Cumulative frequency The cumulative frequency is the sum of all the frequencies up to and including the new value. To draw a cumulative frequency curve, you need to construct a curnulative frequency table, with the upper boundary of each class interval in one column and the corresponding cumulative frequency in ~another. Then plot the upper class boundary on the x-axis and the cumulative frequency on the y-axis. * |Fdatais continuous we find estimates for the median or interquartile range from a cumulative frequency curve or cumulative frequency polygon. To find any percentile, »%, you read the value on the curve corresponding to p% of the total frequency, Investigation 6 1 Asample of 200 Hawkmoth caterpillars were measured and their lengths tothe nearest cm are given in the table: Length, / (em) Frequency, Explain why ?5 of the caterpillars are less than 5.5 cm. 2. Use your answer from above to complete the cumulative frequency table: Length, ? fem] / ‘Cumulative | "frequency How areal the values forthe cumblative frequency calculated? The points can be plotted and joined with a curve to create a cumulative frequency curve or joined with straight ines to create a cumulative frequency polygon. Unfortunately, that is not normally @ task that can be completed on the GDC. Cumulative frequency curve of Cumulative frequency poivgon of caterpillar lengths caterpliar lengths Cuey curey of ef EXAM HINT 200 200 if you are asked to Fa aa ie a aaa uency curve, do se me not draw a cumulative me “ frequency polygon. ° n> >I as Sai San ete 4 io 3) an The curve shows how many caterpillars are less than a given length. Since half of the caterpillars are less than the median length, we can read of from the gs Sek SA0 cre a ree nn 3 psa eS Ea) Oy Continued on next pageagen POs eee se ° Cumulate tequerey cure of caterpillar lengths CuFoy 250 Be EXAM HINT Always showlines on 150 ‘the graphto showhow f {yourhave found the ' requited value. 100 30 4 6 a 0 When using the 6OC, there were 4 data points entered as 6 cm. The actual lengths of ll these caterpillars was somewhere between 5,5 cm and 6.5 cm. When calculating the statistical summaries on the GOL, it gives the median as 6, whereas it appears as 5.8 from the graph. 3. Why should this be different? ai 25% of caterpillar willbe less than the value of Q, .Use the graph to read off the approximate value of Q, Why have mathematics How would you use the cumulative frequency graph to find an ‘and statistics sometimes: estimate for the upper quarile of the data? le ea esr bj ‘Similarly use the graph to find the value of Q, and ofthe interquartile a range 5 How could you tise the graph to find how many caterpillars were more than ? cm? 6 What is the purpose of using cumulative frequency graphs? 2. Use the cumulative frequency curve to find the 95th and the 90th percentiles ees 1. The table shows the average times, in @ Draw a cumulative frequency table minutes, that 100 people waited for a train. for this data : b_ Sketch the cumulative frequency curve Time, x minutes | Frequency 7 + 5 © Use your graph to find an estimate for Osx<2 5 the median and interquartile range. He Dest eS Ait 2! d_ Find the 10th percent 4sx<6 23 ‘The train company will refund the fare if bexr) aoge2.4 a Scatter diagram to show Mathemates and Pysis esuts 4 8100 Mats b Scatter diagram to show Mathematics and Prysies resus 120 100 gw © 6 4 68100 Matis @ Scatter diagram to show Mathomates and Psi esas Maths The predicted score is 70% There is some indication that high results in Mathematics correspond to high results in Physics Plot the points (78, 84), (56, 62) etc on a set of axes. The mean of x. Ny 8X = 708. 73.6. The mean of Yy- ye -+ Vag i8T Matk (70.8, 75.6). Draw line so that is best matches. Use the Line of best fit to predict the score. Using the line of best fit to predict a data value within the range of the given data is called interpolation. The line of best fit has a positive gradient and the data are closely clustered around the line of best fit. ‘The example above shows what appears to be quite a strong correlation. We haye a measure of the strength of linear correlation, called Pearson's product-moment correlation coelficient (PMCC), which is denoted by r. Isthereadifference between information and data? PMCC can be calculated using technology and takes values between —1 and 1. '= | indicates perfect positive correlation, whereas r=—I indicates perfect negative correlation. r indicates no correlationaah eo sey aLe Pan ase) Make sure you know how to calculate the value of r using your technology. Example 10 Year| 2o00 | 200i | zoo2 | zoo | zooa | zoos | 2005 | 2007 | zoas | zous | a ze | 456 | 503 | 497 | S96 | s73 | G61 | 741 | 809 | i? | y | 298 | aoa | aos | aos | aa | auz | 226 ma | 327 | ze a For the data shown, calculate r, Pearson’s product-moment correlation coelficient. b Comment on the strength of correlation. a 0.918 r=0.918 b The data shows strong positive ris close to 1 so there is strong positive correlation. correlation In example 10, you found a strong positive correlation. This might be surprising if you consider that the data items for x were the number of people who died by becoming entangled in their bedsheets in the US and the data values for y were the amount of cheese per capita consumed in the US (in Ib). (Data from hitp://wwwatylervigen.com/ spurious-correlations.) Investigation 7 ‘A drugis developed for treating a skin condition. A tril was undertaken to discover the effects of different daily dosages. The table gives effects on the decrease in the area of skin affected and the amount of fever the patient is showing, Dosage (mg) 4[s fe 7|8 9 [10 [11 | 12 Percentage decrease in area | ] | cad eee eae sa az 127|206|187| a4| 249 342 Patient temperature (‘C) 39.3 | 392 388 | 388 | 304 | 384/38 | 383 37.7 | 1. With a horizontal axis from 0 to 20 and a vertical axis from 0 to 40, plot the percentage decrease against the dosage. 2 Does your scatter diagram indicate that a higher dosage of the drugs likely to produce a greater percentage decrease in the skin affected? 3 Explain why we would consider dosage tobe the independent variable and the percentage decrease in infected skin tobe the dependent variable. 4 researcher believes that ane of the data points was recorded incorrectly during the tral ‘© Which data point could be classified as an outlier? = Ifthe data was recorded correctly, give another explanation why the outlier does not fit the pattern of the other results, Exclude the outlier to calculate the PMCC. Comment on the correlation. raw another scatter diagram with a horizontal axis from 0 to 20 and a vertical axis from 3? to 40, Plot the patient temperature against the dosage. °© & cominueroexciude te cutierte calelae the PMC ‘onto your graph. Again in each case, excluding the outlier, calculate the coordinates of [¥, 7 Cin this case. Comment on the correlation. ‘Do your results indicate that the dosage given influences the patient temperature? )) and draw the line of 10. The trial continued with increased dosages and the results are given. Dosage (mg) 3/14 | 15 16 [i | 18 Percentage decrease in area of skin affected per year best fit Patient temperature (°C) 383 | 372 [38 | 383 | 376 | 373 | 378 Plot the extra data points onto your scatter diagrams. 14. Dothe data points maintain the same trend? Give possible reasons why. 8 Cane use extrapolation to predict beyond the datapoints? Why or why not? Extrapolation means estimating a value at a point that is larger than (or smaller than) the data you have. Trends in data are only valid for the range of study. We cannot extrapolate to draw conclusions outside of that range. Ezz ® 1 The table shows the ich of 10 laptop screens and the cost. in cures, of the laptop. Size, inches | 11.6 | 116/133) 14 | 14 | 14 15 | 15.6 | 156 | 156 Cost,euros | 145 | 170 | 700 | 450| 370 175 320 | 500 | 420 | 61s a Plot the poi b. Describe and 1s om a scatter diagram nterpret the correlation. € Comment on whether the size has an influence on the cost. The table gives the heights, in cm, and weights, in kg, of 11 football players selected at random. Height, fem | 161 | 173 | 154 | tei | 172 | 184 | 176 | 169 | 165 | 180 | 173 | Weight wkg| 74 | 76 | 61 | 80 | 76 | a8 | 79 | 76 | 75 | 83 | 75 | a Plot the points on a scatter diagram, b Calculate the coordinates of the point (Ji, #) and mark it on your graph. © Draw a line of best fit. 4 Predict the weight of a football player with height 170 cm. € Calculate Pearson’s Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient for the data. f Describe the correlation. Interpret what this means in terms of the football players. g Comment on whether the correlation might indicate a causation in this instance. Justify your answer, If you were to calculate the value of r for the whole data set explain what you would expect to find. peesyl GED LO on ees ee) 3 Asample of 15 people were taken and given a vocabulary test. Their test results, v (%), were compared against their heights, /t (cm), and the results given in the table: | 2.48 | 1.26 | 1.32 | 1.50 | 1.63 | 1.70 | 1.69 | 1.45 | 1.56 | 1.23 | 1.44 | 1.53 | 1.60 | 1.38] 1.30 v| 51 | 64 | 59 | 6 | 80 | 82 | 72 | 75 | 6? | s4 | 66 | 1 | 75 | 69 | 54 Draw a scatter diagram to show the data, with height as the independent variable. Calculate the coordinates of the point (7i, ¥) and mark it on your graph. Draw a line of best fit. Klaus is 1.92 m tall, predict his vocabulary test result and comment on your prediction. Calculate Pearson’s Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient for the data. meance ‘Comment on the correlation of the data, Comment on whether this shows that taller people have better vocabularies, 4 Prices of unleaded {uel and diese! (in euros) in December 2017 are recorded across 28 EU counties. \Unleaded |1.168 [1.403 |1.064 |1.259 [1.203 |1.156 |1.597 [1.229 1.416 [1.421 |1.369 [1.558 |1.15 [1.389 [Bieset [1.068 [1.392 f:.069 [1.207 [1.215 1.094|1.395 1.229113 [2.303 [1.209 [1.359118 raza lUnteaded [1.581 [1.117 [1.143 [1.18 |1.31 [1.678 [1.065 |1.544|1.07 [1.172 [1.26 {1.236 [1.459 [1.361 IDieset [1.444 [1.037 [1.039 [1.043 |1.18 [1.37 |1.044 [1.354 [4.083 [1.035 [1.247 [1.157 |1.467 [1.394 http:/ (www.luel-prices: a Draw a scatter plot of the data, with the cost of unleaded fucl as the independent variable, b Calculate the value of rand comment on the correlation between the cost of unleaded fuel and the cost of diesel. urope.info/ Developing inquiry skills For the country data given in the opening of this chapter, take a suitable sample to determine whether GOP and income have any correlation. Chapter summary So ‘© Qualitative data is non-numerical, eg “it was fun", “blue” © Ouenti Discrete data is data which takes specific (discrete) values, eg “number of accidents’, “points in the IB diploma’. Continuous data is data which can take a full range of values, eg "height”, “speed”. A population includes all members of a defined group, Asample is a subset of the population, a selection of individuals from the population. ive data is numerical. Quantitative data can be discrete or continuous. Biased sampling: The sampling method is not random so not all members of the population ate equally likely to be selected. Biased sampling may cause you to draw misleading conclusions, about the population, °imple random sampling: every member ofthe population is equally likely tobe chosen. For example, allocate each member of the population a number. Then use random numbers to choose a sample. Systematic sampling: find a sample of size 1 fram a population of size N by selecting every kth memberwhere k= rounded to the nearest whole number. Stratified sampling: is selecting a random sample where numbers in certain categories are proportional te the numbers in the population Quota sampling: decide how many members of each group you want to sample and take samples from the population until you have a large enough sample for each group. Convenience sampling: take samples from the members ofthe population that you have access to until you have a sample of the desired size. ‘® The most common measures of central tendency are the mean, median and mode. ‘© The made of a data set is the value that occurs most frequently. There can be no mode, one mode, orseveral modes. ‘The median of a data setis the value that lies in the riddle when the data are arranged in size. When there are two middle values then the median is the midpoint between the two values. The mean ofa data setis the sum ofall the values divided by the number of values. Fora discrete data mean set of 2 values the formulais ¥ = — ” When there is a frequency table, you need to use the data values and the corresponding frequencies to calculate the mean. x, where > +x, +x, +--+, Dmeans “the sum of". ‘* Measures of dispersion measure how spread outa data sets ‘® The most common measure of dispersion is the range, which is found by subtracting the smallest. eee number from the largest number. The standard deviation, 6, gives an idea of how the data values are related to the mean. The greater the standard deviation, the more spread out the data. In examinations you will use your GDC to find the standard deviation. The variance is the standard deviation squared: (6, )?. The interquartile range (|0R) isthe upper quartile, Q.,, minus the lower quartile, 2, When the data are arranged in order, the lower quartile is the data point at the 25th percentile and the upper quartile is the data point at the 7Sth percentile An outlier is defined as a data item that is more than 1.5 «IQR below Q, or above Q, ‘© Outliers are extreme data values, or the result of errors in reading data, that can distort the results of statistical processes. Outliers can affect the mean by making it larger or smaller, but most likely will not affect the median. or the mode. Outliers can affect the standard deviation by making it larger or smaller, but they most likely will not affect the interquartile range. Given the mean of a set of numbers is X and the standard deviations o,. Ifyou add kto orsubtract k from each of the numbers then the mean is X+ and the standard deviation is o,, Fyou multiply each number by k then the mean is kx and the standard deviation is |&| xo, ° Continued on next pageaga EO es eee sa '* Ifdata is continuous we find estimates for the mean, variance or standard deviation by assuming that all of the data values are equally spread around the midpoint. ‘© We can find a modal class ifthe data are arranged in intervals of equal width ‘© Frequency histograms, lke bar charts, have the vertical axis representing frequency. +» To drawa frequency histogram, you need to find the lower and upper boundaries of the classes and draw the bars between these boundaries. © To drawa box-and-whisker plot you need five pieces of information: the smallest value, the lower quartile, the median, the upper quartile and the largest value ‘» The outliers are represented on the box-and-whisker diagram as separate crosses. ‘» The cumulative frequency is the sum ofall the frequencies up to and including the new value. To draw a cumulative frequency curve, you need to construct a cumulative frequency table, with the Upper boundary of each class interval in one column and the corresponding cumulative frequency in another, Then plot the upper class boundary on the x-axis and the cumulative frequency on the y-axis, * Ifdata is continuous we find estimates for the median or interquartile range from a cumulative frequency curve or cumulative frequency polygon. ‘© Tofind any percentile, p%, you read the value on the curve corresponding to p% ofthe total frequency. © Bivariate data has two variables; univariate data has only one variable. ‘© With bivariate data you have two sets of data that you want to compare to see ifthere is any correlation between the two sets. * Aline of best fit can be drawn on a scatter diagram, by plotting the point (x, j] and drawing a line through that point that best follows the trend of the data, ‘* Ifthe gradient of that line is positive then we say that the data has positive correlation. Ifthe gradient of the line is negative then it has negative correlation ‘= The strength of correlation is determined by how close the data points are from the line. ® PMCC can be calculated using the GDC and takes values between —1 and 1.'= 1 indicates perfect positive correlation, whereas r=—| indicates perfect negative correlation. r=( indicates no correlation. ‘* Extrapolation means estimating a value ata point thatis larger than (or smaller than) the data you have. '» Trends in data are only valid for the range of study. We cannot extrapolate to draw conclusions outside of that range. Developing inquiry skills Thinking about the opening problem: * Has what you have learned in this chapter helped you to answer the questions? * What information did you manage to find? * What assumptions did you make? * How will you be able to construct a model? | What other things did you wonder about? Thinking about the inquiry questions from the beginning of this chapter: ‘Has what you have learned in this chapter helped you to think about an answer to most of these questions? * Are there any that you are interested in and would like to explore further, perhaps for your internal ‘assessment topic? FalChapter review 1 The times, in minutes, it takes for 60 males b The price of a pair of shoes in dollars: and 40 females to swim 500 metres are: Males: 46 54 58 62 62 79 96 120 135 185 270 300 ou 1315 16 15 8 9 18 15 15 13 7 20 18 13 © The hours Grade 12 students sleep: 15 10 10 1 9 18 16 15 15 10 3. The data in the table show the lengths of 120 pike fish, Females: ‘Length of pike, fem | Frequency 20<1<30 2 305/<40 12 40<1<50 23 S0 The radar at the tracking station has a range of 40km. Determine whether it would be able to detect both aircraft at this time, 4 The side of a hill can be regarded as a right angled triangular prism as shown, A path goes in a straight line from the point A to the midpoint of [BC], M, and th to D. Distances are all given in metres. >, c << /\ cm w \ /\ 4 “200m 8 Take O as the origin of a coordinate system. With [0A] lying along the x-axis and [OE] lying along the y-axis and with the z-axis vertical @ Write down the coordinates of A, B,C and D. b_ Find the coordinates of M © Pind the total length of the path from A toD. 5 A surveyor records the coordinates of all the vertices of the base of the Great Pyramid at Giza, Unfortunately he loses two of them so he only has valties for A and B at diagonally opposite corners, ‘The origin for the coordinate system is some distance away from the pyramid and is on land 21m higher than the base of the pyramid, 85DIVIDING UP SPACE: COORDINATE GEOMETRY, VORONO! DIAGRAMS, VECTOR: The coordinates he has are A(97,77,-21), B(340,~139,—21), The base of the pyramid forms a square. a Find the area of the base of the pyramid. The surveyor knows from other sources that the height of the pyramid is 138m, LINES Find the volume of the pyramid, Find the coordinates of the vertex of the pyramid. Find the shortest distance from one of the corners of the base to the vertex of the pyramid. Developing inquiry skills Look back at the opening problem forthe chapter. Youwere trying to divide the territorial waters. #0 between three islands. ‘The positions of the islands can be modelled as boundary of international waters and distances are 4g ~ given in kilometres. The istands are given exclusive fishing rights within these boundaries with the island closesttoa point havingthe rightsatthat 20 “ point How can you find the distances between each of abe se: OT yo 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 3.2 The equation of a straight line in 2 dimensions Vertical and horizontal lines ‘The vertical fine on which the value of each x-coordinate is 5 2 has equation x= 2. The horizontal line on which the value ? of each y-coordinate is 3 has equation y= 3. 5 ye? + What is the form of an equation of a vertical/ horizontal line? Fa 2 The gradient of the line segment joining two : points ay tga" ‘The gradient of the line segment joining two point can be calculated by finding how far the line segment goes “up” divided by how far it goes across. 863.2 Tene eae fee a The gradient (7) ofthe line segment joining (x,.3',) and (x;.),) is given by: Y= Cartesian coordinates are named after Frenchman René Descartes. The gradient intercept form for the equation of a straight line ‘The equation of the line passing through (x, y,}and A (%,, y,) can be given in gradient-intercept form as y=nix+ ewhere cis the value of the y-intercept y ‘The gradient can be found as above and the value of c can be found by substituting one of the points. ‘This is the form that is usually used when entering the equation of a straight line into a graphical display calculator. Example 1 For the two points A(2, 2) and B(6,1) ind the gradient nm of (AB) (the line passing through A and B), Find the equation of (AB) in the form y Sketch the line for -2 3. Generalise the result from question 2 to give an expression for the gradient in terms of rand y fora straight line with gradient m that passes through a known point [x,,y,). 4 Show that the expression derived in question 3 can be written as y~ y, J)—,= m(x= x,) is the point gradient form of the equation of a line, 5 Use your answer to question 2 to write the equation ofthe line given in point-gradient form. 6 Write the equation found in questions 5 in the form y= mx +-c by expanding the brackets and simplifying. ? Write the equation derived in question 6 inthe form ax+ hy +d=0 where a, b, de 2 ax= by + d=0 isthe general form of the equation ofa straight line, What are the three forms of the equation that give the relation between the x-coordinates and the y-coordinates ofall pints on a straight line? m(x—x,). (GETS How do you find the x- and the y-intercepts from the equation of a line? In which form ofa line are intercepts easier to find? EXAM HINT Point-gradient form can be easily rearranged to give the equation in gradient intercept The point-gradient form for the equation ofa line with gradient equal to m2, which passes through the point (x,,y,) isy—y, =r(x—x,).. The general form of the equation ofa straight line is written as ax-+ by +d= where a, b and dare all integers. form, but ifan exam question does not ask for a particular form tis perfectly ‘The general form is the easiest for finding intercepts and is often the acgenacie ate ‘The point-gradient form is the easiest 1o find if given two points or one point and the gradient sed when solving systems of lines equations) r equations (simultaneous iesranie 89DIVIDING UP SPACE: COORDINATE GEOMETRY, VORONO! DIAGRAMS, VECTOR: i 41. Write down the equation of a line with 3. Find the gradient of each of the lines gradient, mr, and which passes through the a 2x—-3y-7 given point, in each of the following forms: 1 point-gradient form Wi gradient-intercept form iit_ general form. LINES b 4x+7y-6=0 © ax+byt+d=0 4 The plan of triangular garden is drawn 1 on a set of coordinate axes in which one a mad (39) b om=>, (65) unit represents 11m. Two of the sides of the garden are formed by the x- and y-axes. The - (6-7) third side passes through the points (1, 5) oe and (3, 2). 2: Find the edtiations of the lines passtiig @ Find the equation of the line which through the points given in includes the third side. | point-gradient form b> Write this equation in general form. it gradient-intercept form The owner of the garden wishes to cover it completely in grass. © Find the area of turf (grass) he will need to buy. iii general form. a (2,5) and (5,11) b (0,4) and (2,2) © (2,6) and (3,9) @_ (-2,-6) and (1,-8) Intersections of Lines You need to be able to solve systems of two linear equations “by hand” ‘but also by using applications on your GDC or by plotting their graphs. Ifusing graphs, the solution to the system will be given by the coordinates of the intersection of the two lines. For example, if given the starting positions and the directions of two straight railway tracks, it would be possible to find the equations of the lines that the tracks follow and hence find where they will meet Example 2 a Find the coordinates of the x- and y-intercepts for the graph of 2x+3y-6 =0. b> Write the following equation in general form, y= x -} © Find the point of intersection of the two lines i analytically application on your technology. using an appropriate ° 903:2 When x=0, 3y=6 a xintercepts occur when y | soy=2 yrintercepts occur when x The intercepts are the values of x or Jy 80 you need to check whether the sox=3 question is asking for the intercepts or the coordinates of the intercepts. and When y=0,2x=6 Coordinates are (0,2) and (3,0) b 2x-2y b- Itis usual to avoid beginning the equation with a negative coefficient but ~2x-+2y+1=0is an equally valid answer. ci Wx+3y=6 ¢ i The solution can be found using 2x-2p=1 elimination or substitution, for example by replacing yin subtract the two equations to get PE EPR sy=5>y de 3y-6=0 with y= x—Lroger substitute this value into either 1 => 5x-1.5-6=0>x= 3 ii When solving a system of equations it 2e+3y=6 using your technology, there is no 2x-2y=1 need to write down details of the method. x=15,y=1 Some calculators have an inbuilt simultaneous equation solver, If not the solution can be found by drawing both lines and finding the point of intersection, (1.5, 1) (ESET How do you find the point of intersection of two non-parallel lines? Em = ss 4 a Find the solutions to b solve axy-8 gg Bat1Oy=3 ty ax+2y=4 3x-2y=33 axt+15y= 45 ox +16y 5x-4y=20.6 -2=3(x-4 wy Pasar y=2x-9 91ET 2 Two friends, Alison and Bernard are walking along two different roads. The roads can be represented in the Cartesian plane by the lines with equations -x+410 and y =—x—-100. 2 At 2:00pm Alison is on the first road at the point with coordinates (0, 410) and Bernard is at the point with coordinates (50,~75), where the units are in meters. @ Verify that Bernard is on the road with js 1 equation y =x —100 at 2:00pm. b_ Find the coordinates of the point of intersection of the two roads, At 2:00pm the two friends begin walking at 4kmb- towards the intersection © i Show that Bernard arrives at the intersection first. ii Find the length of time he needs to wait before Alison arrives. 3 Road signs showing the steepness of hills are often given as percentages where the figure is derived using the following formula vertical height lost horizontal distance covere » 100 a A road gains 5m while covering 20m horizontally. State the percentage that would be writen on the road sign, There is a triangular hill directly outside my house. On the way up the hill from my house I pass a sign indicating the slope is 10%. On the way down the other side of the hill, I pass one indicating the slope is 15% b_ State which road is steeper. COORDINATE GEOMETRY, VORONO! DIAGRAM: Paes Tdecide to take my house to be the origin for a coordinate system and one day 1 go aver the hill to the other side and reach my local shop. My GPS tells me the horizontal distance of the shop from my home is 2.45km and 1am. at the same level as my house. © Assuming the roads up and down the hill are straight lines and lie in the plane of the coordinate system find i the equation of the road going up from my house ji the equation of the road going down from the top of the hill to the shop. @_ Find the height of the hill Find the total distance of my journey from my house to the shop. A straight line makes an angle & with the x-axis where 0¢ «< 90°. a Explain why the gradient of the line is equal to tan @. ‘The air traffic control tower at an airport is taken as the origin of a coordinate system. ‘An aircraft begins its descent 7500m from the control tower and from a height of 580m. Let xbe the horizontal distance from the control tower and y the height of the aircraft. The angle of descent of the aircraft is 4° to the horizontal and its path will take it directly above the control tower. ‘The runway begins 700m from the control tower and in the same direction as the aircraft’s approach. b Find the equation for the line of descent for the aircraft in the form y= mx + ¢ © Find the height of the aircralt as it passes over the control tower. @_ Find the distance of the aircraft from the start of the runway when it lands. Road steepnessis often given as a ratio or percentage. What is itin {your country? What athers can you 923.2 Parallel and perpendicular lines Parallel lines will have the same gradient as each other but a different intercept on the y-axis, For example y= 1.5x +4 is parallel to y= 1.5x=1 Lines which are perpendicular intersect at 90°. Ingeneraly=mx-+e, mx+e,and paralleltoy=mx+c, 1m1,x+¢, are perpendicular (and neither mn, or mare equal t0 0) then m1, =—1 or = (the negative reciprocal of ,) m= 3/2 m= 2/3, The perpendicular bisector The perpendicular bisector of the line segment joining two points is the line that passes through the midpoint of the line segment and is perpendicular to it. The perpendicular bisector of the line segment joining A(2, 2) and B(4, 6) is shown below. 93ce DIVIDING UP SPACE: COORDINATE GEOMETRY, VORONO! DIAGRAMS, VECTOR: Example 3 Find the equi is nn of the perpendicular bisector of the line segment joining (2, 2) and B(4, 6). Midpoint of [AB] is (3, 4) | Using the formula for midpoint, Gradient of [AB] is 4-1 Using the formula for gradient. 22 Equation of perpendicular bisector is Find the negative reciprocal to get the y-4= 2-3) gradient of the perpendicular line and use point-gradient form to get the equation. -2e+ 10 This last stage was not necessary as a particular form was not specified but it does | give the equation in a simpler form. (EETEEY Whatis the gradient ofa line parallel to aline with gradient x? ‘What is the gradient ofa line perpendicular to a line with gradient 1? How do you find the equations of perpendicular bisectors given either two points, or the equation of a line segment and its midpoint? Investigation 3 A ship is sailing along the line forming the perpendicular oe bisector ofthe line segment between two lighthouses 8 } {Aand B), as shown. = | Ho ‘The coordinates of A are (0, 8) and the coordinates of B are (6,0). At 1pmthe shipisat(2, ). Allunitsarekilometes. ® | | 5 t 1. Find the equation ofthe perpendicular bisector of 1 | IAB]. a | | 2. Verify that the ship is on the perpendicular bisector of e, \ | [AB] 2 | 3. Find the distance of the ship from aa b B Comment on your results. 4. From the definition of the perpendicular bisector use the above diagram to prove that the ship will ways. ‘be equidistant from the two lighthouses so longs it stays on this course. ‘Whats the relation between all points on the perpendicular bisector of the line segment joining two points and those two points? 943,2 Ez ee) @® 1 Write down the gradients of the lines which are perpendicular to the lines given. 4x21) a ya-det7 b y-3= © 2-4y-5=0 do 6x+7y+12=0 a Verify that bx—ay=d, is perpendicular to ax+ by=d,. b Hence find the equation of the line perpendicular to x 2y ~ 10 = 0 which passes through (2, 5). © Find the equation of the line perpendicular to 3x—2y =7 which passes through (6, 5). a Explain why the shortest distance from point A to a line lies on the line through A, perpendicular to the line. The line / has equation 3x—4y +7 =0 and the point A has coordinates (5, —7). b Find the equation of the line perpen dicular to J which passes through A. © Find the point of intersection of the line found in part band ¢. d_ Hence find the shortest distance of A from f 4 Find the shortest distance from 0 @ (2,4) to 3x4 Syt b (5,1) y= 3x-2. 5 Let A and B be two lighthouses with coordinates (12, 18) and (17, 16). A ship S is travelling on the line that keeps it an equal distance from the two lighthouses. Find the position of § when it is north-east of the lighthouse A. 6 Two towns have coordinates (5, 18) and (17, 24). rail track is laid along the fine with equation y =x + 10 and a station is to be built to serve the two towns. Distances are in kilometres. @ Find the position the station should be built to minimize the total distance between the station and the two towns and state this distance. b- Itis decided that the station will be built so it is an equal distance from both towns. Find the position the station should be built and state the distance between the two towns. Developing inquiry skills Look back at the opening problem for the chapter. You were trying to divide the territorial waters between three islands. Ms How does te variation imtanguage and sumbols fect the Knowledge gained and communicated in mathematics? 1 Find the equations of the perpendicular bisectors between the islands. 2. Find the coordinates of the point where the perpendicular bisectors between A and B and A and C meet. Verify that the perpendicular bisector between B and C also passes ‘through this point. Do you think these lines divide the waters in a fair way? Justify your answer. 95PT sacks ae) PTUs 3.3 Voronoi diagrams There are five airports in a state, shown as dots on the diagram. The coloured regions on the diagram indicate which of the airports is closest to a given position, This means if there is an emergency and the position of the plane is known the information about the nearest airport is very easily obtained. This is an example of a Voronoi diagram, named alter Georgy Voronoy (1868-1908). It shows the sets of points that are closer to a chosen point (a site) than to any other sites on the plane, The regions formed are known as cells. What does a Voranai diagram show? Investigation 4 Three points A, B and C lie inside a square of side length 10 units whose sides are formed by the lines 0, y=Oand y= 10. The points A, Band € have coordinates (1, 8), (8, 8) and (3, 2). 1 Construct copy of the diagram either by using online software (for example Geogebra or Desmos} ‘or by copying onto graph paper. 2. State the equation of the line which contains all points equidistant from A and B and show this on the diagram, 3. Add the lines tothe diagram which contain all those points equidistant from @ Aandc b BandC. 4 Byinspection shade all those points which are closest to each of A, B or C. What can be said about the boundaries of a Voronoi diagram? (EETEET How do you find the equation of the boundary of a cell on a Voronoi diagram? Georgy Voronoy was @ Russian mathematician ‘The boundaries af the cells ina Voronoi diagram are formed by perpendicular wha studied at bisectors of the line segments joining the sites. St Petersburg University,The best approach is rarely to draw all the perpendicular bisectors at the same time and then create the diagram. This diagram shows that even with just 4 points there are difficulties in deciding which of them form boundaries, to the cells, and with more points it would become even more difficult. The incremental algorithm described below * avoids this problem by adding each of the sites one at a time ‘ey Investigation 5 ‘There are four fire stations (A, B, C and D) ina town. The coordinates of the fire stations are A(1, 4), B(L, 0), C(5, 1) and D(A, 3). In order toimprove response time the town has installed a new centralized fire response system, which allows a dispatcher to send a fre truck from the nearest fire station tothe location of fire. How should the town be divided into areas so that there is one fire station in each area and this fire station is the closest one foreach house in the section? The solution will be found through constructing a Voronoi diagram using ‘an incremental algorithm. Hab, Method. Many software packages allow you to draw and 4 Plotthe fire stations A and B on coordinate axes, eitherby hand or | obtain the equation of using a software package. Draw the perpendicularbisectorbetween | perpendicular bisectors ‘A and B and gently shade those points nearest to A. directly. Ifnot using software a perpendicular bisector can be constructed using a compass or by finding its equation and drawing it. 2 Add fire station C to the diagram and find the equations of the perpendicular bisectors of [AC] and [BC] and add these to the diagram. What do you notice? 3 The incremental Algorithm: 1 Begin with the perpendicular bisector which lies between the new site (C) and the site in whose cell this site curently lies (B).. ji Move along this ine until you reach an intersection with another ofthe perpendicular bisectors between the new site and an existing one (this will also be on a boundary of the previous Voronoi diagram}. Iil_Leave the intersection along the other new perpendicular bisector in the direction thatlies entirely, in the cell surrounding another ofthe sites {this will be the direction that creates a convex polygon around the new site]. Hence you should trace out the edge of the new cell in the order U, V and W showniin the diagram. Iv. The algorithm stops either when you return to your starting point (ifthe cell is bounded) or if there are no more intersections [ifthe cellis unbounded). In this case you may need to reverse the direction of the algorithm to ensure all sides have been found. ae - Shade the region containing the new site 5 Having completed the diagram for the firstthree sites theffinal ite, 1D, isnowadded and the process described in stages 2 and 3 is repeated, This time there will betwo intersection points withthe 9) perpendicular bisectors of [BD] and [AD]. Continued on next page 97DIVIDING UP SPACE: COORDINATE GEOMETRY, VORONO! DIAGRAMS, VECTOR: irs HINT Normally a final version of the Voronoi dliagram will have the perpendicular bisectors removed so only the edges of the regions remain as in the diagram shown. os 1 15 2 25 a\a5 4 45 5 55 ‘few years later a new fire station is built in the town at the point with coordinates (2, 1). 6 Use the incremental algorithm to construct the new Voronoi diagram showing the areas served by each ofthe fire stations. 7 Place the fifth fire station on the diagram given just before the start of the investigation which shows the positions of A,8,C and D and their perpendicular bisectors, How easy would ithave been to draw a Voronoi ddiagram without using the incremental algorithm? 8 Why sthe incremental algorithm used in the tonstruction ofa Voronét diagram? (GETS whatis the incremental algorithm? How many edges meet at a vertex of a Voronoi diagram? Voronoi diagrams are used in computer graphics, epidemiology, geophysics, and meteorology Nearest neighbour interpolation Ifeach site is assigned a numerical value (such as the amount of rain that fell on a particular day or a level of pollutant) then the value of all points in each site's cell is assumed to equal that value, In the questions below unless told to calculate the equations of the perpendicular bisectors 2. An Internet weather website uses readings taken at three different stations, A visitor to you can construct the lines using a pair of compasses, by eye or by using software. By finding the perpendicular bisectors between each of the points, use the incremental algorithm to complete the Voronoi diagrams for the given sites a (3,1), 2.3) (1 1), (5. 1), (3, 5). (3, 5) 98 the website will be told the temperature of the station nearest to their location (nearest neighbour interpolation). The weather stations are at the points with coordinates A (1) B G1) c (3,5). Use the incremental algorithm to construct a Voronoi diagram showi the regions that would be assigned to cach of the weather stations,3.3 Ava particular time a visitor to the website u is at point (1, 4) and the readings at the different stations are A: 22°C, B: 24°C and G:21'C. b Write down the temperature that would be given to the visitor to the site. 2 3 A company that collects meteorological data has many rainfall collection points. In two of their areas (I and I) in which they had four collection points they decide to add a fifth. ‘The original points are shown as A to D in the following diagrams and the new point is 8 9\l0 labelled E. a. The paint Hand Boine of ike b itis given that on a particular day the perpendicular bisectors between Band pine in arcs ieaeceted a the other points are shown. For each A: 22mm = B: 3imm = —C: 24mm area find the equation of the missing D: 19mm E: 21mm perpendicular bisector(s), add it to the Use nearest neighbour interpolation to give diagram, and ind cate the new cells, an estimate for the amount of rain that fell at a point with coordinates (5, 4) i before point E was added li after point E was added ¢ Iris given that on a particular day the rainfall in area Il is recorded as I A: 9mm = B: timm — CG: t4mm D: 8mm — E 12mm. Use nearest neighbour interpolation to give an estimate for the amount of rain that fell at a point with coordinates (4.5, 1) 1 before point B was added after point E was added. The toxic waste dump problem This problem is to find the point on the Voronoi diagram that is as far as possible from any of the sites. It is called the toxic waste dump problem because one application might be to find where waste can be dumped so that it is as far as possible from habitation, However, it is more frequently used in consideration of where to place businesses or shops. Another way of thinking about the problem is to say itis at the centre Of the largest circle that can be drawn on the diagram that does not contain any of the sites, 93rs DIVIDING UP SPACE: COORDINATE GEOMETRY, VORONO! DIAGRAMS, VECTOR: Investigation 6 Er] noes 1. Add five points randomly placed on a Geogebra worksheet. , Voronoi diagrams were used Use the command, Voronoi, o construct a Voronoi diagram with these inthe analysis othe 1854 five points as the sites. Check that you have three distinct points at icles spilanichil ont ‘which three edges meet. If you do not, move one of the original points inwhich physician John He Oat ie Snow determined a strong, © Use the Circle with Centre through Point command to consruct the correlation of deaths with largest possible circle that contains no sites within it, centred on each proximityto a particular of the three points where the vertices intersect. [and infected] water pump d_ What do you notice? ‘on Broad Street, 2 a Explain using the diagram why there will always be three sites equidistant froma vertex of a Voronoi diagram which has three edges incident to it. b Explain why the circle with Vasa center which passes through A will also pass through Band C. 3. Explain why another site D cannot be inside this circle with centre V. This circle is known as the largest empty circle because it does not contain sites and to extend it further would mean it would be no longer be empty. 4 Where an a Voronot diagram would you lok forthe solution tothe toxic waste dump problem? aan Inexams the solution will abways be one of the Within a Voronoi diagrarn the solution to the toxic waste dump problem will be internal vertices rather atan intersection of cell Boundaries or on the boundary of the diagram. thana boundary edge. Example 4 A town has four coffee shops, A, B,C and D. An y entrepreneur wishes to open a new shop in the town but /& would like it to be as far as possible from all the other |? four coffee shops. &- Consider the Voronoi diagram showing the positions. of the 4 coffee shops on a set of coordinate axes: tg A(L, 6), B (2, 2), C(8, 2) D(S, 5) where one unit a represents I km 2. 2 £ Find the coordinates of the vertices Pand Qinthe | # Voronoi diagram. x foronoi diag. op izs4 fs 78 ow b Determine the best position for the new shop so as, to be as far as possible from any other shop. ° 1008 Pisthe point where x=5 and y= 3.5 meet: (5, 3.5) The perpendicular bisector of [AB] is aeH4ay= 145 The perpendicular bisector of [AD] is Tx-y=26 The perpendicular bisector of [BD] is rwty= 135 The coordinates of Q are (4.39, 4.72) b Centred at P: pp = ((5-3.5) +(8-5)) =3.35, Centred at Q: QA = \(6-4.72)' + (4.39-1) The new coffee shop should therefore be built as close as possible to the point Q. 3.62 3.3 Three perpendicular bisectors meet at the vertices, finding the intersection of any two will be sufficient to find the point Any two of these equations need to be calculated by first finding the midpoint and gradient. The coordinates can then be found algebraically or by using a GDC. The solution will be at whichever of the points P and Q is furthest from the three sites nearest to them, Only one length for each needs to be checked as each of the other two points will be an equal distance from the vertex How do you find the distance from an intersection point to a site if given both coordinates? How do you decide which imersection pointis the solution to the toxic waste dump problem? EZ 36 @ 1 Atown into @ coordina with distances measured in ystem ilometres town three schools A, B and C are at the with coordinates A(1, 3), B(6, 4) and ft is decided that a new school should be Duilt as close as possible to the point which is furthest from all three existing schools a Explain why this point will be at the intersection of the perpendicular bisectors of [AB], [BC] and [AC] b_ Find the equations of the perpendicular bisectors of [AB] and [BC] © Hence find the coordinates of the point where the new school should be built. d_ Determine the distance between the new school and each of the other schools. are three hamburger stands, A, Band C. The fairground is in the shape of a rectangle with dimensions 100m by 50m. The bottom left-hand side of the field can be regarded as the origin of a coordinate system, with the diagonally opposite corner as (100, 50), The hamburger stands are at the points A(20, 30), B(80, 30) and C (40, 10) as shown on the diagram below. y 50 40 20, + 20 10 ‘ a x 4 1 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 101ENT @ Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of i Aande ii Bandc. People will always go to the hamburger stand that is closest to them. b Draw the Voronoi diagram that represents this situation © Find the proportion of the fair ground in which people would go to Stand C Stand A dA fourth hamburger stand is to be added to the fairground at a point as far away as possible from the other three siands. 1 State the coordinates of the position at which it should be built, Determine how far it will be from the other hamburger stands, 3 Atown can be considered as a rectangle which runs 10km east to west and Skim north to south. A coordinate grid is placed on a map of the town with the origin in the south-west corner. There are four schools in the town, A, B, C and D whose coordinates are: A (2, 5), B B.3), € (8, 6), D(8, 1p Children go 10 the school that is closest to their home when measured by a direct line. An estate agent wishes to construct a diagram which easily shows in which school’s catchment area a house lies. a. Find the perpendicular bisector of [AB]. b- Show the positions of A and B and the per- pendicular bisector on a diagram of the town. ciors of [AC] and [BG] The perpendicular bis are y=—6x + 35.5 and © Use the incremental algorithm to construct the Voronoi diagram for the three schools. di Find the perpendicular bisectors of [BD] and [CD] and show these on the diagram. Wi Explain why there is no need to calculate the perpendicular bisector of [AD] Construct the diagram required by the estate agent, e Find the coordinates of the two vertices where three edges me 102 Gus ha De nee Eaeaeniss area of the town F Hence find the percentag covered by school C to 2 significant figures. B.A fifth school is to be built in the town as far as possible from the other schools. \d the coordinates of the point at which it would be built ifit was to meet this requirement, h On the diagram already drawn plot the fifth school at the position found in g and sketch the new Voronoi diagram. There is no need to find equations for the new perpendicular bisectors 4 The map of a rectangular province is shown with the positions of the bases for the flying doctors shown on a coordinate grid centred at one of the corners in the province (units are in 100s of miles). 1234567 8 9 When an emergency oceurs the doctor that is based closest to the location of the emergency will fly out to the scene. @ Construct a Voronoi diagram for the four sites. A neighbouring province asks if the doctor based at point A (2, 6) can also help out in their province. The director replies it would be possible it he is currently covering a smaller area than at least iwo of the other doctors. b Find where the perpendicular bisector of AD meets the line y=4. \d the area of the cells surrounding ta uB hc WD. @_ Hence state whether or not the doctor based at A will be able to support the other province?3.3 5. The diagram below shows the Voronoi diagram for the points A(0,2), B(6,2), (6, 5), and (2,5). ‘The four points represent stations at which environmental readings are taken. The axes are measured in 10 km sections, east and north of a town which is situated at the origin. Hence B is 60km cast and 20km north of this town, Each of the towns are connected by straight roads. An environmental olficer decides to drive from A to B, B to C, € to D and back to A. a 1 Show the total distance driven is 166km to the nearest km. Find the proportion of the journey during which he is closest to the station at A. ‘The environmental officer receives a call from the owner of a home at N, whose coordinates are (4,3.5). The owner concerned at the level of pollution he is experiencing, due to road congestion caused by construction. The officer decides that he will work out what level of pollution would be expected in this location under normal conditions based on the data he has and will compare it with what the home owner is, experiencing, The pollution readings from each of the stations are (based on Air Quality Health Index): A 45 B21 D 28 b The officer decides t0 use as an expected value the average pollution recorded at 3 of the stations. c 26 1 Explain why this is reasonable and which three stations he should use. it Find the value he will use. Readings of the air quality health index at Nare taken over a period of 15 days and are shown below 3.0, 2.8, 2.1, 3.4, 3.1, 2.9, 3.0, 3.2, 2.8, 2.7, 2.6, 3.1, 3.0, 3.2,2.7 i Find the median, lower quartile, upper quartile and inter-quartile range for this data. fi. Show the data on a box-and-whisker plot, indicating the position of any outliers, Using the results from parts b and ¢ comment on the house owner's claim that traffic congestion is causing greater than expected pollution near his home. Developing inquiry skills Look back at the opening problem forthe chapter. You were trying to divide the territorial waters between three islands. 1 Draw the Voronoi diagram showing the regions in which each of the three islands have exclusive fishing rights. 2. Find the area of each of these regions. 103DIVIDING UP SPACE: COORDINATE GEOMETRY, VORONO! DIAGRAMS, VECTOR: LINES 3.4 Displacement vectors A boat sails 4km on a bearing of 30°, followed 3km south-east, then 4kin due east and 2km on a bearing of 080" as shown. How far is it from its starting point and what bearing would it have to travel on to return directly to the starting point? Consider how you might solve this using trigonometry. Vectors provide a straightforward way to answer questions like this as well as many others. If you move from the point A at (1, 1) to the point B at (4, 6) your movement can be represented by the directed line segment, or vector, as shown. A vector has both a magnitude (length) and direction. Because the vector goes from A to B we can write it as AB. Alternatively, we can give it a name such as m. In print a vector is named using bold font, when handwritten it is written as u or #. ‘Vectors are normally described in component form, The vector shown can be written as a column yector AB (3) or, using the base yectors 5 fand jas AB=3i + 5j. nm each case the first number, or component, indicates movement in the x-direction and the second movement in the y-direction the vector BR -[ cause to move trom B 10.A you need to g0 EXAM HINT ‘The choice of which Notation to use 3 units to the left and 5 down. It will always be the case that the vector AB may depend on ‘the context but in anexam, both are equally valid. Addition of vectors ‘TWo vectors are added by adding the corresponding components. (6?) -(4)orresned+2n=ai+m b sek if oj) = ih 1. Write the following vectors as column 2 Find, vectors and using / and j notation. — (3) b (ify + (ais 5A) a (i-2j) +48 NN 1043 Find (2) (2) e222 GG) stab © Explain how you multiply a vector by a scalar. Zand jcan also be written as (s(t) iS 3) Hence verily xiea-(?) = i 4 Let Al =()}>sshown a Write the following vectors in component form and in terms of the vector AB. io ii FE iGH ow oe b Comment on what can be deduced about parallel vectors. 5. State which of the following vectors are parallel to 5i +2}. a -5i-2 b « (i) CE) © 2) eC) \ 254-10 © -i-0.4 ()(3)-(7) (2)0)-0) bi vind pit? para co(*) ii Find gif ( 5 is parallel to () a+6 1 (EXIEES How can you demonstrate that two vectors have the same direction? @ and Dare parallel if and only if b= ka, where kis scalar. Investigation 7 ta the vector PQ. b Pick another point, {your graph. © Write down the vectors PA and AQ and calculate PA + AQ. Plot on graph paper the points P( 1, 4) and Q(8, 10) and write down ‘A, anywhere on the coordinate grid and add itto ° Continued on next page 105DIVIDING UP SPACE: COORDINATE GEOMETRY, VORONO! DIAGRAMS, VECTOR: is © | 4 Prexanother point B anywhere onthe coordinate gid and additto {your graph. Write down the vectors PB and BQ and calculate PB-+ BQ. Comment on yourresults. 2 a Add points C and D anywhere on your graph. b On your graph draw the vectors PA, AB, BC and CQ. © Find the values of PA, AB, BC and CQ and calculate the sum of these four vectors. 4 Conjecture a general property of the addition of vectors. Whatis the geometric meaning of a vector sum? From the above we can derive the triangle law of vector addition. AC=AB+BC This can be extended to any number of vectors, A consequence of the law is, ‘that the sum of two of more displacement vectors is always equal to the final displacement and is independent of the route taken. Position vectors A position vector gives a point’s , displacement from the origin. 5 aay ‘The point A with coordinates (4,2) has 2 24 4 position vector OA = a= (f | et a] Whenisitethically conectto previdea ) person's location? ‘The point B with coordinates (-2,3)has_ 2 4°] 1 2 3 4 /-2\ position vector OB vo) It can be seen from the diagram and using the triangle law of vector addition that AB = AG + OB =-OA +0B This is normally written as A\ JA or AB=b—a. Example 5 @ Ais the point with coordinates (6,1) and B is the point with coordinates (-2,5). a Find the vector AB. A ship moves from the point A 10 a point C which has coordinates (7,4) and then onto point B. b Find the vectors AC and CB. cw down an equation linking AB, AC and CB. Verify your answer is true for the values obtained in parts a and b. o 106° ae From point B the ship moves on to the point D where wo-{ ;) e Find the vector AD. fF Find the coordinates of D. (3-0-4) » xe-()-()-6) = Hence coordinates are (3, 7). Using AB=b—a Using AC=¢-aand BC =b-¢ Care needs to be taken as the triangle law for vector addition requires the vectors to follow on from each other. The endpoint of the first vector must be the first point of the second. ‘The sketch below indicates the order required, t Remember the coordinates of D are_ obtained from its position vector OD. jive the answer as coordinates rather than a position vector if this is what is asked for. (EEIESY How do you find the displacement vector between two points Aand B? 107ENT ae 1 The points A, B and C have coordinates (1, 4), (2, 5) and (1, 6) respectively. a Find the vecto i OA W AB il AC iv CA. = 4 The point D is such that CD is equal to | | b i Write down an equation that gives BD in terms of BA, AC and CD. i Hence write down an equation terms of AB, that gives BD AC and CD, fit, Hence find BD. iv Find the coordinates of D findi ACand ii CA. b AB (3 }ana 82 (3) 4 3} 1 AB =(2) tina BE and (3) find 3. The points A, B, C and D have coordinates (1,0), (2,3), (7,5) and (6,2) respectively. COORDINATE GEOMETRY, VORONO! DIAGRAMS, VECTOR: Ts a Find the vectors AB and DC b State which type of quadrilateral is formed by ABCD. Justily your answer. © State two other vectors which must be equal An aircraft flies from an airport at A to one at B and then on to C. The routes taken = (ee and 90 can be given by the vectors AB = [35 ) BC= -190) K™ a Find the vector AC, b The aircraft then flies directly back to A. Write down the vector that describes this flight © Calculate the direct distance from C10 A. A surveyor is putting flags out in a large field His movements between the flags can be described by the vectors (51+), (-2i+4)), (4i + 2)), (61+ 4). a Find his displacement from his starting position when he puts out the last flag. b Write down the displacement vector that will take him back to his starting position The magnitude and direction of a vector ‘The magnitude of a vector v is its length. It is written as [vi and can be found using Pythagoras’ theorem. 3) f|-erP ‘ (3 The magnitude of | | |= - ()) | ‘The direction of a vector is normally given as an angle. Within a Cartesian coordinate system the angle is normally measured anti-clockwise from the positive x-axis. : 7 4 Hon cease shared knowledge of mathematics? 3 ‘The direction of the vecor{ 3) isthe angle a where tana = hence = 53.19, In many contexts it is more natural to describe a vector by giving its magnitude and direction, but because manipulation of vectors is much easier when given in component form it is important to be able to switch between forms, 1083.4 Example 6 Write the following displacement as a column vector and in #, j form: 15m on a bearing of 130°, N In order to find the entries for the column vector first create a right-angled triangle and then use trigonometry. From the direction of the vector you will be able to see which entries should be positive QJ q and which negative 18 3 cos 40° ecto a(! aed } 15 sin 40" (13 Jor tist-nas (BETES How do you find the magnitude and direction of a vector in UCU 2 dimensions? mindedness How do you write a vector given as a magnitude and direction in component aectanibeseen form? ‘and mathematician, Aristotle, calculated the combined effect af two ‘or more forces which is called the Parallelogram law. Investigation 8 4 Aboy walks 5km on a bearing of 045" and then 8km on a bearing of 120", 8 Show this information on a diagram, b_ Use the cosine and sine rules to find his distance and bearing from his starting point at the end of the walk. ¢ i Writethe displacements Skm ona bearing of 045’ and @km on a bearing of 120° as column vectors where the first component indicates displacement east and the second displacement north, Ii Use youranswerto part¢{ to find how fareast and how far north from his starting point the boy is at the end of his walk. Hence give his resultant {final] displacement as a column vector. iv Use your answerto part elif to find his distance and bearing from his starting point at the end of the walk. ° Continued an next page 109DIVIDING UP SPACE: COORDINATE GEOMETRY, VORONO! DIAGRAMS, VECTOR: LINES Ox Aroasais somona ‘bearing of 030°, followed by 90m an a bearing of 160° and 40 mona bearing of 280° where ittouches a buoy, a By writing each of the displacement vectors in component form find how farthe buoy is from the boat's starting position? Think about how youwould you attempt using sine and cosine rules. How can you represent vectors? question fasked todo it Which representation is easier to use to find a resultant? [EITESS How do you find a pantce’s cisplacement tom its start given its successive individual displacements? ig paint if ‘The sum of two or more vectars is called the resultant vector. Em 1 For the resultant of each of the vector sums below, find the i magnitude ji direction (as an angle anti-clockwise from the direction of i), *O)G)) b (54+2)) + (6-4) a 5(i+2)-+ 34-31) , can be a 2 The magnitude of a vector ( ) “tan ax 4 written as | 43} a. Verily that 120 pa) is to 4) o). iseauato al) b_ By first taking out a factor and without using a GDC, find the magnitude of Gt) 9 (a) * 110 3. A designer needs to construct a line segment of a given length in a given direction. His software requires him to enter the line segment as a single column vector. Find the column vector he needs to input in the following situations, using the fact that a vector which is in the same direction as a vector # can be written as kt. k> 0 aA vector that is in the same direction as [oni enacas b A single vector which is equivalent to the resultant of a vector in the same 0) direction as ( [followed by the vector ) 5 oj and has magnitude N74. © A vector which is equivalent to the resultant of a vector in the same 1 i followed by the vector 1 { ‘] and has magnitude V50. direction as3.4 4 Aman walking in a large field walks 200m north-east and 175m west. @ Write each of the displacements as a column vector, b Hence find his final distance from his, starting point 5 A boat sails 4km ona bearing of 030°, followed 3km south-east, then 4kim due east and 2km on a bearing of 080° as shown on the right. Determine its final distance from the starting point. Find also the Vectors in 3 dimensions The work done on vectors so far can he extended to three dimensions Example 7 Let A be the point with coordinates (1, 5,8) and B be the point with coordinates (2,~1, 5) and let O be the origin, Show on a sketch the points A, B and O and the vectors OA, OB and AB, bearing it would have to travel on to return directly to the starting point. Cy kn a b_ Write down the position vector of A € Find the distance of A from the origin 0, d e f Find the vector that is parallel to AB but with twice the magnitude. Ja A It is rarely necessary to draw accurate diagrams. A two-dimensional sketch of a three-cimensional situation is normally sufficient This can also be written as i+ 5j+ 8k é ., where i, jand kare the base vectors i ‘) 0 0 e i o|,|1 and | 0). i 0) lo L Pythagoras’ theorem can be extended to give the magnitude of vectors in three dimensions, ‘The triangle law of vector addition also holds and in particular AB=b - a ° Continued on next page watDIVIDING UP SPACE: COORDINATE GEOMETRY, VORONO! DIAGRAMS, VECTOR: 9 e |ABl=VP +6" +3 = V46 =6.78 2 f 2AB=)-12 6 rs Note that this is equivalent to finding the Jength AB using the formula How do you find the magnitude of a vectorin 3 dimensions? ect 4 4 Find the magnitude of each of the following vectors without using a calculator. 2 a si-aj+k ob | 1 2 4 e 3/3 o d5(2i- 37+ 6k) 2 A small plane travels along the 3) (2 three yectors | 1 |, | 4|and ali 7 4 | in succession. 3 State the vector it will have to travel along to return to its starting point eu) René Descartes used (6,2) to represent points in space in the 3. a ILAandB have position es vectors@and band WM ss cy the midpoint of [AB] show } He mdeaink st BT Arthur Cayley reasoned that OM =1 (a+ 5} that we might go further 2 than three values. Three points P, Q and R have coordinates (1, 3, 6), (-1, 05) and (2, 4, -1) b Find the vectors PQ and mR © Hence or otherwise find the vector PR. The quadrilateral PRS is a parallelogram. 4 Find the coordinate of S. e Find the midpoint of the vector PR f Find the midpoint of the vector QS. @ What do the answers for parts e and f tell you about the diagonals of a parallelogram? 3.5 The scalar and vector product How might you use trigonometry to find the angle between the diagonals of a cube, or the area of a triangular forest if given its coordinates in three dimensions? This section will demonstrate vector techniques that allow both these questions to be easily solved. 1123:5 Investigation 9 Let Aand B be two points in a plane with position vectors a and b. 1 LetAhave coordinates (1, 2, 3] and B have coordinates (2, 5, -2). a Find the vector AB, bFindthe value of af |b? and AB?. © Hence calculate +(la|* +|oj’— AB?) 2 The scalar product of two vectors @ and b is written as ab andis calculated by finding the sum of the @ a product of corresponding components. Hence in 2 dimensions fora -( Jana b= i; } a A 4 4 a:b =a,b,+a,b, andin3 dimensions fora =| a, |andb=| b, a:b = a,b, +a,,+a,b, a b, 4 Evaluate ab forthe values of A and B given above. € Conjecture an alternative expression fora-b. 4 2 foram | anao-(f i expressions for |a}?,|b/? and AB? and hence prove your conjecture in 4, 7 part te forvectorsin 2 dimensions. 4, 4, 3 Usea=| a, |andb=| , |to show that your conjecture also works in 3 dimensions. a, b, 4 Consider the diagram. Use the cosine law to prove that 5 1 llffcose= + (ll +|0)' — AB") b_ Hence write down an expression which gives cos @in terms of é the magnitudes of @ and b andthe scalar product ofa and b. 5. Find the scalar product ofthe two vectors given and hence find the angle between them. 1 2 leas 1 |) Jana | 0 Jana} 2 2 3 -4 2 2) (2 6 a Findthe scalar product of| 1 Jand| 10 3) |2 b_ What does this tell you about the angle between the two vectors? ? What can the scalar product be used to find? 113How can you calculate the scalar product of two vectors? The scalar or dot productis written as a vectors and a b= In addition a alld} cos 8 Ifa-b = Othena and b ate perpendicular. Example 8 DIVIDING UP SPACE: COORDINATE GEOMETRY, VORONO! DIAGRAMS, VECTOR: a,b, +a,), for? dimensional 1B, Fag), +a,b, for 3 dimensional vectors. This allows ust find the angle between any two vectors, cos rs Why do you think that weuse this definition of scalar product? Are diferent proofs ofthe ‘same theorem equally valid? Find p if 2pi +j— 3k and 21+ 34+ pk are perpendicular. a-b=4p+3~3p=0 p=-3 When two vectors are perpendicular cos® = 0 and so a-b=0. CETTE How can you use the scalar product to show two vectors are Perpendicular? Bee 4. Calculate the angle between the following pairs of vectors, 2) 3) (2' a |= jand 1} b Oland| 1 a) |) ! © 2t+j-kand +3) d 2¢-j-2k and 34+ 2j-5k (2) 4) 2 4) ¢ ( Jona(2) £ Joland] o 3}oma lg yo le 2 A triangle has vertices at the points A(1,2, 3), B(0,2,5) and C(I, 3,2) a State which two vectors you could use to find the angle att A ii B. Find all the angles of the triangle. Find the length of the longest side. 3. Find pif the two vectors given are perpendicular 2) (-3p) P P a fijand} 2 | & |-2Jana) p a) k= \4 = 4 Triangle ABC has vertices A(1, 3,2), B(2.4,-1) and C(2. 3,4) a Find the possible value of kif the triangle has a right angle at C For these values of & find the CA and CB and hence the area of the triangles. Find the acute angle between the diagonals ‘ofa cube. 1143.5 The vector product emer A second way of multiplying vectors is to form the vector product. atteners As its name suggests the result of this multiplication will be a third vector. Belgian/Dutch mathe. ‘matician Simon Stevin Used vectors in his (6) theoretical work on Ms Fora {: and b “| | falling bodies and his 4, ‘weatise "Principles of 6} the art of weighing’ in (a,b, ~b,a, ) axb=| a,b, —ba, by — bu In three dimensions the vector product can be calculated as follows: jhe vector product a x b is given by the 16th century Investigation 10 This investigation leads to a key property of the vector product. 2 4. Use the formula given above to find the vector product of a =| 2 | and Ee 1 =] 1 -2 a 3 2. Find the scalar product of youranswer to 4 with} 2|and| 1 1 Write down what you notice and what this means about a x b. 3. Verify your result by repeating 4 and 2 with two vectors of your choosing. a,b, — baa 4° Use the formula for ax the midpoint of [AB] is( > the length AB = ‘© The gradient (m) ofthe line segmentjoining (x, y,) and (x, ¥,) is given by: m= Rta, WH Ate z 2 x % ° Continued on next page 127DIVIDING UP SPACE: COORDINATE GEOMETRY, VORONO! DIAGRAMS, VECTOR: LINES Fortwo points A and B (AB) should be read as “the line containing the points A and B”. ‘The point-gradient form forthe equation of a line with gradient equal tay, which passes through the point (x,,y,)isy—y,=m(x—y,). The general form of the equation of a straight line is written as ax+hy-+c=O where a, band care all integers, Y=mx-+¢, is parallel to y=mx+c, lFy=my x46, and y=m,x-+c, are perpendicular (and neither, ot t, are equal to 0] then | (the negative teciprocal of, The boundaries of te cells in a Voronoi diagram are formed by perpendicular bisectors of the line segments joining the sites. Nearest neighbour interpolation: Each site is assigned a numerical value and the value of all points in each site's cell is assumed to equal that value, Within a Voronoi diagram the solution to the toxic waste dump problem will be at an intersection of, cell boundaries or on the boundary of the diagram ‘and b are parallel ifand only ifb=ka. From the above you can derive the triangle law of vector addition. AC=AB+BC ‘Aconsequence of the lawis that the sum of two of more displacement vectors is always equal othe final displacement andi independent ofthe route taken. The sum of two or more vectors is called resultant vector. The sealar or dot productis witten as.a-b=a,b, + a,b, for 2 dimensional vectors and a-h=a,b,+ m,m,=—l orm, for 3 dimensional vectors. lalb| cos. Inaddition a This allows us to find the angle between any two vectors, cos Ifa-b=Othen aand bare perpendicular. The vector product of two vectors is perpendicular to both vectors. Geometrically two vectors that are not in the same line will define a plane and the vector product will be a vector perpendicutarto that plane. ‘The vector product can also be found for two dimensional vectors by taking the third component as equalto 0. x The vector equation of a line is normally written as r=a+(b where ris the vector Ly, i two x dimensions, and] y in three dimensions where ais the position vector of a point on the line and bisa vector parallel to the line —a direction vector. The vector equation of aline is not unique as any point and any direction vector could be used. Every point on the line will have a particular value of the parameter , where fis a measure of how far the pointis away from A as a multiple of the vector b. ° 1283 ‘© The angle between two intersecting lines is the angle between their direction vectors. © Thevelocity ofan objectis a vector quantity w! ‘+ An object's speed is a measure of distance covered in one unit of time, so speed is the magnitude ofthe velocity vector, |v]. ‘© The position of a particle moving with velocity v and whose displacement at r= Os r, can be given by the equation r=r,, + vt needs both a magnitude and a direction to define it. ‘© Unit vectors are vectors with a length of 1 unit. The unit vectorin the same direction as bis written ast io] b ‘© IFaparticle has speed v ms~ in the direction of J its velocity will be "a ‘© Changing the magnitude of a vector while keeping its direction constantis referred to as rescaling the vector. Rescaling to form a vector with a magnitude of one is referred to as normalising the vector. ‘© IFA has a position vector r, and Bhas position vector r, then the relative position of B from A is the vector AB tah Developing inquiry skills Laok back tthe opening prablem forthe chapter You were ‘trying to divide the territorial waters between three islands. Island A feels it is not getting a fair allocation of the area. An alternative is proposed whereby instead of the previous area itcan have exclusive fishing rights for all of the region within 35 km of the centre of the island, including the international waters, except where this would overlap with an area closer to ‘one of the other islands. Vector methods will be used to find the area of this region. a Use the diagram to write down the vector equations afthe I ‘three perpendicular bisectors from the opening problem. Let P and Q be the points on the perpendicular bisectors of [AB] and [AC] which are 35km from A and anthe edges of the Voronoi ciagram. 12345676910 b Findthe vectors AP and AQ. © Show the new region in which A has exclusive fishing rights on the diagram. Use the scalar product to find QAP. @ Find the area of the region in which island A has exclusive fishing rights. 129EET Chapter review 4. Relative to a radar station on the ground two aircraft, A and B have positions (1.2, 8.5, 3.1) and (-0.2, 9.4, 2.6) respectively, where the units of measurement are kilometres, a Find the distance the aircraft are from each other. b Determine which of the aircraft is farthest from the radar station. Find the equation of the line passing through the two points (1, 5) and (6, 3). ind the coordinates of the point where this line meets the line with equation 5x-2y+5=0. 3A, Band C have coordinates (2, 4) , (2. 6) and (8, 6) respectively. @ Write down the equations for the perpendicular bisectors of [AB] and [BC]. ind the equation of the perpendicular bisector of [BC]. © Construct a Voronoi diagram with A, B and Cas the three sites. A further site D with coordinates (4, 3) is, now added to the diagram. a ind the equation of the perpendicular bisector of [AD] Itis given that the equations of the perpendicular bisectors of [BD] and [CD] are 4x-6y + 15 =0 and 4x-+3y-3 =0. Use the incremental algorithm 10 add site D to your Voronoi diagram. 4. The positions of three hamburger outlets ina town can be given on a Cartesian coordinate system as A(2, 4), B(6, 5) and CQ, 2) where the units are in kilometres, a Find the equations of the perpendicular hisectors of [BC] and [AC] A rival firm wishes to set up its own outlet in the town but as far as possible from the outlets already in place. ind the coordinates of the position, where the new outlet should be built to satisfy this requirement. © Determine its distance from the other three outlets 130 COORDINATE GEOMETRY, VORONO! DIAGRAMS, VECTORS, LINES 5. The displacement of a toy boat at time minutes is given by the equation ial 5). 4] 4] where distances are 6) (3. measured in metres, a Write down the position of the boat when t=0and1= b Find the speed of the boat Find an expression for the distance of the boat from the origin at time 4) Hence find the minimum distance of the boat from the origin and the time at which it occurs. 1 2) 2\and b=|q p. 1 @ If aand bare perpendicular find a relationship between p and q. b_ Find the values of p and g for which a and bare parallel © Find the angle between a and b when p=3andg=2 A tetrahedron is resting on a flat surface. ‘The coordinates of the vertices are (4.5, 1.5, 0), 2.0, 3.5, 0), (3.5, 3.0, 0) and (2.5, 2.5, 2.0) Find the volume of the tetrahedron. 6 Lea= 3 @ The line f, has equation r=| 1) +4] 3 2) \2 a The point A(-8, 34, p) lies on /, find the value of 1) (-1) -2]45] p |intersects J, at wu} (a The line r= A and is perpendicular to J, b Find the values of p, q and 1 9 Aplane A is flying north-east at 750kmh~! and is climbing at a rate of 2kmh-', At 15:00 it is directly over a tracking station and is at a height of 8.2km_3 Exam-style quest 10 un 12 @ Find an expression tor the displacement of the plane from the tracking station at time hours after 15:00. At 15:30 a second plane B is 13.1 km directly above the tracking station flying on a bearing of 030° at 800kmh-! and descending at a rate of 1kmbhr!, b_ Find an expression for the displacement of B from the tracking station hours after 15:00. © Find the distance the two planes are apart when they have the same height. ns PA: The coordinates of point P are (-3, 8) and the coordinates of point Q are (5, 3). Point M is the midpoint of PQ. a. Find the coordinates of M. (2 marks) 1, is the line through P and Q. b Find the gradient of £,.. (2 marks) The liner, is perpendicular to L, and passes through M. ci Write down the gradient of Find the equation of L,. Give your answer in the form y= mix +c. (3 marks) P2: The line, Z., has equation y= 3x-5 For the lines given below, state with reasons if they are parallel to L, perpendicular to £, or neither, i yotx-7 (6 marks) fi ~6x+2y+8=0 vo x43y+9=0 PL: A ski resort is designing two new ski lifts. One lift connects station B (at the base of a mountain) and station P at the top of a ski run. The other lift connects station P with station Q which is at the top of another ski run ‘The three stations are placed on a three-dimensional coordinate system (measured in metres). The coordinates of each station are B = (0, 0, 0}, P= (500, 400, 300), Q= (900, 600, 700) B 14 15 A skier wishes to reach the top of the run located at P from the base of the mountain, @ Determine the distance covered by the skier on the s! lift from the base (2 marks} In order for a skier to reach the top of the ski run at Q they must take the lift from the base of the mountain to P, and then take a separate lift from Pwd b- Determine the total distance covered by a skier on the ski lifts fom the base of the mountain to Q. (3 marks) PA: A triangle ABC is del position vectors OA | 0€=| 5}. 2) a Calculate ABx AC. b- Hence find the area of triangle ABC. (2 marks) PA: Lines L, and L, are given by the equations (G marks) Lyax=3y=9 L, The two lines are perpendicular. a Find the value of a. (3 marks) determine the coordinates of ‘section point of the lines, (2 marks) b Hence, the int P2; The cuboid ABCOFPDE has vertices with coordinates shown in the diagram. e 0.0.6) 9(0.5,0) of } 6.5.9) bey /05.0) Les 43116 Pi: 7 Pi: 132 ENT a Find the surlace area ol the cuboid. (2 marks) iagonal BE. {2 marks) b_ Find the length of the Diagonals AD and BE intersect at the point M. ¢ 1 Find the coordinates of M. ii Find angle AMB, in degrees, using a vector method. You must show all your working, (7 marks) A new airport, S, is to be constructed at some point along a straight road, R, such that its distance from a nearby town, 7; is a minimum. The town, T, and the road, R, are placed on a plane where town, T; has coordinates (80, 140) and the road, R, has equation y = x ~ 80. All coordinates are given in kilometres, £ 190 150 200 250 a Determine the coordinates of 5, the new airport {6 marks) b Find the distance between Tand the new airport {2 marks) Four mathematicians live on the bottom floor of a circular tower of radius 10 m, They sit $m from the centre of the circle equally spaced around it as shown in the diagram below. Gas ha bene es Bares Each mathematician scatters papers, with equations written on them, on the floor around them but always ensures that his papers are nearer to him than to another mathematician a Copy the above diagram and sketch a Voronoi diagram on it, showing where each mathematician’s papers can be situated. (2 marks) b Calculate the area of the floor that cach mathematician uses. (2 marks) Another mathematician joins the group and sits in the centre of the itcle. All of the other mathematicians rearrange their papers according to the same rule as before € Make another copy of the original diagram and sketch on it a new Voronoi diagram, to represent the new situation. (4 marks) @_ Find the area of floor that the 5th mathematician ends up using. (2 marks) 2 Calculate the area of floor that each of the original four mathematicians now uses. (2 marks) f State how many points on the floor there are that are equidistant from any three mathematicians, (1 mark) P2: An aircraft takes olf from an airfield The position of the aircraft at time ¢ hours alter takeoff is given by the vector 0) (50) r=|0|+t! 60 Fa Distances are measured in kilometres, @ Find the position vector of the aircratt 4 hours after takeo!f. (7 marks) A second aircraft takes off from a different airfield. The position vector of this aircratt is given by the vector -90 60) s=|-100]+2] 70 |. 0 1