public Information

supporting enforcement  Varies Medium Medium

Effectiveness:

 Demonstrated to be effective by several

high-quality evaluations with consistent results

 Demonstrated to be effective in certain situations

 Likely to be effective based on balance of evidence

from high-quality evaluations or other sources

 Effectiveness still undetermined; different methods of

implementing this countermeasure produce different results

 Limited or no high-quality evaluation evidence

4-46 UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

Figure 4-10 gives a list of potential
strategies for addressing speeding- Florida’s strategies for
related crashes, from either motorcyclist safety
laws, enforcement, penalties and After identifying motorcyclist safety as
adjudication, or communications an emphasis area in their 2012 SHSP,
and outreach. The list also includes Florida identified a list of strategies to
an indication of the effectiveness, address motorcyclist safety. Example
cost, current usage, and time of each strategies include:
strategy, which are all important JJ Promote personal protective
considerations when selecting safety gear and its value in reducing
strategies to implement. motorcyclist injury levels and
increasing rider conspicuity
If the agency identifies safety
JJ Promote adequate rider training
problems from a systemic analysis, and preparation to new and
the potential safety strategies experienced motorcycle riders
should address the types of crashes by qualified instructors at State-
that were related to the roadway approved training centers
characteristic risk factors. These JJ Incorporate motorcycle-friendly
strategies may often be engineering policies and practices into roadway
improvements related to the design, traffic control, construction,
risk factors. For example, if an operation, and maintenance
examination of crash trends may JJ Develop and implement
highlight run-off-road crashes, communications strategies that
and a systemic analysis would target high-risk populations and
identify the type(s) of road on which improve public awareness of
run-off-road crashes are likely to motorcycle crash problems and
programs.
occur. Table 4-12 shows a list of
potential safety strategies that could
be implemented for engineering
respectively. The SHSPs from these
treatments for a run-off-road crash
problem. In a systemic approach, States also demonstrated the types
these engineering treatments would of safety strategies each State
be implemented across some or all intended to pursue to combat the
roads meeting the risk factors that safety problems in these areas.
increase the likelihood of run-off-
road crashes. Selecting and
implementing strategies
Example of system-level
A transportation agency must
safety strategies in determine which of the potential
state highway safety plans strategies they will implement
SHSPs provide many good examples to address the identified safety
of system-level strategies that problems. Since system-level safety
address safety problems identified solutions can involve broad changes
through analysis of crash and other to policies, design practices, or
safety data. The previous section jurisdiction-wide road user behavior,
showed how Ohio and Florida there are different issues to consider
had identified safety priorities on compared to implementing a
older drivers and motorcyclists, safety countermeasure at a specific

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS 4-47

 RELATIVE
COST TO
IMPLEMENT EFFECTIVE-
OBJECTIVES COUNTERMEASURES AND OPERATE NESS

15.1 A: KEEP 15.1A1: Install shoulder

VEHICLES Low Tried
rumble strips
FROM
ENCROACHING
ON THE
ROADSIDE 15.1 A2: Install edgelines
“profile marking”, edgeline
rumble strips or modified
Low Experimental
shoulder rumble strips on
section with narrow or no
paved shoulders

15.1 A5: Provide improved

highway geometry for High Proven
horizontal curves

15.1 A6: Provide enhanced

Low Tried
pavement markings

15.1 A7: Provide skid-

Moderate Proven
resistance pavement surfaces

15.1 B: 15.1 B1: Design safer slopes

MINIMIZE THE and ditches to prevent Moderate Proven
LIKELIHOOD
OF CRASHING rollovers
INTO AN
OBJECT OR
OVERTURNING
IF THE VEHICLE 15.1 B2: Remove/relocate Moderate
TRAVELS OFF Proven
THE SHOULDER objects in hazardous locations to High

15.1 C: REDUCE 15.1 C1: Improve design of Moderate

THE SEVERITY Tried
roadside hardware to High
OF THE CRASH

15.1 C2: Improve design and

Moderate
application of barrier and Tried
to High
attenuation systems

TABLE 4-12. Potential Safety Strategies for Run-Off-Road Crashes (Source: NCHRP 500, Volume 6)

4-48 UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

location. Many more people will
be affected by the system-level Ohio’s strategies for
changes. This carries great promise older driver safety
in that safety might be improved Ohio identified three strategies to
across an entire system, but it also address the older driver emphasis area
carries unique challenges. in their 2014 SHSP:

JJ Coordinate older driver messages

Agencies will need to consider the
developed by multi-agency
following questions when selecting communication committee.
strategies to implement:
JJ Create a comprehensive and
JJ Safety effectiveness – How coordinated outreach effort that
likely will it address the safety educates older drivers and their
caregivers on driving risks and
problem? remedies.
JJ Public acceptance – How will JJ Encourage roadway design and
the strategy be accepted by the engineering measures that reduce
public? What kind of marketing the risks of traffic crashes for older
drivers.
will be needed to communicate
the intent and benefit of the
strategy?
outreach for agencies who seek to
JJ Stakeholders and partners – implement system-level safety
Which parties will need to be strategies.
involved in implementing the
Evaluating a system-level strategy
strategy?
(e.g., program or intervention) to
JJ Cost efficiency – What kind of determine its effectiveness is a
return on the dollar would be critical but often overlooked step.
expected? The transportation agency in charge
JJ Time – How long will it take to should evaluate the effect of the
implement the strategy? safety strategy using good quality
data; ideally the same type of data
Communication is critically that was used to identify the safety
important for system-level safety problem initially. If a program or
strategies. Both the general public
intervention is not effective, the
and road users affected by the
overseeing agency should consider
strategy must understand the
why this might be the case. Can the
benefits. Other public agencies
program be improved, or should
may need to integrate their efforts
other approaches be considered
with the proposed safety strategy.
Administrators, lawmakers, instead? If successful, how can the
and other key decision-making intervention be institutionalized
personnel must understand how to ensure long term support (and
the strategy will improve road therefore lasting change)? Finally,
safety for their constituency and it is important to remember that
bring an overall financial benefit. success or failure in one location
Unit 5 provides more discussion on does not guarantee the same results
communication, marketing, and at a different location.

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS 4-49

 Example of System-Level unsafe driving. Teens are crashing
Safety Management largely because they lack the driving
experience that equips most drivers
The following provides an to intuitively/near instantaneously
example of using system-level do the things necessary to avoid
safety management to address a crashing. Because of this, changing
specific problem. This example the environment is more likely
demonstrates the three general
to be effective.
components of safety management
presented in this unit. The officials recognize that
eliminating the policy that allows
1. Identify the safety problem.
students to leave campus during
County A noticed a large number lunch would lead to a reduction in
of crashes involving 16-17 year old crashes during this time. This policy
drivers occurring weekdays between would eliminate exposure to the
11:00am and 1:00pm. Neighboring risky driving situation and reduce
counties have not experienced this the potential for crashes.
problem. County officials coordinate
with school district staff to tackle 3. Select and implement strategies.
this issue.
The school districts accordingly
In exploring the problem, the eliminate the policy allowing
officials discover that County A is students to leave campus during
the only jurisdiction that has an lunch. They recognize that this
open campus lunch policy allowing policy change should be evaluated
students to leave school during to determine its safety effect. Crash
their lunch period. Allowing teens data would be needed to examine
60 to leave campus during lunch whether the closed school lunch
means there are many young, policy has an effect on weekday
Tefft B.C., Williams
A.F., & Grabowski inexperienced drivers on the roads at crashes between 11:00am and
J.G. (2013). Teen the same time. They may be carrying 1:00pm. However, it will take many
driver risk in relation
additional passengers which
to age and number years to accumulate enough data
of passengers, research has established leads to
United States, for this evaluation. In this example,
an increased risk of a fatal crash.60,61
2007-2010. Traffic there is a proxy measure that can
Injury Prevention, The brief lunch period also results in
14, 283-292. be used in the interim. A before and
pressure to get back in time for the
after observational survey with an
next class. Combined, these factors
lead to a risky driving situation and appropriate control could quantify
61 an increased risk of crashing. the number of students leaving
campus during lunch before and
Chen, L., Baker, S.P.,
Braver, E.R., & Li,
2. Develop potential safety strategies. after the change. In this case the
G. (2000). Carrying officials know that the proxy measure
Passengers as a Risk In this situation, an informational
Factor for Crashes approach that simply tells teenagers (reduced driving from 11:00am to 1:00
Fatal to 16- and pm) is a guaranteed indicator of crash
17-Year-Old Drivers. about the problem would likely
Journal of the not make a difference. Teens are reduction for this specific problem.
American Medical However, it is not often the case that
not crashing because they lack
Association, 283,
1578-1582. information about the importance of proxy measures are so closely aligned
safe driving or the consequences of to the outcome of interest.

4-50 UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

Unit Summary conducting an economic appraisal
for all options, prioritizing the
Solving road safety problems countermeasure projects based on
requires a comprehensive process estimated costs and benefits, and
to identify safety problems,
evaluating the countermeasure
develop potential safety strategies,
performance afterwards. Safety
and select and implement those
management at a system-level
strategies. To get the most effective
involves identifying safety problems
results, this process must be based
by examining crash trends or using
on solid safety data, particularly
a systemic approach to identifying
good quality crash data. The
high-risk road characteristics.
methods of undertaking the safety
State agencies who are developing
management process will depend on
system-wide safety strategies
the scope of the effort.
must examine the data trends
Safety management of individual and the road users involved. They
sites involves a six-step process of must consider factors, such as how
screening the network for high- system-wide policies and programs
priority sites, diagnosing the safety will be accepted by the public and
issues at those sites, selecting who will be the partners to involve
appropriate countermeasures, in implementing the safety strategy.

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS 4-51

 EXERCISES

JJ PRESENT an example road safety 11 on site-level safety management to

problem and compare and contrast the this location (the network screening
ways in which the problem could be step would not apply since this location
addressed at a system-level vs. site-level. is already identified). Consider safety
strategies across a range of disciplines
JJ Your state has a small, rural,
(e.g., engineering, law enforcement,
mountainous county where a large
public communication and education,
number of motorcycle crashes are
etc.).
happening. The crash rate per registered
motorcycle in this county is nearly 10 JJ This exercise should be conducting
times the state average. Upon further using the Excel spreadsheet that
investigation you learn that this county accompanies this book. The goal of this
is a popular motorcycling tourist exercise is to USE selected performance
destination. People come from all over metrics to create a ranked list of sites
the country to ride the curvy mountain for further investigation as part of a
roads. In fact, the majority of people network screening effort. The Excel
involved in crashes are not from that spreadsheet includes nearly 1,400
area at all. Clusters of crashes occur intersections, or sites. Each site has a
on certain curves. What are some unique ID number, traffic volume data,
approaches that could be used to reduce and other information about its location
crashes in this county? How could these and characteristics. Three performance
approaches be evaluated? In particular, metrics have been calculated for each
DETAIL how you would apply the three site. These have been calculated using
major components described in this five years of data (2010-2014) and one
unit: year of data (2014), resulting in a total of
six performance metrics per site. Your
JJ Identify the safety problem
assignment is to rank the sites using
JJ Develop potential safety strategies these various performance metrics and
document the results. Document the
JJ Selecting and implement strategies twenty highest priority sites based on
When you work through this process, each method. Use the results to answer
recall the discussion of human behavior the following questions:
from Unit 2. What are possible behaviors JJ What were some of the sites
leading to the safety problem? What that routinely ranked in the top
other factors could be influencing this twenty? What were some of their
behavior? How does this affect your characteristics (volumes, number of
identification and selection of potential lanes, stop/signal control)?
safety strategies?
JJ Were there any sites that were
JJ If possible, OBTAIN three to five years of only occasionally present in the
crash data for an intersection or section top twenty? What were some
of road in your area. You will likely need characteristics of these sites?
to contact the controlling agency – the
State DOT, county, or city. Describe how
you would apply the steps in Chapter

4-52 UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 4: SOLVING SAFETY PROBLEMS 4-53

UNIT 5
Implementing
Road Safety
Efforts
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading the chapters and completing JJ DEFINE three areas of

exercises in Unit 5, the reader will be able to: road safety research

JJ IDENTIFY the current road safety JJ DEFINE the characteristics of

partner agencies and define their role strategic communications
in addressing safety problems
JJ RECOGNIZE potential avenues for
advancing road safety efforts

5-b UNIT 5: IMPLEMENTING ROAD SAFETY EFFORTS ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

 CHAPTER 13 IMPLEMENTING ROAD SAFETY EFFORTS

Who Does What

The greatest gains in road safety international scale – the United
occur when transportation agencies Nations (U.N.) used a generalization
work together rather than tackling called the “Five Pillar” structure as
problems alone. This can be part of the Decade of Action for Road
challenging given the fragmented Safety. 1 The U.N. recognized that
1
nature of transportation governance efforts to improve road safety must
in the U.S. There are numerous address various pillars including United Nations,
agencies operating in different focus road safety A/RES/64/255,
Geneva, 2010
areas and at different levels. This management, safer roads and mobility,
chapter presents an overview of the safer vehicles, safer road users, and
various agencies and organizations better post-crash response. 2
that have a direct hand in advancing 2
Likewise, U.S. transportation
road safety and the initiatives that Global Status
agencies are organized to address Report on Road
they undertake.
focus areas that are similar in theme Safety 2013:
Supporting a
U.S. transportation agencies are to the U.N. five pillars, though not
Decade of Action,
typically structured around particular the same. Table 5-1 shows how World Health
focus areas, such as roadway, agencies at all levels (Federal, State, Organization, ISBN
978 92 4 156456 4,
vehicles, or road users. This and local) address five focus areas in 2013.
approach is also seen on the road safety.

FOCUS AREA FEDERAL STATE LOCAL

City public works

Road Design / Federal Highway Departments of
Administration transportation Metropolitan/rural
Environment
planning organizations

Highway safety offices

Road User National Highway Departments of
Traffic Safety No specific agency
Behavior motor vehicles
Administration
Health departments
Federal Motor
Carrier Safety
Vehicle Design / Administration Departments of
No specific agency
Technology motor vehicles

State police /
Law Enforcement No specific agency Police departments
highway patrol

Metropolitan planning
Federal Transit organizations
Transit Safety No specific agency
Administration
Municipal transit agencies

TABLE 5-1: Transportation Agencies by Focus Area

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 5: IMPLEMENTING ROAD SAFETY EFFORTS 5-1

 Federal Agencies In addition, FHWA oversees
the Local and Tribal Technical
The Federal role in implementing
Assistance Program (LTAP/TTAP),
road safety initiative is carried out
which provides information and
largely through the U.S. Department
training programs to local agencies
of Transportation (USDOT) and the
and Native American Indian tribes
many agencies under that department.
to improve road safety.3 Further,
3 These agencies are each tasked with
FHWA maintains division offices in
a specific focus area as the Federal
“About the National each state to deliver assistance to
Government seeks to address safety
Program,” last partners and customers in highway
updated June 20, issues for various modes of travel.
2013, accessed June transportation and safety services at
These agencies include:
20, 2013, http:// the State level.
www.ltap.org/about/.
JJ Federal Highway Administration
National Highway Traffic
JJ National Highway Traffic Safety
Administration Safety Administration
JJ Federal Motor Carrier Safety www.nhtsa.gov
Administration Focus Areas: Road User Behavior
JJ Federal Transit Administration and Vehicle Design and Technology

JJ Federal Railroad Administration The National Highway Traffic

Safety Administration (NHTSA)
Federal Highway focuses on the safety of the vehicle,
Administration driver, and road user. NHTSA
investigates safety defects in motor
www.fhwa.dot.gov vehicles, establishes and enforces
safety performance standards for
Focus Area: Road Design
motor vehicles and motor vehicle
and Environment
equipment, sets and enforces fuel
The Federal Highway Administration economy standards, collects data,
(FHWA) works to reduce highway and conducts research on driver
fatalities through partnerships with behavior and traffic safety, and
State and local agencies, community helps states and local communities
groups, and private industry. The reduce the threat of impaired
FHWA Office of Safety advocates driving and other dangerous
designs and technologies that improve road user behaviors.
road safety and administers safety
programs, such as the Highway NHTSA carries out research and
Safety Improvement Program (HSIP). demonstration programs in many
4 FHWA’s Resource Center also provides behavioral areas including impaired
technical assistance, technology driving, occupant protection, speed
“Who We Are and
What We Do,” deployment, and training. FHWA has management (shared with FHWA),
accessed June 20, a significant role in safety research pedestrian, motorcycle and bicycle
2013, https://www.
nhtsa.gov/about- through the Office of Safety Research safety, older and younger road users,
nhtsa. and Development, which develops drowsy, and distracted driving.
and implements safety innovations NHTSA is also the lead Federal
through teams of research engineers, agency for emergency medical
scientists, and psychologists. services (EMS) and 9-1-1 systems.

5-2 UNIT 5: IMPLEMENTING ROAD SAFETY EFFORTS ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

Federal Motor Carrier monitors, and ensures
compliance with the commercial
Safety Administration
driving licensing standards for
www.fmcsa.dot.gov drivers, carriers, and States.

Focus Areas: Road User Behavior JJ Motor Carrier Safety Identification

and Vehicle Design and Technology and Information Systems: FMCSA
provides safety data, State
The Federal Motor Carrier Safety
and national crash statistics,
Administration (FMCSA) focuses
current analysis results, and
on reducing crashes, injuries, and
detailed motor carrier safety
fatalities involving commercial use
performance data to industry
of large trucks and buses. FMCSA
and the public. This data allows
develops and enforces research-
Federal and State enforcement
based regulations that balance
officials to target inspections
safety and efficiency. The agency
and investigations on higher risk
manages safety information systems
carriers, vehicles, and drivers.
to enforce safety regulations with
regards to drivers who have high JJ Safety education and outreach:
risk in factors, such as health, age, FMCSA implements educational
experience, and education. strategies to increase motor
carrier compliance with the
FMCSA also targets educational
safety regulations and reduce
messages to carriers, commercial
the likelihood of a commercial
drivers, and the public.5 Some key
vehicle crash. Messages are 5
programs administered by the
aimed at all highway users
agency include: “About FMCSA,”
including passenger car drivers,
accessed June 20,
JJ Commercial Driver’s License truck drivers, pedestrians, 2013, https://www.
Program: FMCSA develops, and bicyclists.6 fmcsa.dot.gov/
mission/about-us.

“Key FMCSA
Programs,”
accessed October
15, 2013, https://
www.fmcsa.dot.gov/
mission/we-are-
fmcsa-brochure.

The Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration develops, monitors, and ensures
compliance with commercial driving licensing standards.

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 5: IMPLEMENTING ROAD SAFETY EFFORTS 5-3

 The Federal Transit Administration seeks to improve public transportation, such as buses.

Federal Transit Administration for protecting, repairing, and/

or replacing equipment and
www.transit.dot.gov facilities that may suffer or have
Focus Area: Transit Safety suffered serious damage because
7 of an emergency including
The Federal Transit Administration
natural disasters.
“Federal Transit (FTA) seeks to improve public
Administration,” transportation by assisting State and JJ Research, Development,
last updated
September 6,
local governments with planning, Demonstration, and Deployment
2013, https:// implementation, and financing of Projects: This program supports
www.usa.gov/ public transportation projects.7 FTA
federal-agencies/
research activities that improve
federal-transit- manages many transit-oriented the safety, reliability, efficiency,
administration. safety programs including: and sustainability of public
JJ Bus and Bus Facilities: This transportation.
8 program provides capital funding JJ Transit Safety and Oversight: FTA
to replace, rehabilitate, and has the authority to establish and
“MAP-21 Programs,”
accessed October
purchase buses and related enforce a new comprehensive
16, 2013, https:// equipment and to construct bus-
framework to oversee the
www.transit.dot. related facilities.
gov/regulations- safety of public transportation
and-guidance/
legislation/map-21/
JJ Public Transportation Emergency throughout the United States
map-21-program- Relief Program: This program as it pertains to heavy rail,
fact-sheets. helps States and public light rail, buses, ferries, and
transportation systems pay streetcars.8

5-4 UNIT 5: IMPLEMENTING ROAD SAFETY EFFORTS ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

Federal Safety Programs for improving highway safety
through the implementation of
Federal agencies advance road such infrastructure improvements.9
safety through numerous programs 9
States are also required to report to
and initiatives. Federal programs the U.S. Secretary of Transportation Source: “Highway
can be very influential due to large on progress made implementing Safety Improvement
funding sources provided by Federal Program (HSIP),”
highway safety improvements and accessed August 12,
legislation. These funds are often the extent to which fatalities and 2013, http://safety.
distributed to State and local levels serious injuries on all public roads
fhwa.dot.gov/hsip/
and “HSIP History,”
to implement various improvements
have been reduced. accessed August
to roads and intersections. 12, 2013, http://

Specific funding programs can Traffic Records Improvement safety.fhwa.dot.

gov/hsip/gen_info/
change with each new piece of Grants (NHTSA) hsip_history.cfm.

transportation legislation. However,

NHTSA administers Federal funding
it may be useful to look at an
to encourage States to implement
overview of some of the types of
programs that will improve the
current and past funding programs.
timeliness, accuracy, completeness,
Below are listed a few programs
uniformity, integration, and
that have been widely used through
accessibility of State data used in
the years to develop and implement
traffic safety programs. The Federal 10
improvements to road safety:
SAFETEA-LU legislation established
NHTSA, Section
JJ Highway Safety Improvement this program of incentive grants,
408 SAFETEA-LU
Program (FHWA) and the funding continued under Fact Sheet,
subsequent legislation. The funds https://one.
JJ Traffic Records Improvement nhtsa.gov/Laws-
were to be used to evaluate the &-Regulations/
Grants (NHTSA)
effectiveness of efforts to make Section-408-
SAFETEA%
JJ Safety Data Improvement Program safety data improvements, to link
E2%80%93
Grant (FMCSA) safety data systems within the State, LU-Fact-Sheet
and to improve the compatibility
Highway Safety Improvement of the State data system with
Program (FHWA) national data systems and data
Data-driven
systems of other States. A State
HSIP is a Federal program focused may use these grant funds only to An approach
on infrastructure improvements that implement such data improvement of which the
will lead to significant reduction in programs. To qualify, a State must priorities are
traffic fatalities and serious injuries determined by
meet certain requirements including examination of
on all public roads. HSIP is Federally a functioning Traffic Records crash data or
funded and administered by FHWA, Coordinating Committee (TRCC), other objective
but it is implemented by the State a strategic plan to address data and reliable
departments of transportation deficiencies, and a regular traffic safety data,
per the strategies laid out in the rather than
records assessment.10
State’s Strategic Highway Safety priorities set by
preferences of
Plan (SHSP). Funding is provided Safety Data Improvement a few parties,
for safety-related infrastructure
Program Grant (FMCSA) current “hot”
improvements, such as sidewalks, topics, or high
traffic calming, or signing upgrades. The Safety Data Improvement profile rare
The States are required to develop Program (SaDIP), administered events.
a data-driven, strategic approach by FMCSA, provides financial and

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 5: IMPLEMENTING ROAD SAFETY EFFORTS 5-5

 technical assistance to States to State Agencies
improve data collected on truck
and bus crashes that result in All fifty States, the District
of Columbia, and Puerto Rico
injuries or fatalities. The assistance
administer road safety programs.
is provided to State departments
State agencies administer roadway
of public safety, departments
systems, driver licensing, injury
of transportation, or State law
prevention programs, traffic law
enforcement agencies. SaDIP funds
enforcement, and other road safety
have been used to hire staff to code
activities. However, assignment of
safety performance data, purchase
these responsibilities varies widely
software for field data collection,
from State to State. In many cases,
and revise outdated crash forms.
two or three government agencies
FMCSA maintains the Motor Carrier are responsible for most or all
Management Information System of these activities. Other States
(MCMIS) and supplies access to the distribute these responsibilities
system for designated employees in to numerous agencies and
each State through SAFETYNET, an offices. Regardless of how these
online network of safety data. States responsibilities are distributed,
use MCMIS and SAFETYNET to enter States share a vital role in improving
data on motor carriers, drivers, road safety for all citizens.
compliance reviews, inspections, In general, State agencies that
and crashes. At the national level, address road safety issues include:
FMCSA uses the data to characterize
the safety experience of commercial JJ State departments
motor vehicles, and to help States of transportation
with the task of identifying high
JJ State highway safety offices
risk carriers and drivers. The data
are also used by motor carrier JJ State departments
companies, safety researchers, of motor vehicles
advocacy groups, insurance
JJ State highway patrols
companies, the public, and a variety
of other entities. JJ State health departments

State
departments of
transportation
oversee design,
construction,
maintenance,
and operation
of roads.

5-6 UNIT 5: IMPLEMENTING ROAD SAFETY EFFORTS ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

State Departments also develops long-range (20 to
of Transportation 30 year) transportation plans
and short range (five to 10 year)
Focus Area: Road Design plans that outline the vision of the
and Environment transportation network and which
projects will be constructed to fulfill
Each State has a department of
that vision.
transportation (DOT), which
oversees the design, construction,
State Highway Safety Offices
maintenance, and operation of the
State’s roads. This agency may Focus Area: Road User Behavior
also be called the State Highway
State Highway Safety Offices
Administration or Department
(SHSOs) administer a variety of
of Roads. State DOTs have many
national highway safety grant
official responsibilities. For highway 11
safety issues, State DOTs have programs authorized and funded
official transportation planning, through Federal legislation.11 The “SHSO Programs &

programming, and project governor of each State appoints a Funding,” accessed

June 20, 2013,
implementation responsibility. highway safety representative to http://www.ghsa.
These agencies typically oversee administer the Federal Highway org/about/federal-
grant-programs.
all Interstate highways and most Safety Grant Program and numerous
primary highways (State highways). other highway safety programs
State DOTs focus on roadway designated by Congress. The
safety, and thus work in direct governor’s representative promotes
partnership with FHWA. They serve safety initiatives in the State, such
as liaisons between the Federal and as high visibility enforcement
local transportation agencies and campaigns like Click It or Ticket.
provide resources and technical The State Highway Safety Office
assistance to local agencies. State
focuses on behavioral aspects of
DOTs coordinate the use of Federal
roadway users, and thus works in
HSIP funds to improve roads and
direct partnership with NHTSA.
intersections on the local level.
Safety programs implemented by
In some States, the DOT the SHSO include:
administers, maintains, and
JJ Encouraging safety belt, child car
operates county and city streets or
seat, and helmet use
secondary roads. State DOTs also
work cooperatively with tolling JJ Discouraging impaired driving
authorities, ports, local agencies,
JJ Promoting motorcycle safety
and special districts that own,
operate, or maintain portions of the JJ Improving the skills of younger
transportation network. and older drivers
The State DOT typically leads
the development of the SHSP, a
State Departments
statewide-coordinated safety plan of Motor Vehicles
that provides a comprehensive
Focus Area: Vehicle Design
framework for reducing highway
and Technology
fatalities and serious injuries on
all public roads. The State DOT State Departments of Motor Vehicles

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 5: IMPLEMENTING ROAD SAFETY EFFORTS 5-7

 State highway
patrols enforce
motor vehicle laws
Coordinated and regulations,
investigate
People from crashes, and
many agencies work to identify
come together enforcement
to develop an needs.
SHSP, including
those from the
department of
transportation, (DMVs) administer State programs investigate motor vehicle crashes,
department for driver licensing, and automobile which are important sources of
of motor inspection and registration. State and Federal crash data. They
vehicles, state
highway patrol, Generally, DMVs reside either within work closely with State highway
public health, the State DOT or a department of safety representatives to identify
universities, public safety. A few States have a enforcement needs. They play a
and others. cabinet-level DMV. vital role in implementing impaired
driving laws, safety belt use, and
The DMV is responsible for
other safety programs. Certain
identifying at-risk drivers and
troopers in the State highway
Comprehensive maintaining driver records. The
agency also implements driver patrol are tasked with inspecting
Using all types large trucks to ensure the driver
license standards, monitors
of strategies to and the vehicle comply with safety
improve road graduated licensing programs, and
establishes requirements for driver regulations, such as vehicle size and
safety, such as
infrastructure education. Some State DMVs also weight, driver hours of service, and
improvements, serve as the primary owners of the medical fitness.
law enforcement, statewide crash data.
and campaigns State Health Departments
to change
driver behavior. State Highway Patrols Focus Area: Road User Behavior
This is seen in
Focus Area: Law Enforcement State health departments also
the types of
crashes which State highway patrols (also known play an important role in reducing
serve as the crash severity. These agencies
as State police and State patrols)
focus areas of
operate in every State except Hawaii. are typically responsible for
an SHSP, such
as speeding State police patrol highways and statewide trauma center planning.
related crashes, enforce motor vehicle laws State health departments provide
which are most and regulations. training, certification, and technical
effectively assistance for EMS providers,
addressed State law enforcement agencies play
administer injury prevention
through a an important role in reducing the
combination programs, and maintain trauma and
frequency and severity of crashes.
of speed injury databases. Some State health
At the scene of crashes, State police
enforcement, departments coordinate with other
engineering direct traffic, administer first aid,
public agencies and community
modifications, call for emergency equipment,
groups to promote young driver
and behavioral write traffic citations, and
campaigns. safety, older driver safety, child
complete crash reports.
passenger safety, and pedestrian
State highway patrols also and bicycle safety.

5-8 UNIT 5: IMPLEMENTING ROAD SAFETY EFFORTS ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

State Safety Plans highest potential to save lives and
prevent injuries. Since 2005, Federal Coordinated,
and Programs Comprehensive
legislation has required States to
State agencies use numerous develop, implement,evaluate, and See previous
approaches to improve road safety update their SHSP.12,13 page.
within their State. Often, they seek
The State DOT develops an SHSP
to identify State-specific safety
in a cooperative process with local,
issues and direct Federal or State 12
State, Federal, tribal, and private
funding to solve those issues. State
sector safety stakeholders. It is “Strategic Highway
agencies take the lead in developing
a data-driven, multi-year plan Safety Plans:
statewide safety plans or programs, A Champion’s
that establishes statewide goals, Guidebook to Saving
many of which are encouraged or
objectives, and key emphasis Lives 2nd ed.,”
required by the Federal Government. Federal Highway
areas. The development of an SHSP
Although States differ in their Administration
provides a venue for highway safety (Washington,
specific safety improvement efforts,
partners in the State to align goals, D.C., October
the following plans or programs are leverage resources (i.e., combine 2012), History and
Background, http://
developed in every State: Federal and State resources), and safety.fhwa.dot.
collectively address the State’s gov/hsip/shsp/
JJ Strategic Highway Safety Plan guidebook/ovrvw.
safety challenges.14 cfm
JJ Long Range Transportation Plan
An ideal SHSP meets several criteria:
JJ Statewide Transportation
Improvement Program JJ It addresses engineering, 13 14
management, operation,
JJ Railway-Highway education, enforcement, and
“Strategic Highway
Safety Plan (SHSP),”
Crossing Program emergency service elements of accessed August 13,
highway safety as key factors in 2013, http://safety.
JJ Highway Safety Program fhwa.dot.gov/hsip/
evaluating highway projects. shsp/.
Although the HSIP was previously
JJ It considers safety needs of, and
covered under Federal safety
high-fatality segments of, all
programs, it should be noted that
public roads. 15
the State plays the major role
in selecting locations that need JJ It considers the results of “Map-21,” Title
safety improvement, designing, State, regional, or local 23 U.S.C. (2012),
accessed August 19,
and implementing the safety transportation and highway
2013, http://www.
improvement, and reporting annually safety planning processes. gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/
PLAW-112publ141/
on all the HSIP funded projects that
JJ It describes strategies to reduce pdf/PLAW-
were constructed that year. 112publ141.pdf
or eliminate safety hazards.
Strategic Highway Safety Plan JJ It gains approval of the governor
of the State or a responsible
A State’s SHSP is a statewide-
State agency.15 16
coordinated safety plan that provides
a comprehensive framework for As mentioned on page 5-5, in order “Highway Safety
Improvement Plan
reducing highway fatalities and to spend HSIP funds, a State must (HSIP),” accessed
serious injuries on all public roads. have a current SHSP, produce a August 14, 2013,
http://www.fhwa.
An SHSP identifies a State’s key program of projects or strategies to
dot.gov/map21/hsip.
safety needs and guides investment reduce safety problems, and evaluate cfm.
decisions toward strategies with the the SHSP on a regular basis.16

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 5: IMPLEMENTING ROAD SAFETY EFFORTS 5-9

 Long-Range focused on improving safety, such
as widening shoulders or installing
Transportation Plans
rumble strips. Projects included in
Long-range transportation plans STIPs must have identified funding
(LRTPs) identify transportation sources (e.g., HSIP, State, or local
goals, objectives, needs, and funding). The State DOT identifies
performance measures over a 20- to projects in areas outside MPOs,
25-year horizon and provide policy such as rural areas and smaller
and strategy recommendations urban jurisdictions, for inclusion
for accommodating those needs. in the STIP.17
17 LRTPs are prepared at both the
State and MPO level. LRTPs are Railway-Highway
Title 49, United
States Code, § 5304
fiscally-unconstrained and typically Crossings Program
present a systems-level approach
that considers roadways, transit, The Railway-Highway Crossings
pedestrian, and bicycle facilities. Program funds safety improvements
LRTP’s have wide scopes; the to reduce the number of fatalities,
components of the plan may be injuries, and crashes at public grade
policy-oriented and strategic or crossings.18 A grade crossing is a
18
focused on specific projects. The location where a public highway,
“Railway-Highway types of improvements range road, street, or private roadway
Crossings Program,”
accessed August widely, as well. Safety-focused (including associated sidewalks and
9, 2013, http:// improvements in a LRTP may be pathways) crosses a railroad track at
www.fhwa.dot.gov/ the same level as the street. These
map21/rhc.cfm.
directed at infrastructure, such
as building new interchanges locations are high-risk spots for
or bringing certain highways road users. The United States has
up to current design standards, more than 200,000 grade crossings.19
19
or behavioral efforts, such as Types of crossing improvements
Railroad-Highway addressing seat belt use or that the Railway-Highway Crossings
Grade Crossing Program implements include:
aggressive driving.
Handbook 2nd ed.
Federal Highway
Administration Statewide Transportation JJ Crossing approach improvements:
(Washington D.C., projects such as channelization,
August 2007) Improvement Programs new or upgraded signals on the
The Statewide Transportation approach, guardrail, pedestrian/
Improvement Program (STIP) bicycle path improvements near
identifies the funding and the crossing, and illumination
scheduling of transportation JJ Crossing warning sign and
projects throughout the State that
pavement marking Improvements:
support the goals identified in
projects such as signs,
the LRTP. STIPs are short-range
pavement markings, and/or
(typically an outlook of five to ten
delineation where these project
years) and fiscally constrained,
activities are the predominant
meaning that the projects must have
safety improvements
designated funding. While many
STIP projects are constructed for JJ Active grade crossing equipment
capacity or mobility reasons (i.e., installation/upgrade: projects
build a bypass or widen a road), such as new or upgraded flashing
there are also STIP projects that are lights and gates, track circuitry,

5-10 UNIT 5: IMPLEMENTING ROAD SAFETY EFFORTS ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

 20

“Railway-Highway
Crossings Program
Reporting
Guidance,”
accessed August
9, 2013, http://
The Railway-Highway Crossings Program funds safety improvements at crossings. www.fhwa.dot.gov/
map21/guidance/
guiderhcp.cfm.

wayside horns, and signal Highway Safety Plan (HSP). The

improvements such as railway- HSP establishes goals, performance 21 23
highway signal interconnection measures, targets, strategies, and
and pre-emption.20 projects to improve highway safety “MAP-21,” Title
23, U.S.C. (2012),
in the State. It also documents the accessed August
Highway Safety Program State’s efforts to coordinate with 16, 2013, http://
www.fhwa.dot.
the goals and strategies in the
Each State administers a Highway gov/map21/docs/
SHSP. However, the Highway Safety title23usc.pdf, Sec.
Safety Program, approved by the 402.
Program is distinct from an SHSP.
U.S. Secretary of Transportation. SHSPs target improvements to
The program is designed to reduce infrastructure and road users, and
deaths and injuries on the road by are broad in content and context, 22
targeting user behavior through while highway safety programs “MAP-21,” Title
education and enforcement focus more on road user behavior.22 23, U.S.C. (2012),
campaigns.21 The State conducts accessed August
An HSP might address issues such 16, 2013, http://
this program through the State as excess speeds, proper use of www.fhwa.dot.
highway safety office. A State is gov/map21/docs/
occupant protection devices, driving
title23usc.pdf, Sec.
eligible for SHSP grants by having while impaired, and quality of traffic 148.
and implementing an approved records data.23

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 5: IMPLEMENTING ROAD SAFETY EFFORTS 5-11

 Local Agencies
Charlotte Pedestrian Safety
Local agencies, such as city and
The City of Charlotte developed its
county governments, play an
Transportation Action Plan (TAP) in
important role in improving road 2011 to describe how to reach its safety
safety and identifying and selecting and mobility transportation goals. The
transportation projects. These agencies plan emphasized the safety of all road
that administer roads at the local level users and included objectives such as
constructing 375 miles of new sidewalk by
may be called by various names: public
2035.24 To support the goal of pedestrian
24 road agency, department of public safety, Charlotte developed Charlotte
works, departments of transportation, WALKS, the city’s first comprehensive
The City of
Charlotte
or road commissions. Due to their Pedestrian Plan. This plan identified new
Transportation smaller size, many local agencies strategies to meet the pedestrian safety
Action Plan Policy may not have a staff member who is and walkability goals in Charlotte’s TAP.25
Document, 5 Year
Update, August 22, specifically focused on road safety.
2011. The urban nature of their jurisdiction
naturally causes their efforts to be and may coordinate with the local
focused on different types of road agency to identify potential safety
25 safety topics than a State DOT. improvements and get them installed.
For example, a city transportation Many local agencies also collaborate
http://charlottenc.
gov/Transportation/ department would typically focus on with the State DOT to develop a Local
Programs/Pages/ urban elements such as sidewalks, Road Safety Plan.
default.aspx
transit accommodations, and high
At the regional level, metropolitan
density access management, where
planning organizations (MPOs) plan,
as a State DOT would typically be
program, and coordinate Federal
focused on more rural elements, such
highway and transit investments.
as high speed curves and isolated
When an urban area meets certain
intersections.
minimum characteristics (e.g.,
Most safety issues for local streets, population), Federal law requires the
intersections, or corridors are the creation of an MPO for the region
responsibility of the city or county to qualify for Federal highway or
government. These agencies transit funds in urbanized areas.
supplement State laws, establish MPOs do not typically own or operate
traffic laws in their jurisdictions, the transportation systems in their
and determine penalties for jurisdiction. MPOs play a coordination
noncompliance. Local law enforcement and consensus-building role in
26 agencies investigate crashes and planning and programming funds for
submit crash data to State and Federal capital improvements, maintenance,
The Transportation
Planning Process agencies. City and county planning and and operations. MPOs involve local
Briefing Book, engineering staff help plan and design transportation providers in the
Federal Highway
roads, bike lanes, and sidewalks. Many planning process by coordinating
Administration
and Federal Transit local police departments partner with with transit agencies, State and
Administration, State police to implement impaired local highway departments, airport
2015 Update,
http://www.fhwa. driving, work zone safety, motorcycle authorities, maritime operators,
dot.gov/planning/ safety, heavy truck, and safety belt rail-freight operators, Amtrak, port
publications/
briefing_book/
education and enforcement programs. operators, private providers of public
fhwahep15048.pdf In some States, the State DOT owns transportation, and others within the
many of the major roads in the city MPO region.26

5-12 UNIT 5: IMPLEMENTING ROAD SAFETY EFFORTS ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

Other Safety Partners manufacturing vehicles that
had “smart” technologies to
Although government agencies have improve safety, such as collision
the support of large budgets and warnings and assisted braking.
institutional authority to These technologies, which were
implement improvements to road not required by the government,
safety, they are not the only entities addressed some of the most
working to improve road safety. common crash types, such as rear
Government agencies work with end crashes. These improvements
partners from a variety of fields also set the stage for more
to improve the nation’s roadways advanced automated vehicle
including those in private industry, designs and technologies.
special interest groups, and
professional organizations. Insurance Companies

Private industry Insurance companies often assist

in identifying ways to improve
Automobile Manufacturers safety on the nation’s roads. The
most notable organization in this
Auto manufacturers have a critical
respect is the Insurance Institute
effect on road safety by designing
for Highway Safety (IIHS) and its
vehicles that assist the driver in
sister organization, the Highway
avoiding crashes and that absorb
Loss Data Institute (HLDI). These
energy in crashes that do occur.
are organizations that study road
Federal standards stipulate that
safety issues and use insurance data
vehicles must have certain safety
to provide data-based evidence of
improvements, such as seat belts,
safety by vehicle make and model.
air bags, and electronic
These organizations are funded 27
stability control.27 However,
by a pooled group of insurance
auto manufacturers have also Title 49 of the
companies and associations. IIHS
implemented various non-required United States Code,
runs the Vehicle Research Center, Chapter 301, Motor
safety improvements. These
which conducts crash tests of many Vehicle Safety;
improvements typically make use of and Federal Motor
vehicle types to encourage auto Vehicle Safety
emerging technologies or materials.
manufacturers to produce safer Standard (FMVSS)
No. 218
For instance, in the early 2000’s, vehicles and inform the consumer
auto manufacturers began on vehicle safety ratings.

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 5: IMPLEMENTING ROAD SAFETY EFFORTS 5-13

 Special interest groups
Special interest groups are
associations of individuals or
organizations that promote their
common interests by influencing the
legislative process at the local, State,
and/or Federal levels of government.
Many interest groups also serve
other functions, such as providing American Council of the Blind
services and information to their (ACB) and National Federation of
members. Interest groups fill a the Blind (NFB)
vital role in advancing the cause of
The ACB and NFB represent the
safety-related legislation. interests of people who are blind or
A few examples of road safety- visually impaired. These organizations
work to inform legislators, city and
focused interest groups include the State agencies, and the public about
AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety, road safety issues that are unique to
National Safety Council, Mothers individuals with visual impairment.
Against Drunk Driving (MADD), They promote policies and practices
the American Council of the Blind, that assist visually impaired individuals
and the National Federation of the in traveling safety and independently.
These include enhancements, such as
Blind. There are many other interest auditory stop announcements on buses
groups involved in influencing and accessible pushbuttons that provide
transportation and safety legislation. information about street crossing
These groups engage signals.
in a variety of activities,
such as sponsoring independent
research and evaluation, These organizations often hold
mobilizing citizens to contact their regular conferences that allow
legislators in support of or against safety professionals to network,
certain pieces of legislation, and share ideas, and gain knowledge
disseminating policy reports in from others in their field. The
support of or against legislation organizations also provide training
affecting the safety of the road users opportunities that help advance and
they represent. disseminate road safety knowledge.

Professional organizations There are many professional

organizations covering many
Professional organizations bring
disciplines that relate to road safety.
together road safety professionals
While this textbook is not intended
from common backgrounds or
to provide an encyclopedic listing, a
spheres of influence to foster
discussion and advancement of few examples are listed below.
safety issues. Members of these American Association of
organizations who recognize State Highway Transportation
emerging road safety issues can Officials (AASHTO)
use the power of the group to
advocate legislation or sponsor AASHTO members consist of
research to address these issues. representatives from highway

5-14 UNIT 5: IMPLEMENTING ROAD SAFETY EFFORTS ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

and transportation departments Governors Highway Safety
in the 50 States, the District of Association (GHSA)
Columbia, and Puerto Rico. AASHTO
GHSA represents the State and
provides tools such as Safety
territorial highway safety offices
Analyst, an analytical software
that implement programs to
package, and publishes the Highway
address behavioral highway
Safety Manual, which provides
safety issues including occupant
an analytical and quantitative
protection, impaired driving, and
framework for analyzing a road’s
speeding. GHSA provides leadership
safety performance. AASHTO focuses
and advocacy for the States and
on emerging safety issues through
territories to improve traffic safety,
its Standing Committee on Highway
influence national policy, enhance
Traffic Safety. AASHTO inspired the
program management, and promote
development of a national safety
best practices.
plan called Toward Zero Deaths,
committed to reducing the number International Organizations
of highway fatalities to zero.
As of 2017, there is no U.S.
Institute of Transportation organization that combines the
Engineers (ITE) narrow focus of improving road
safety and a broad multidisciplinary
ITE is an association of
approach. The current inventory
transportation professionals
of U.S. professional organizations
who are responsible for meeting
is usually specific to a type of
mobility and safety needs. ITE
discipline, such as engineering or
promotes professional development
behavioral science. Looking beyond
of its members and facilitates
the U.S. borders shows that other
the application of technology and
countries have formed organizations
scientific principles to the safety
that bring together many different
of ground transportation. ITE’s
disciplines to address road safety
Transportation Safety Council covers
including the following:
issues, such as roadside safety,
pedestrian and bicyclist safety, and JJ World Road Association (PIARC,
work zone safety. after its former name Permanent
International Association of Road
Association of Transportation Safety
Congresses), www.piarc.org/en/
Information Professionals (ATSIP)
JJ La Prévention Routière
ATSIP focuses on data and is the
Internationale (PRI), www.lapri.org
leading advocate for improving the
quality and use of transportation JJ United Nations Road
safety information. ATSIP furthers Safety Collaboration,
the development and sharing of www.who.int/roadsafety/en/
traffic records system procedures,
JJ Global Road Safety Partnership,
tools, and professionalism. Its goal
www.grsproadsafety.org
is to improve the quality of safety
data and encourage their use in JJ International Road Federation,
safety programs and policies. www.irf.global

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 5: IMPLEMENTING ROAD SAFETY EFFORTS 5-15

 EXERCISES

JJ RESEARCH a recent road safety project JJ RESEARCH a private sector or industry

in your city, county, State, or region. association that works to improve road
Identify the roles and responsibilities safety. Prepare a class presentation that
of the Federal, State, and/or local includes a brief history of the interest
governmental agencies in the project. group, a synopsis of important and
Prepare a brief report for a successful campaigns, and a summary
class presentation. of its current work. Some examples of
private sector or industry associations
JJ USE your local, State, or regional
include the American Insurance
highway department’s website to
Association (AIA), the American Traffic
determine its most pressing road safety
Safety Services Association (ATSSA),
concerns. Prepare a brief report that
the American Road and Transportation
explains the concerns, how the agency
Builders Association (ARTBA), the
identified them, the proposed remedies,
National Association of County Engineers
and the agency’s next steps.
(NACE), the American Public Works
JJ PREPARE a brief presentation that Association (APWA), and many others.
summarizes how your local government
JJ FIND OUT how professional associations
administers roadway programs. Identify
like the National League of Cities, the
the form of government (city, county,
American Association of State Highway
municipality, parish, etc.), the local
Transportation Officials (AASHTO), the
agencies, and their responsibilities to
Governor’s Highway Safety Association
roadway safety programs.
(GHSA), and the Standing Committee
JJ RESEARCH a private or nonprofit on Highway Traffic Safety (SCOHTS)
interest group that works to improve influence road safety policy.
road safety. Prepare a class presentation What are some examples of past
that includes a brief history of the interest successful campaigns?
group, a synopsis of important and
JJ Using the State DOT website,
successful campaigns, and a summary
RESEARCH your home State’s Highway
of its current work. Some examples of
Safety Program. Prepare a brief
private or nonprofit interest groups
presentation that identifies the State and
include the Automobile Association
describes how it is working to improve
of America (AAA), Mothers against
roadway safety. You may want to focus on
Drunk Driving (MADD), the Insurance
the State’s efforts with a particular road
Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS), and
user or road safety provider. Be sure
the American Bikers Aimed Toward
to include details about how the State
Education (ABATE), and many others.
identified the safety challenge(s), how
JJ RESEARCH your local, State, or regional the State chose its countermeasure(s),
transportation safety planning group. and how its efforts measure against
Prepare a brief report that identifies the national performance criteria.
group’s current safety goal(s), explains
how the group plans to alleviate the
safety challenge(s), and describes the
group’s strategic communications plan.

5-16 UNIT 5: IMPLEMENTING ROAD SAFETY EFFORTS ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

 CHAPTER 14 IMPLEMENTING ROAD SAFETY EFFORTS

Road Safety Research

Road safety practitioners are
constantly seeking the most
effective means for preventing
injuries and fatalities on the
road. To accomplish this, they
need to understand the nature
of the road safety problems and
which behavioral or infrastructure
countermeasures are the best at
addressing these problems. When
weighing two possible safety
treatments, they need to know
which one is more effective (would
prevent more crashes) and more
efficient (preventing crashes at a
lower cost). Additionally, safety
practitioners work with a limited
budget, so they need to know which
safety treatment is more cost
effective, that is, how many crashes
can be prevented for the same dollar
spent. These goals lead to many
questions, such as:
practitioner. Unit 3 of this textbook
JJ What age range should be provides a look at the various types
targeted in a young driver of safety data and how they can
safety program? be used together. Good research
JJ What is an effective strategy analyzes one or more kinds of safety
for preventing data to gain knowledge on ways to
run-off-road crashes? prevent crashes or decrease injuries
when crashes do occur.
JJ How many crashes would be
expected on one type of road General Types of
versus another type?
Road Safety Research
JJ How many serious injuries
The intention of this chapter is not
could be prevented by installing
to summarize the entire field of
additional safety measures at a
road safety research, but rather to
signalized intersection?
provide an overview that will show
Research is the key to answering what types of research have been
these questions and providing conducted within the topic of
quality information to the safety road safety.

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 5: IMPLEMENTING ROAD SAFETY EFFORTS 5-17

 RESEARCH QUESTION EXAMPLES

PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION EVALUATION

What are characteristics of crashes What is the safety effect of instituting

involving teen drivers? a graduated driver license law?

PERSON
What type of driver is overrepresented Has the arrival of ride-sharing apps in
in alcohol-related crashes? cities reduced alcohol-related crashes?

What models of vehicle are more What is the effect of an antilock

prone to run-off-road crashes? braking system on run-off-road crashes?
VEHICLE

What factors are associated with What is the effect of airbags on

large truck-related crashes? injury severity?

What road features are associated What is the safety effect of installing
with run-off-road crashes? rumble strips?
ENVIRONMENT

How does lane width influence What is the safety effect of narrowing
driver speed? lanes on urban roads?
ROAD

Are some land development patterns What is the safety effect of controlling
riskier from a safety standpoint? road access in dense urban areas?

TABLE 5-2: Safety Research Categorization

One way that these road safety of Transportation (FDOT) was

research projects can be generally experiencing thousands of crashes,
categorized is by grouping them by including many fatalities, in
the safety factor they address: the construction work zones and sought
person, the vehicle, or the roadway. an alternative to the traditional
For each of these categories, safety work-zone barrier. University of
research typically focuses either Florida civil engineering researchers
on identifying safety problems or hired by FDOT developed a new
on evaluating solutions to safety type of portable temporary low-
problems. Table 5-2 demonstrates profile barrier that can redirect
this classification of safety research cars and small trucks, preventing
areas and provides example them from crashing into the work
questions that would drive research zone and protecting the passengers
26 studies in each area. in the vehicle. The barrier was
advantageous in that it could be
University of
Florida, Office
While this chapter presents broken down into small inexpensive
of Technology road safety research in terms of segments that are easy to install
Licensing, “Portable
Temporary Low-
identifying problems or evaluating and move around.26 Additional
Profile Barrier solutions, researchers also play key research was carried out to evaluate
(PTB) for Roadside
roles in developing new solutions this new type of barrier in terms of
Safety”, UF #11052,
US Patent 6,767,158 to road safety problems. For criteria like crash performance
example, the Florida Department and durability.

5-18 UNIT 5: IMPLEMENTING ROAD SAFETY EFFORTS ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS

Examples of relatively low risk conditions before
obtaining full driving privileges.
Road Safety Research
A new driver would progress
The following sections provide through Level 1 (a learner’s stage
descriptions and examples of requiring extensive supervised
research studies. These examples practice), Level 2 (an intermediate
will give the reader a look at the stage which prohibited teenage
types of studies that are conducted passengers and driving at night),
within each of the six categories and Level 3 (full licensure with
shown in Table 5-2. no restrictions). NHTSA funded a
group of researchers to evaluate the
Research on the Person effect of the GDL program on the
Problem Identification crash risk of 16-year-old drivers.
The researchers examined Michigan
The IIHS sponsored a study to statewide crash data from 1996
examine the characteristics of (pre-GDL) and 1998 and 1999 (post-
crashes involving 16-year old GDL). They analyzed the pre-GDL
drivers. The researchers used and post-GDL rates of 16-year-
crash data from NHTSA’s General old drivers involved in crashes by
Estimates System (a national crash unit of the statewide population.
database built on sampling from Researchers also compared to crash 28
police agencies around the U.S.). rates of drivers over age 25 to
Ulmer, Robert G.,
They compared crash involvement control for any other trends. They Allan F. Williams,
of sixteen-year-olds to that of found that the overall crash risk and David F.
other age categories of drivers Preusser, Crash
for 16-year-old drivers decreased Involvements of
and found that sixteen-year-olds 25% by the year 1999 (two years 16-Year-Old Drivers,
were more likely to be involved in after GDL was implemented). They Journal of Safety
Research, Vol. 28,
single-vehicle crashes and night also found significant reductions No. 2, pp 97-103,
time crashes (6:00pm to 11:59pm). in many specific crash types, such 1997. http://www.
sciencedirect.com/
Sixteen-year-olds were also more as night crashes and single vehicle science/article/pii/
likely to have received a moving crashes. These findings showed S0022437596000412
violation and been at fault for a a significant benefit to the GDL
crash. They were also more likely program and served to support GDL
to be accompanied by other teenage implementation in other States.29 29
passengers. Researchers also found
some indications that drivers Research on the Vehicle Shope, J., L. Molnar,
M. Elliott, P.
with less on-the-road experience
Problem Identification Waller. Graduated
(females in this study) were Driver Licensing
in Michigan: Early
proportionately more involved The design of a vehicle, particularly Impact on Motor
in crashes.28 how well it protects the occupants Vehicle Crashes
Among 16-Year-
in the event of a crash, can have
Evaluation of Solutions Old Drivers.
a significant effect on injuries Journal of the
In 1997, Michigan instituted its sustained in the crash. A group American Medical
Association, Vol.
Graduated Driver Licensing (GDL) of researchers from the IIHS 286, No. 13, October,
program to address the high rate of investigated the relation of vehicle 2001. http://jama.
jamanetwork.
fatal crashes involving teen drivers. roof strength to occupant injury com/article.aspx?
This program required teen drivers during crashes. They examined articleid=194251
to gain driving experience under crash data from fourteen States

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 5: IMPLEMENTING ROAD SAFETY EFFORTS 5-19

 for single-vehicle rollover crashes This result is for the ABS alone; the
30
involving midsize SUVs. They also authors recognized that electronic
Brumbelow, M., E. used a rating of roof strength for stability control (a technology which
Teoh, D. Zuby, and
A. McCartt. Roof each vehicle type in the crash data. automatically applies brakes to
Strength and Injury Their findings showed that the individual wheels to keep the driver
Risk in Rollover
crush resistance of a vehicle’s roof on the road) would soon be paired
Crashes. Traffic
Injury Prevention, was strongly related to the risk of with ABS for potentially greater
10:252-265, 2009. fatal or incapacitating injury to the crash reductions.31
DOI: 10.1080/
15389580902781343 occupants. This research identified
one statistically significant factor Research on the Road
(roof strength) in the severity of Environment
31 rollover crashes. The researchers
also recommended the study of Problem Identification
Kahane, C., and J. other vehicle factors to determine
Dang. The Long- Curves on the road, both horizontal
Term Effect of their effect on the severity of and vertical, are known to be
ABS in Passenger rollover crashes.30 problem spots for road safety.
Cars and LTVs.
They are particularly concerning
National Highway Evaluation of Solutions
Traffic Safety when they occur together, such
Administration,
Report DOT HS 811
Anti lock braking system (ABS) is as a horizontal curve at the peak
182, August 2009. a technology that was developed of a hill. FHWA sponsored a study
to combat the problem of drivers to identify and quantify the road
losing control of their vehicle during and curve characteristics that are
hard braking due to locked wheels. associated with higher instances
ABS modulates braking power to of crashes. The researchers
prevent a vehicle’s wheels from examined curves in Washington
locking up. Since this technology State using crash data and roadway
requires drivers to employ it characteristics contained in the
correctly (i.e., step and hold on the Highway Safety Information System
brake rather than pumping), the (HSIS). They analyzed locations
Federal Government conducted a where horizontal and vertical curves
public information campaign in occurred independently, as well as
1995 to inform drivers how to use locations where both occurred in
ABS correctly. The NHTSA sponsored the same place. The researchers
a study that took a long term look at developed equations that predicted
the effect of ABS from 1995 to 2007. the effect on crash frequency for
The researchers used crash data each type of curve combination.
32
from two Federal databases (the These predictive equations included
Bauer, K.M. and Fatality Analysis Reporting System road and curve characteristics found
Harwood, D.W.
Safety Effects and the General Estimates System of to affect the frequency of crashes.
of Horizontal the National Automotive Sampling These characteristics included the
Curve and Grade
System) to estimate the long-term sharpness of the vertical curve and
Combinations on
Rural Two-Lane effectiveness of ABS for passenger the radius of the horizontal curve.32
Highways, Report
cars, light trucks, and vans. They
No. FHWA- Evaluation of Solutions
HRT-13-077, found that ABS reduced fatal crashes
Federal Highway with pedestrians but increased fatal Rumble strips are expected to
Administration,
Washington, DC, run-off-road crashes. ABS proved to decrease crashes by generating
2013. be quite effective in reducing nonfatal noise to alert sleepy or inattentive
crashes in all types of vehicles. drivers that they are about to leave

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 How Research Affects
Implementation:
Motorcycle Helmets
Motorcycle helmets are now a common
road safety element to reduce serious head
injuries, but they were not always so. The
original interest in motorcycle helmets
began when Colonel T.E. Lawrence (better
known as Lawrence of Arabia) died after
suffering a head injury in a motorcycle material (Styrofoam) inside the helmet. A
crash. One of the physicians who attended study in 1957 by a physician named George
him, Hugh Cairns, was moved by the Snively helped this new type of helmet take
incident and began studying the prevalence hold through unusual means – testing six
of head injuries among motorcyclists in popular motorcycle helmets on human
the British Army. His work ultimately led to cadavers. The Roth and Lombard helmet
helmets becoming mandatory in the British with the protective lining was by far the
33
Army and the U.K. most effective in preventing head injuries.
Maartens, N., A.
Early motorcycle helmets were leather caps Many more studies have documented the Wills, and C. Adams.
that did little to protect riders. Then in the effectiveness of motorcycle helmets. This Lawrence of Arabia,
1950s, Roth and Lombard came up with the eventually led to standards for motorcycle Sir Hugh Cairns,
and the Origin of
idea of using a crushable, energy absorbing helmets and universal helmet laws.33,34 Motorcycle Helmets.
Neurosurgery,
Vol. 50, No. 1,
the travel lane. Rumble strips on Major Road Safety January 2002.

both the centerline and shoulder Research Sponsors and

ensure that drivers are alerted no
matter which side of the lane they Research Programs 34
depart. FHWA, through a pooled Most road safety research is funded Liu, B., R. Ivers, R.
Norton, S. Blows,
fund from 38 States, conducted by the government, through state S.K. Lo. Helmets
a study to determine the safety or federal agencies. However, some for preventing
effect of installing centerline and injury in motorcycle
research is also funded by privately riders (review).
shoulder rumble strips on rural run companies or foundations. The The Cochrane
two-lane roads. The researchers organizations that sponsor research Collaboration, John
Wiley and Sons, Ltd.
gathered data on roads in three projects are often focused on one January 2008. DOI:
States and compared crash category of research. The list below 10.1002/14651858.
CD004333.pub3
performance for roads where the presents a look at some of the major
rumble strips were installed versus research sponsors and their area of
roads without rumble strips. The focus in road safety research.
analysis showed that the combined 35
rumble strip strategy was effective Federal Research Sponsors Lyon, Craig;
at reducing crashes. As expected, Bhagwant Persaud;
Federal Highway Administration and Kimberly Eccles.
the greatest crash reductions were “Safety Evaluation
for crash types that were related FHWA sponsors research studies of Centerline
Plus Shoulder
to lane departure including head- on a variety of road safety topics, Rumble Strips.”
on crashes (37% decrease), run- and their primary focus is on the Federal Highway
off-road crashes (26% decrease), Administration,
roadway or the built environment.
Report FHWA-
and sideswipe-opposite-direction This research investigates the HRT-15-048, 2015.
crashes (24% decrease).35 impact of road characteristics on

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 5: IMPLEMENTING ROAD SAFETY EFFORTS 5-21

 road safety and seeks solutions to on drivers, passengers,
known safety problems. The FHWA pedestrians, and motorcyclists.
Offices of Safety and Safety Research Research sponsored by NHTSA
and Development conduct research identifies and measures behaviors
to address issues including driver involved in crashes or associated
interaction with the roadway, with injuries, and develops and
intersection safety, pedestrian and refines countermeasures to
bicycle safety, and keeping vehicles deter unsafe behaviors and
on the roadway.36 The FHWA Turner- promote safe alternatives. The
36
Fairbank Research Center houses research topics include occupant
https://www.fhwa. more than 20 laboratories, data protection, distracted driving,
dot.gov/research/ centers, and support facilities, and motorcycle safety, speeding,
tfhrc/programs/
safety/index.cfm conducts applied and exploratory and young drivers.37
advanced research in road safety,
Transportation Research Board
among other topics. Additionally,
FHWA staff participates and The Transportation Research
37
provides input to many other venues Board (TRB) is part of the National
https://www.nhtsa. of research around the nation. Academies of Sciences and provides
gov/research-data
advice to the nation and informs
National Highway Traffic Safety
public policy decisions. TRB plays a
Administration
major role in road safety research.
NHTSA studies behaviors and It hosts an annual meeting where
attitudes in road safety, focusing transportation professionals

How Research Affects

Implementation: Safety EdgeSM
The ultimate intent of safety research is
to provide solid data to affect the way that
safety measures are carried out in the real
world. The development of Safety EdgeSM is
a good example of this.

Drivers who run off the road and then

38 try to regain control often go too far and In the early 2000s, several States (Georgia,
Graham, J.L., over-steer, leading to veering into the New York, Colorado, and Indiana) decided
Richard, K.R. , opposite lane or running off the road to install several miles of the sloped edge
O’Laughlin, M.K., on the other side. This problem is made as demonstration project. The FHWA
Harwood, D.W.,
worse when the soil is eroded away from sponsored a research study to evaluate the
“Safety Evaluation
of the Safety the pavement edge, creating a drop off. effect of the sloped edge, now called Safety
Edge Treatment” This safety concern was recognized in the EdgeSM, on run-off-road crashes. The results
Report No. 1980s, and the 1989 AASHTO Roadside showed a positive effect, and this finding
FHWA-HRT-11-024,
Federal Highway
Design Guide included a recommendation swayed many safety offices in favor of the
Administration, for adding a sloped edge to the pavement treatment. Those now in favor of Safety
Washington, DC. to assist drivers in regaining control onto EdgeSM worked to get other offices, such as
(2011) http://www.
the roadway. A few States attempted pavement offices, on board with the idea.
fhwa.dot.gov/
publications/ this treatment, but it was not widely Eventually it became a widespread practice,
research/ implemented. Through the following and by 2015, forty States required Safety
safety/11024/11024. years, other research showed a correlation EdgeSM to some degree in their
pdf
between drop off crashes and fatalities. design policies.38

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from around the world present
new research on many different Other Research Sponsors
transportation topics. The papers Although the majority of road safety
presented at the annual meeting research is funded by government
are peer-reviewed, and a portion sources, private companies and
of them are published in the organizations also participate in
Transportation Research Record. funding road safety research. Prominent
examples of these are the IIHS and
TRB also maintains standing the American Automobile Association
committees that provide direction Foundation for Traffic Safety.
to the research field and assist in
disseminating research findings.
several committees that oversee
Committees such as Transportation
road safety topics including the
Safety Management, Highway
Standing Committee on Highway
Safety Performance, Pedestrians,
Traffic Safety and the Subcommittee
Occupant Protection, and many
on Safety Management. These
others specifically address topics
groups decide which research topics
related to road safety. TRB manages
should be prioritized for funding
the National Cooperative Highway
under NCHRP.
Research Program (NCHRP),
described below. State Research Programs

State Research Sponsors In addition to participating in

large scale research efforts, such
American Association of State as NCHRP, State departments of
Highway Transportation Officials transportation often fund road
(AASHTO) safety research projects on topics
AASHTO is the organization behind that are of particular interest to
NCHRP. The NCHRP funds many their State. They use portions from
road safety research projects each Federal funds that are specially
year on a variety of topics that are designated for research projects.
integral to the State departments Every State has a different process
of transportation (DOTs) and for how the research projects are
transportation professionals at conceived and conducted, but
all levels of government and the a common arrangement is that
private sector. The NCHRP is the State DOT contracts with
administered by the Transportation universities in the State to conduct
Research Board (TRB) and the research. The research topics
sponsored by individual State typically pertain to current road
departments of transportation. The safety issues that are high priority
research projects are conducted in within the State or issues related to
cooperation with FHWA (FHWA). geography, terrain, weather, driver
Individual projects are conducted by population, or other such factors
contractors with oversight provided that may be particular to that State.
by volunteer panels of expert For example, a State in a snowy 39
stakeholders. NCHRP projects cover climate may sponsor a research
http://www.trb.org/
a wide range of highway topics, but project on how snowplowing affects NCHRP/NCHRP.
there is a specific focus area for the visibility and durability of in- aspx
safety.39 AASHTO also maintains pavement reflective markers.

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 5: IMPLEMENTING ROAD SAFETY EFFORTS 5-23

 CHAPTER 15 IMPLEMENTING ROAD SAFETY EFFORTS

Strategic Communications
A key part of many efforts to
improve road safety is sharing
safety messages through strategic
communications. This chapter
provides an outline of the most
basic elements of strategic
communications that transportation
safety professionals should
use when working with their
communications teams to craft and
disseminate messages that seek
to improve traffic safety culture.
As mentioned in Unit 1, strategic
communications programs like
public education campaigns are
commonly used to improve road user
attitudes and awareness.

A strategic communications
program involves elements of
communications, marketing, and
public outreach. These components
often overlap and are not easily Public education campaigns like this
separated into distinct categories one are commonly used to improve road
with unique functions. Strategic user attitudes and awareness.
communications is more than the (Source: NHTSA)
sum of its parts. Rather, it is a
structured methodology that fuses
messaging with marketing while visibility public information program
garnering public support. “Click It or Ticket” safety belt
enforcement campaign. Strategic
Several examples demonstrate that communications was a key element
strategic communications can result of all of these efforts.
in behavioral changes. An effort
in the late 1980s to stop impaired Other examples of communications
driving resulted in substantial efforts include:
decreases in Driving Under the
JJ Campaigns with careful pre-testing
Influence (DUI) citations. NHTSA
and delineation of a target group
saw successful results from the
that receives the messages.
implementation of the “Buckle Up
America Campaign” and the National JJ Longer-term programs that
Safety Council’s “Airbag and Seat deliver a message in sufficient
Belt Safety Campaign” and the high- intensity over time.

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JJ Education programs built around what “success” should look like.
behavioral change models, using Important questions include:
interactive methods to teach
JJ What are we trying to achieve?
skills to resist social influences
through role playing. JJ Do we want people to take a new
JJ Public information campaigns
action, or do we want people to
that accompany other ongoing modify an old behavior?
prevention activities. JJ How do we know when we have
JJ Programs conducted as part of a achieved our goal (i.e., what are
broader community effort or in our target metrics)?
support of law enforcement. Establishing measurable goals is
An effective strategic an important piece that should be
communications program, like any not be overlooked. Having a target
effective endeavor, needs a plan. The or measurable goal (metric) makes
following are key steps in developing it simpler to gauge the success of a
a strategic communications plan that campaign.
every road safety professional should
know: 2. Identify Target Audience
1. Develop objectives After developing communications
objectives, the next step is deciding
2. Identify target audience what populations to target. For
example, safety professionals must
3. Design messaging
decide if the program should be
4. Select communications channels aimed at the general public or a
specific sub-set of the population,
5. Determine budget and resources
such as young drivers, pedestrians,
6. Measure results or people who drive aggressively. A
message could also be aimed at road
Each step of this communications safety professionals and government
plan outline is discussed in the officials. In addition to a target
sections below.
audience or audiences, secondary
audiences may be included. For
1. Develop Objectives
instance, if the program targets young
The first phase in creating a drivers, a secondary audience may
strategic communications plan is include the parents of these novice
to determine objectives. A well- drivers.
designed communications strategy
may achieve multiple goals, such 3. Design Messaging
as informing the public about
Once safety professionals identify the
transportation safety issues,
target audience, they must determine
educating key political leaders
what the message will be. A key
on their roles in saving lives, and
step is to define the problem that
encouraging active participation
needs to be solved in order to craft
from safety partners.
the message. Messaging should be
To develop objectives, safety designed so that it encourages specific
professionals must start by defining actions, and draws upon established

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 5: IMPLEMENTING ROAD SAFETY EFFORTS 5-25

 Watch for Me NC
Watch for Me NC is a comprehensive
program run by the North Carolina
Department of Transportation (NCDOT) Yield to people in crosswalks.
in partnership with local communities.
It is aimed at reducing the number of
It’s the law.
pedestrians and bicyclists crashes.
WatchForMeNC.org
2,000 copies of this public document
were printed at a cost of $586, or
$0.293 per copy. (07/13)

The Watch for Me NC program involves

(Source: Watch for Me NC)

two key elements: 1) safety and
educational messages directed toward
drivers, pedestrians, and bicyclists, and
2) enforcement efforts by area police to
crack down on some of the violations of
traffic safety laws. Local programs are
typically led by municipal, county, or regional
government staff with the involvement
of many others including pedestrian
and bicycle advocates, city planners, law
enforcement agencies, engineers, public
health professionals, elected officials,
school administrators and others.

All North Carolina communities are

encouraged to use Watch for Me NC
campaign materials to improve pedestrian Make room for bikes.
and bicyclist safety in their communities. WatchForMeNC.org
1,400 copies of this public document
were printed at a cost of $410.20,
or $0.293 per copy. (07/13)

objectives to determine what those 4. Select Communications

actions should be. Designing the
Channels
message will bring about questions
like these: “Is the intended action Carefully crafted messages need to
a change in safety funding or be conveyed through appropriate
policies? Or is the goal a change in channels in order to be effective.
user behavior?” Focusing efforts Communications channels include
on strategies that connect with the personal and the non-personal.
the target audience is particularly Personal channels include the
important in today’s environment of advocate channel (advocates
tight budgets and scarce resources. championing the objectives of
a campaign), expert channel
After message development, safety
(independent experts making
professionals should consider pre-
statements to the target audience),
testing the message with the target
and social channel (word of mouth
audience. A pre-test can identify
communications). Non-personal
points of view of the target audience,
channels include media, events,
provide unexpected insights or
and public outreach – examples
reactions that can help further refine
of common non-personal
messaging, and help determine if the
dissemination techniques include,
communications plan will improve
but are not limited to, the following:
the chance of accomplishing the
stated objectives. JJ Brochures

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JJ Conferences/workshops cover them all. For instance, it may be
JJ Dynamic message signs necessary to hire an outside firm to
help develop and refine messages and
JJ Media advisories
tactics, and that should be factored
JJ New media (e.g., blogs, podcasts, into the budget. All program expenses
Facebook pages) should be tracked to determine how
JJ News media events well the budget has been met when
measuring results.
JJ Newsletters and press releases

JJ Public service announcements 6. Measure Results

JJ Print, radio, and television Evaluation of a strategic
advertising communications program is
JJ Social media essential. Without evaluation, current
JJ Websites
programs may waste resources and
fail to contribute to a road safety
Safety professionals must work program’s goals. Evaluations help
with the communications team safety professionals learn from
to determine the right media
outcomes and help them allocate
mix, which is the combination of
funds in the most efficient manner.
communication channels needed to
If a program does not meet expected
meet communications objectives.
Together they must figure out metrics, they should re-examine the
which channels -- personal and/ program and/or move the resources to
or non-personnel – and which other efforts.
tactics will help meet the stated
To measure the results of the
road safety goals. For example,
program, safety professionals must
personal channels may work well
with government officials, while go back to the objectives and pre-
non-personnel channels may determined measurable goals and
work best with reaching out to the targets. The original questions in
public. Also, a detailed timeline of Step 1 will guide the evaluation of
channels and tactics to employ, is the success of the program. Surveys,
crucial for implementing a strategic focus groups, and/or one-on-one
communications plan. interviews are often good ways of
measuring the performance of a
5. Determine Budget strategic communications program.
and Resources
As far as data allow, safety professionals
Implementing a comprehensive
should also attempt to compare the
communications program requires
effectiveness of communication
resources like money, staff, and
campaigns in the same way that
time. Therefore, developing a budget
for the program is an integral part they compare the performance
of carrying out the plan. Safety of traditional infrastructure
professionals should consider every countermeasures. The comparison
element of the proposed plan, and will help identify campaigns that are
make sure there are resources to both effective and efficient.

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 5: IMPLEMENTING ROAD SAFETY EFFORTS 5-27

 CHAPTER 16 IMPLEMENTING ROAD SAFETY EFFORTS

Advancing Road Safety

This chapter covers the crucial role However, technical knowledge
that safety leaders, champions, is not sufficient for change to
and coalitions play in road safety occur. Leadership is necessary
management. While the various to ensure technical knowledge
agencies and organizations involved is used.
in road safety bring unique and
JJ Road safety programs and
valuable perspectives to the
problem of road safety, they also projects compete with other
bring competing philosophies public sector priorities. Without
and problem-solving approaches. strong leaders to support the
Bringing these various entities safety cause, public sector
together to develop and implement decision makers might not
an effective road safety program consider or prioritize safety.
is a challenge. Leadership Activities
The major topics include: Leaders are an instrumental part
JJ Leaders of any planning process, and road
safety programs are no exception.
JJ Champions Leaders bring people together,
provide essential direction, and
JJ Coalitions
motivate people to participate in and
Leaders implement the program. Leaders
should be engaged and actively
Leadership is essential in any field, involved in the process.
but it is particularly important in
road safety for three major reasons: Consider a few examples of
leadership in safety:
JJ The safety field is diverse.
It draws on the skills of JJ State DOT leaders decide that
educators, politicians, advocates, reducing fatal and serious
bureaucrats, public servants, crashes should be the first
and others. These groups priority of the department. They
sometimes work in harmony, garner staff support to make
but too often, they work in funding and structural changes
isolation. Leaders are necessary to the organization to support
for cohesion in a complex, the shift in priorities.
multi-stakeholder environment.
JJ Law enforcement officers
JJ A great deal of technical develop new incentive programs
knowledge is available in the to encourage officers to identify
safety field regarding the most and arrest impaired drivers. They
effective means of addressing the successfully sell the program to
contributing factors to crashes. their managers.

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 Leaders bring people together, provide essential direction, and motivate people.

JJ A trauma nurse initiates a developed, and once developed, is

“teachable moments” campaign implemented. They are risk takers,
in which nurses teach patients problems solvers, and creative
about the risks associated with thinkers committed to doing what
drinking and driving. is necessary to advance the cause,
which sometimes means breaking
JJ A mayor recognizes that many traditional institutional barriers
streets in her city are not suitable and balancing competing
for safe travel by pedestrians agency priorities.
and garners support and funding
from the city council to build Leaders are often known as program
sidewalks and improve the safety managers, and their activities keep
the implementation process on
of transit stops.
track. They manage the process
In each of these examples, the and attend to the day-to-day tasks
leaders recognized a need for of arranging, facilitating, and
change, acted on the need, and documenting meetings, tracking
inspired others to follow. Anyone progress, and moving discrete
with drive, dedication, and a good activities through to completion.
idea can lead. Leaders are needed throughout all
Leadership Traits and Skills stages of road safety development,
implementation, and evaluation.
Good leaders influence policy They communicate the safety
direction, set priorities, and vision and support a collaborative
define performance expectations. framework that enables safety
They energize the road safety stakeholders to participate actively
process and see to it that a plan is in implementation.

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 5: IMPLEMENTING ROAD SAFETY EFFORTS 5-29

 Leadership Development It also holds those responsible for
safety accountable. Leadership
To expand leadership support, begin
should recognize that this is an
with the safety partners already
ongoing process and institutionalize
committed to the safety concept and the change in the safety decision-
process. Encourage the leadership making culture.
of those partners to contact their
peers, explain the significance of The safety program manager may
their efforts, and marshal support. perform either as a part- or full-
Their endorsement of the safety time permanent role; experience
demonstrates a dedicated role
vision should include encouraging
is preferable.
staff to stay engaged and building
relationships across organizational Champions
boundaries and traditional areas
of responsibility. Successful road safety programs
call for at least one champion to
Leadership support affects agencies assist in gathering all critical safety
or organizations internally by partners into a collaborative group.
granting permission to dedicate time Champions provide enthusiasm and
and resources to the safety effort. support for the safety programs.

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Like leaders, champions must not be involved in the day-to-
be credible and accountable, day management responsibility
have excellent interpersonal and for program development and
organizational skills, and be implementation, but they are able
skilled expediters. to “move mountains” in terms
of resource allocation and policy
Champion Activities support. The second are leaders
Safety champions help secure the who inspire others to follow their
necessary leadership, resources, direction. These champions are
visibility, support, and commitment people who provide enthusiasm and
of all partners. Sometimes the DOT support to transportation project
leadership, or the leadership of implementation. They tend to be
the primary sponsoring agency, subject matter experts and highly
appoints the champion. A safety respected within their own agencies
champion can reside at any level and in the safety community.
within the organizational structure Succession Planning
and can perform various functions.
All agencies and organizations
For example, a safety champion undergo staff changes, and it is
may lead the executive committee essential to train the leaders of
that meets periodically to solve tomorrow to ensure that the focus
problems, remove barriers, track on safety continues into the future.
progress, and recommend further This can be accomplished by
action. The role of the executive assigning leadership responsibilities
committee is to decide which for program implementation to
projects or strategies are funded newer staff and by ensuring that all
based on input from the emphasis staff have opportunities to engage
area teams, and to prioritize them and lead during meetings and
based on benefit/cost analysis, other activities.
expected fatality reductions, and
the extent to which they address the To ensure continuity when an
project’s goals and objectives. individual champion or leader
retires, takes a position in another
Where relationships are not fully organization, or moves out of State,
developed, the champion may a systematic approach to identifying
have to put in additional effort to their replacement is necessary. The
keep the full range of safety selection process should be based
partners committed and on individual skills, leadership
actively participating. traits, and the position held within
Champion Traits and Skills a stakeholder organization. One
way to institutionalize the selection
FHWA published the “Strategic of safety committee members is to
Highway Safety Plan link their selection to the position
Implementation Process Model” they hold within the stakeholder
that identifies two types of organization. For example, whoever
transportation safety champions.39 assumes the previous safety 39
The first have access to resources champion or committee member’s http://safety.fhwa.
and the ability to implement position should also become the new dot.gov/hsip/shsp/
change. In other words, they may committee member.

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 5: IMPLEMENTING ROAD SAFETY EFFORTS 5-31

 Coalitions those that are Federally required,
such as EMS providers, health and
Safety partners and organizations education departments, Motor
bring unique and valuable perspectives Carrier Safety Assistance Program
to bear on the transportation (MCSAP) managers, local agencies,
safety problem. However, differing tribal governments, special interest
philosophies, competing priorities, groups (e.g., MADD), and others.
and varying business cultures may
make collaboration a challenge. With an emphasis on wide-ranging
Coalitions are an opportunity for road collaboration that includes many
safety leaders and champions to bring external partners, it can be easy to
together the various disciplines and overlook the importance of broad
agencies and focus on the shared DOT involvement, as well. Early
goal of reducing crashes. Whether involvement of planning, design,
coalitions are short-term, long- operations, and maintenance will
term, or permanent, they offer road enhance the implementation of
safety collaborators the prospect safety strategies, especially if they
of solving complex issues through are new or experimental.
partnerships. Some champions bring partners
Safety Partners together by convening a safety
summit or meeting. This could be
The organizational structure of a large initial kickoff meeting or a
agencies and interagency working meeting of the safety working group
relationships are important factors or steering committee. It provides
to consider when bringing safety an opportunity to learn about each
partners together. Rather than of the safety partner priorities and
create entirely new committees, understand what they contribute.
a champion should build upon Coalitions should give participants
existing relationships, interagency the opportunity to describe their
working groups, and committees. safety concerns and current
programs. This may advance the
Many States have functioning
discussion of critical safety issues,
transportation safety committees,
identify opportunities, and forge an
such as a TRCC, an Executive Committee
agreement on how to proceed.
for Highway Safety, or a Towards
Zero Deaths (TZD) coalition. Benefits of Collaboration
Regardless of how safety partners
are brought together and organized Engineering, planning, emergency
to contribute to the safety process, response, and behavioral approaches
all have roles to play in addressing
champions should look for ways to
road safety. Professionals in these
expand membership to include a
various disciplines have different
broad range of partners, such as
skill sets, and they approach
insurance, trucking and motor coach
solutions using different methods.
companies, fire and rescue, local
Dramatic improvements in
businesses, and others.
roadway safety are more likely to
When States implement the result through a combination of
Federally required SHSPs, their techniques than from techniques
safety partners typically include from a single discipline. This need

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for multidisciplinary solutions
road safety research, which provides
necessitates collaboration.
knowledge on identifying safety
Unit Summary problems or evaluating potential
solutions. Strategic communications
Improving road safety is a complex allow all road safety partners to be
endeavor requiring the knowledge effective in their efforts to improve
and expertise of a wide range road safety, either in communicating
of professionals. Road safety to the public or to transportation
improvement is a joint effort professionals.
across many Federal, State, and
local agencies, each with their own Leadership is essential in the road
particular focus area. safety field. The diversity of the
field, the importance of coordination
Federal agencies often play a among disciplines, and the need
role in providing funding and to defend safety programs among
national cooperation for focused a host of competing public sector
road safety efforts. State and local priorities all contribute to the need
agencies implement road safety for strong leadership. Successfully
improvements, either for roads and implementing road safety efforts
intersections in their jurisdiction, or relies on safety champions and
on the road users themselves. The coalitions that bring together
efforts of these government agencies safety partners from all agencies
is supported by a broad base of and disciplines.

EXERCISES

JJ IDENTIFY a road safety leader in your what projects the State implemented
community, State, or region. Determine under the champion’s guidance. Be
the leader’s area(s) of concern, observe sure to include an assessment of the
how the leader engages with the champion’s tenure.
transportation safety community, and
JJ Coalition building requires a thoughtful,
assess the leader’s success. Write a
reasoned approach. CHOOSE an
brief report summarizing your research.
important road safety issue that the
Include an explanation for why or why
transportation community is still
not the leader was successful.
studying. Propose a list of coalition
JJ FHWA has explicitly stated that a members that could best approach
“safety champion” should lead safety the issue from all available disciplines
efforts, specifically development of and interests. Be sure to keep the list
State SHSPs. Using your home State’s reasonable. In a report, summarize
DOT website, RESEARCH past or the safety issue and introduce the
present safety champions. Prepare a coalition members. Explain why each
brief class presentation that identifies member is critical to the coalition
the champion, explains why he or and the expectations for each
she was chosen for the role, what the member’s contributions.
requirements of the position were, and

ROAD SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 5: IMPLEMENTING ROAD SAFETY EFFORTS 5-33

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Road Safety Fundamentals is available for free at:
https://rspcb.safety.fhwa.dot.gov/rsf/

FHWA, Office of Safety

Felix H. Delgado, P.E.
[email protected]

FHWA-SA-18-003