HOMEWORK

From Dieter
4-12

Module #10

Plastic Strain via Dislocation Motion

and Dislocation Multiplication

READING LIST
DIETER: Ch. 4, Pages 119-123
 What are the implications of
dislocation motion on the properties
of crystals?

How much strain is caused by

dislocation motion?
 Implications of dislocation motion

z • Consider the crystal

h y
illustrated to the left.
w x
L

• If a single dislocation passes through the crystal, what will be the

resulting strain?
b

h h
w
L L

3-D 2-D
Cubic crystal after passage of a single dislocation
 b

h h
w
L L

• First we recognize that the shear strain is simply defined by the equation:
b
shear strain   
h
• Let’s assume that the original crystal dimension are 1 cm  1 cm  1 cm
and that b = 1 Å (this is roughly of the correct order of magnitude).

• The shear strain can be calculated as:

b 1 1010 m
  2
 1  10 8
or 1  10 6
%
h 1 10 m

This amount is not really perceptible so how can dislocations cause strain?
How can dislocations be responsible for plastic strain?
• The solution is simple. There must be multiple dislocations to cause
perceptible amounts of strain.

• We can calculate this too.

• Assuming a random number of dislocations, N, the shear strain

becomes:
Nb

h
• This expression yields better results, however, it assumes that all
dislocations pass all of the way through the crystal.

In reality, we can’t make this assumption. Sometimes dislocations can

form nodes within a crystal or just annihilate out.

Thus we need to revise our estimate.

 When dislocations pass partially through a crystal

• Assuming that all of the dislocations move

a distance xi along the crystal length, the
b strain equations for single and multiple
dislocations can be expressed as follows:
h
xi
– Single dislocation:
xi b
L 
Lh
– Multiple dislocations:

1b N
 
Lh 1
xi
 If N dislocations move an average distance x then,
Nx b
b
 for multiple dislocations
L h
L  h  area of the end of the crystal
N #  lines
dislocation density=  
h
xi 
Lh area

L
   bx

Actually  is defined as the total dislocation line length per unit volume OR
more simply as the number of dislocation lines that cut a unit cross-sectional
area.

The shear strain rate associated with this type of motion is:
d dx
    b   bx or    bv
dt dt
where v is the dislocation velocity.
This is the Taylor-Orowan relation, which relates dislocation
motion to strain rate. We'll use it again a bit later.
 Example Problem
• Consider a 1 cm  1 cm  1 cm cubic crystal containing a uniform
distribution of edge dislocations with an average spacing of x as
schematically illustrated below. Keep in mind that we do not know
exactly how many dislocations there are. How many dislocations per
unit area are required to cause 1% strain (i.e.,  = 0.01) in this crystal?
How many dislocations per unit area are required to cause 10% strain
(i.e.,  = 0.10) in this crystal? Once again, we will let b = 1 Å.
 

  102    (108 cm) x

We find x by invoking the definition of shear strain:

 Nb x x
    ; x  102
h h h 1 cm
 102
1% strain:     8 2
, 108 dislocation lines per cm2
bx (10 )(10 )

 101
10% strain:     8 2
, 109 dislocation lines per cm2
bx (10 )(10 )
How does the calculation compare with reality?

Typical dislocation densities encountered in a parallepiped sample (3 x 3 x 8 mm)

Length of Mean distance D
dislocation density dislocation line between dislocations
Sample history  (m -2 ) per sample (km) ( m)
As grown 1010 100 10
As grown and annealed 108 1 100
Deformed 1013  1015 105  108 0.1
[from Veyssiere, in Mechanics of Materials Fundamentals and Linkages, 1999, p.272]

• There generally many dislocations to begin with.

• Many more are required for deformation.
• Dislocation density () increases significantly during
deformation.
 Dislocation Sources
• Homogeneous nucleation
► Interfaces
– Grain or phase boundaries
– Surfaces or surface films

► Frank-Read sources
• Form during crystal for film growth
• To accommodate of strains at interfaces
► Condensation of point defects
• Etc…
 Dislocation sources
• Homogeneous nucleation of dislocations is unlikely under
normal circumstances.
  hom

  hom

(a) (b)

Requires very high stresses
G G
  hom  to
14 30
Possible under “shock
(c) loading” conditions
Meyers Model for Homogeneous Nucleation
During Shock Loading
• Dislocations are homogeneously nucleated at (or near)
a shock front by deviatoric stresses set up by the state
of uniaxial strain; generation of these dislocations
relaxes deviatoric stresses.

• These dislocations move short distances at subsonic

speeds.

• New dislocation interfaces are generated as the shock

wave propagates through the material.

• M.A. Meyers, Dynamic Behavior of Materials, (Wiley,

New York, 1994) P. 405. B*
 M.A. Meyers and K.K. Chawla,

Dislocation sources Mechanical Metallurgy:

Principles and Applications,
Prentice-Hall (1984) p. 261

• Steps and ledges on grain

boundaries are potent dislocation
sources during the early stages
of deformation just as small
surface steps are in single
crystals.

• They act as stress concentrators.

• Second phase particles and Ledge, Step

inclusions can also have the
same effect (see next page).

Schematic of dislocation
emission from grain boundary
sources.

Edge view
 Dislocation sources
• High local stresses at second phase particles and those
near second phase particles (or other defects) make
nucleation easier.

Primary prismatic loops

at Al2O3 particles in an
α-brass crystal

F.J. Humphreys & M. Hatherly, Recrystallization

and Related Annealing Phenomena, 2nd Edition,
Elsevier (2004) p. 58
y x
Frank-Read Source
b=x
A
L
=z A a) Moving dislocation is pinned.
B
B
b) Applied shear stress causes the
z yx
segment to bow out to a radius of
curvature (R). Recall:
   Gb  R
A A
C B
B D c) Bowing continues until R = L/2.
Shear stress is maximum. Loop
begins to bend around upon itself.
Here:
A
   2 Gb  L   Gb  L
B

d) Loop expands spontaneously. This

continues until points C and D
which are dislocations of opposite
Formation of a dislocation loop via the
Frank-Read mechanism. Figure adapted sign annihilate each other.
from Allen and Thomas, Structure of
Materials, (Wiley, New York, 1999) p. 306.
e) The loop grows while segment AB
repeats the process.
Frank-Read source in a Si crystal
[Fig. 8.6 from Hull & Bacon]
1 10  - Principal slip plane
A, B - Cross slip plane
S - Screw component
Figure Schematic representation of dislocation
E - Edge component multiplication via double cross-slip.
J - Jog
• Loops given off by a single source move
through the lattice.

• Edge segments are restrained to a single slip

plane.

• When a screw oriented segment of the loop

encounters an unfavorable local stress, it can
J
move off onto another plane until it reaches a
J
position where the local stress allows it to
move on a plane parallel to the original one.

• The segment lying on the new slip plane can

now operate as a Frank-Read source and
generate new loops.

• The process repeats.

[adapted from J.R. Low and R.W. Guard, Acta

Metall., v. 7 (1959) pp. 171-179.]
 Other types of Frank-Read sources

Figure 8.4 Single ended

Frank-Read source. (a)
Dislocation lying partly in a
slip plane CEF. (b)
Formation of a slip step and
spiral dislocation by rotation
of BC about B.
[Hull & Bacon]

Spiral propagation of a dislocation

[adapted from Fig. 6.20, Roesler, Harders, & Baeker]
 Images of Actual Dislocation Sources
Source

Bonded area

Dislocation emission at an interface Numerous F-R sources in NiAl

between bonded Si wafers [Intermetallics, v.7 (1999) p.455-466]
http://www.tf.uni-kiel.de/matwis/amat/
def_en/kap_5/illustr/x_topo_constantin_mittel.jpg
 Dislocation sources

• Dislocations can also form by the collapse or

aggregation of vacancies (or interstitials) into discs
or prismatic loops.

A 3-D perspective drawing is

provided on the next
viewgraph
 Plane of atoms
(a)

(d)
Plane with disk of Figure 5.25 Schematic illustration of a
vacancies
Frank dislocation loop in single a crystal.
(b) (a) Single plane of atoms. (b) A small
number of atoms has been removed from
the center of the plane, and its relation to
the normal section plane AA´ is indicated.
(c) Stack of planes with defective plane
from (b) inserted, as viewed looking onto
section plane AA´. Except for the plane of
Stack of planes
the imperfection, planes are illustrated
showing half of schematically. Half of the dislocation loop is
b Frank loop seen in (c). (d) TEM image of annealed an
NiAl single crystal showing unusually large
concentric Frank dislocation loops formed
by vacancy condensation.

(c) [From S.M. Allen and E.L. Thomas, The

Structure of Materials, Wiley (1999) p. 291.]
 A prismatic (vacancy) loop.
From S.M. Allen and
E.L. Thomas, The
The Burgers vector is
Structure of Materials, orthogonal to the line
Wiley (1999) p. 291. b direction around the entire
loop. The loop consists of
the vacant circle of atoms
within the crystal.

Prismatic loop (Interstitial) Prismatic loop (Vacancy)

These dislocation loops are restricted to glide parallel to their Burgers vectors.
Loop expansion or contraction requires climb.
 Frank Partial dislocations in FCC crystals
• Formed by inserting or
removing one close-

[
1
2
1
]
1
2
packed {111} layer of
atoms. This results in
either an intrinsic or an
extrinsic stacking fault. ao
b [111]
3

• This results in an edge

dislocation with a
Formation of a 1/3[111] Frank partial dislocation by
Burgers vector is normal removal of a close-packed layer of atoms. [Figure
to the {111} plane of the adapted from Hull & Bacon, Introduction to
Dislocations, 4th Edition, (Butterworth-Heinemann,
fault. This dislocation is Oxford, 2001) p. 92].
sessile.
Dislocations generation during crystal growth

• Near the melting point, small stresses are required to

cause plastic deformation. Such stresses arise for a
variety of reasons. A few are listed below.

– Thermal stresses,

– Constitutional stresses,

– Supersaturation of vacancies.

• These mechanisms, and others, are detailed in P.

Haasen, Physical Metallurgy, 3rd Edition, (Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, 1996) p. 63.

B*
Dislocations generation during crystal growth

• Gradients in composition and/or temperature can

result in dendrite misalignment during solidification
and growth. This can result in dislocation networks
and grain boundaries.*

• Similar misalignments can occur between growing

islands in thin films resulting in dislocations and/or
grain boundaries.

* P. Haasen, Physical Metallurgy, 3rd Edition, (Cambridge University Press,

B* Cambridge, 1996) p. 63.
 Dislocations at interfaces between coherent/epitaxial
phases
• Slight variances in lattice
parameter can lead
dislocations during epitaxial
growth.

• There is a critical thickness

that must be reached to
form misfit dislocations.

• Misfit dislocations reduce

the total strain energy in a Figure 4.51 Epitaxial growth of a thin film. (a) Substrate.
system. (b) Start of epitaxial growth. (c) Formation of “misfit”
dislocations at substrate/film interface. [Figure copied from
Meyers and Chawla, 1st ed.].

B*
 Dislocation Pileups
• Dislocations moving on slip planes often pile up at barriers:
– Grain boundaries
– Second phases
– Sessile dislocations
– Etc…


• Lead dislocation is acted on S
by applied shear stress and  L
interaction forces (i.e., back
stress) from other dislocations.

• # dislocations in pileup is:

 (lead dislocation )  n
k L k D
n or n 
Gb 4Gb
[For  source in center of grain]
where k = 1 for screw dislocations and (1-ν) for edge dislocations.
 Dislocation pileups – cont’d
• Pileup at a barrier causes a stress concentration at the lead
dislocation.

• As dislocation density increases in the pileup, the stress on the

dislocation can become high enough to cause yielding on the
other side of the barrier or to nucleate a crack at the barrier.

• Pileups produce a back stress that acts to oppose movement of

additional dislocations along the slip plane in the slip direction.

• The number of dislocations than an obstacle can support

depends on:
– Type of barrier
– Orientation relationship between slip plane and barrier
– Material
– Temperature
 Dislocation pileups – cont’d
• Pileup can be overcome by:

– Cross-slip (screw dislocations)

– Climb (illustrated below)

– Generation of cracks.

Figure from Eisenstadt, Introduction to Mechanical Properties of Materials, (Macmillan, New York, 1971) p.250
Dislocation-Point Defect Interaction
• Vacancies and isolated solute atoms distort the crystal
lattice and can interact with dislocations.

• Strain fields surrounding point defects are spherically

symmetric. They usually do not influence the motion of
screw dislocations.

• Exceptions: interstitial carbon or nitrogen in BCC iron.

• Combined operation of a number of dislocation sources

and dislocation-defect interactions are the basis for
work/strain hardening.
Dislocation-Point Defect Interaction – cont’d
• Differences in elastic modulus between solutes and the
lattice can lead to interactions with dislocations.

• Point defects that are elastically softer than the matrix are
attracted to the dislocation line and visa versa.

• An increase in point defect content around a dislocation is

called an impurity cloud/atmosphere.

• Condensation of impurity atmospheres on dislocation lines

is one cause for upper yield points, strain aging and solid
solution strengthening.