INTRODUCTION

AE 353
AERO VEHICLE PERFORMANCE
Text:
Aircraft Performance and Design
By

John D. Anderson

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 GRADING
• There will be 6-7 Quizzes, 3 one-hour tests, and one
final exam. All will count towards your final grade
• Assignments and individual project
• There will be no make-up for any test or quiz.
• Percentage for final grade will be as follows:
40-45 % Final Exam
30-35 % OHT Avg
10-15 % Quiz Avg
10-15 % project + presentation
05-10 % Assignments

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 INTRODUCTION
When you think of
Aircraft performance
what come to your
mind?

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How to Maximize Performance?
Consider Range equation for jet engine from chapter 5
 COURSE DESCRIPTION

The course is designed to cover various performance characteristics

of aircraft under steady flight and accelerated conditions. A quick
review of basic aerodynamics will be followed by steady flight
performance to include drag polar, power available and power
requirement, wing loading, endurance, range and climb.
Subsequently accelerated aircraft performance including; turning,
take-off and landing performance will be discussed.
INTENDED LEARNING OBJECTIVES AND OUTCOMES:

• Upon successful completion of the course, the student

will demonstrate competency by being able to:

– Understand Drag Polar and its importance in flight

– Understand what is steady level flight
– Understand climbing and glide performance
– Calculate range and endurance and determine maximum range
and endurance of an aircraft
– Understand turning performance
– Understand landing and takeoff performance
 Practical Applications
• Aircraft Design
• Comparison of different aircraft
• Selection of aircraft system
• Up gradation of existing aircraft systems
• Safety of the aircraft to ensure operation
within limits
Fundamentals of Physics
 Basic Quantities

Space - Length Time

Matter - Mass Charge - Electro-magnetic

 Derived Quantities
Combinations of Basics

Length
Velocity = Length
Time Force = Mass
Time 2

Dimensionality Mass Length

Momentum =
Time

2
Mass Length
Energy = Mass
Time 2 Density = 3
Length
Laws of Physics
Observations of the Relations
between Derived Quantities
Fundamentals of
Aerodynamics
 Derived Quantities
Used in Aerodynamics

Mass Length
Density = Force = Mass
3 Time 2
Length
Length Mass Length
Velocity = Momentum =
Time Time

Pressure = Force Mass

=
Area Length Time 2

2
2 Mass Length
Mass Length Torque =
Energy = Time 2
Time 2

Mass Flow = Mass Dimensionality

Time
Temperature – Basic or Derived ?

Density -> mass and volume

Pressure -> momentum (mass x velocity)
2
Temperature -> kinetic energy (mass x velocity )
 Conservation Laws
Observations of the Relations
between Derived Quantities

For any fluid system:

1) Mass is neither created nor destroyed.
Conservation of Mass - Continuity
2) Momentum is neither created nor destroyed.
Conservation of Momentum (3 directions)
3) Energy is neither created nor destroyed.
Conservation of Energy
mass
mass x velocity mass
2
mass x velocity mass x velocity
2
mass x velocity
 Mass Flow Rate

ρ
 IAS → CAS → EAS → TAS

IAS corrected for instrument and position errors is CAS, corrected for
compressibility errors is EAS, corrected for density errors is TAS.
Determine Pressure, Temperature
and Density

The “Static” Atmosphere

Standard Day Model
 Earth's Atmosphere
• The Earth's atmosphere is an extremely thin sheet of air
extending from the surface of the Earth to the edge of space.

• If the Earth were the size of a basketball, a tightly held

pillowcase would represent the thickness of the atmosphere.

• Gravity holds the atmosphere to the Earth's surface. Within the

atmosphere, very complex chemical, thermodynamic, and fluid
dynamics effects occur.

• The atmosphere is not uniform; fluid properties are constantly

changing with time and place. We call this change the weather.

INTRODUCTION 30
 Earth's Atmosphere
• Variations in air properties extend upward from the surface of the Earth.

• The sun heats the surface of the Earth, and some of this heat goes into
warming the air near the surface. The heated air is then diffused or convected
up through the atmosphere. Thus the air temperature is highest near the
surface and decreases as altitude increases.

• The speed of sound depends on the temperature and also decreases with
increasing altitude

• The pressure of the air can be related to the weight of the air over a given
location. Therefore, air pressure decreases as we increase altitude.

• The air density depends on both the temperature and the pressure through the
equation of state and also decreases with increasing altitude.

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 Earth's Atmosphere
• Aerodynamic forces directly depend on the air density.

• To help aircraft designers, it is useful to define a standard

atmosphere model of the variation of properties through the
atmosphere.

• There are actually several different models available

– a standard or average day,
– a hot day,
– a cold day.

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(ρ)
Moving Through
the
Atmosphere
(Dynamics)
 Forces on an Aircraft
Measured Forces Have The Same Value

Air Moves Past the Aircraft

Aircraft
Air

Equivalent
Aircraft Moves Through the Air

Aircraft
Air
Flow Patterns in Compressible Nozzle flow
Overexpanded Nozzle Flow
Overexpanded Nozzle
Underexpanded Nozzle Flow
Overexpanded flow, pe, < pa Perfectly expanded flow, Underexpanded flow, pe > pa
pe, ~ pa Saturn 1B with 8 H1 engines,
RL-10 engine w/o NE Apollo 7 mission
SOME OTHER CONCEPTS
 Wind Tunnel Experiments for Grades 8 - 12

Background
Why Test in Wind Tunnels?

NASA Glenn Research Center

Icing Branch - Van Zante / Dynacs Page 70
 Why Test Tunnel
Wind in Wind Tunnels?
Experiments for Grades 8 - 12

The Ultimate Goal: to Understand the Fluid

Mechanics or Aerodynamics of an
• Aircraft in Flight
• Submarine in Water
• Automobile on Road
• New Structure (Building, Bridge) in City

How do you get There from Here?

• Build a model and test it
– In a Wind Tunnel
– On a Computer

NASA Glenn Research Center

Icing Branch - Van Zante / Dynacs Page 71
 Why Test Tunnel
Wind in Wind Tunnels?
Experiments for Grades 8 - 12

Two of NASA’s Wind Tunnels

Langley
Ames 80’ x 120’

NASA Glenn Research Center

Icing Branch - Van Zante / Dynacs Page 72
Terminology
NACA Nomenclature For Airfoils

• Most of the NACA airfoils are classified among three

types: the four-digit, the five-digit, and the series 6
sections. The meanings of these designations are
illustrated by the examples below.
• NACA 4415
– 4 - The maximum camber of the mean line is 0.04c.
(first digit)
– 4 - The position of the maximum camber is at 0.4c.
(second digit)
– 15 - The maximum thickness is 0.15c. (third and
fourth digits)
 Anatomy of an Airfoil

Camber Thickness
Low drag at positive lift Thickness and camber
distribution (airfoil shape)
control boundary layer
Constrained by Structure
and fuel volume

Round Leading edge Sharp Trailing Edge

Operate over a range of Low base drag
angles of attack without Sets separation point
leading separation Sets Kutta Condition
Sharp Leading edge Round Trailing
Leading edge separation Separation point not
Leading edge vortex well established
Unsteady Separation
High drag
Forces and Moments
 Thin Airfoil Theory

Cl = 2π (α − α 0 )
∂Cl
= 2π slope of the lift curve
∂α
Cd = 0 (d' Alembert's Paradox)
∂C m
= 0 about the c/4 point the Aerodynamic Center
∂α
C m 1/4 = 0 for symmetric sections - Center of Pressure at x = c/4
C m 1/4 = negative constant for cambered sections - Center of Pressure at x > c/4
NACA Nomenclature For Airfoils
• NACA 23012
– 2 - The maximum camber of the mean line is approximately
0.02c. The design lift coefficient is 0.15 times the first digit for
this series.
– 30 - The position of the maximum camber is at 0.30/2 = 0.15c.
– 12 - The maximum thickness is 0.12c.
• NACA 653-421
– 6 - Series designation.
– 5 - The minimum pressure is at 0.5c.
– 3 - The drag coefficient is near its minimum value over a range of
lift coefficients of 0.3 above and below the design lift coefficient.
– 4 - The design lift coefficient is 0.4.
– 21 - The maximum thickness is 0.21c.
Effect of Flaps and Slats on Lift Coefficient
PROPULSION SYSTEM
 Propulsion System
• Following propulsion systems are used depending upon the
requirement.
- Reciprocating engine /propeller
- Turbojet
- Turbofan
- Turboprop
- Ramjet
- Rocket engine

• And we will be concerned primarily with two engine

characteristics:
- Thrust (or power)
- Fuel consumption
Both these characteristics directly dictate airplane performance

• The choice of a proper power plant for an airplane depends on 83

what you want the airplane to do.
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FLIGHT CONTROLS
 Mission Profile
 Typical Mission Profile are:

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