Combustion of Fuels 15.

CHAPTER - 15
COMBUSTION OF FUELS
15.1 Introduction

Combustion is an exothermic chemical reaction in which a

fuel burns in the presence of oxygen and produce heat.
The main elements present in most of the fuels are C, H,O
and S. On combustion of fuel these elements are converted
into gases like CO2, H2O, SO2 etc.,

Combustion of carbon :

C + O2 CO2 (g)
(12) (32) (44)

For complete combustion, 12 kg of carbon requires = 32 kg

 For ‘C’ kg of carbon in the fuel oxygen required for

32
complete combustion = C
12

Combustion of Hydrogen :

2H2 + O2 2H2O ( l )
4 32 36

Combustion of sulphur :
S + O2 SO2 (g)
32 32 64
Since all the above reactions are exothermic, a large
quantity of heat is evolved.
15.2 Engineering Chemistry

15.2 Factors influencing the rate of

combustion

The following factors influence the rate of combustion of a

fuel:
i) It depends on the temperature
ii) nature of the combustible substance
iii) It increases with the increase in concentration of the
fuel and the pressure of the air used for combustion.
iv) The rate of combustion increases with the increase in
pressure or surface area of the fuel.
v) The rate of combustion increases with preheating of fuel
and air.

15.3 Calorific values

Calorific value is defined as the total amount of heat

liberated when a unit mass of fuel is completely burnt.

The following units are used to measure the calorific value:

i) Calorie ii) Kilo calorie iii) British Thermal unit
iv)Centigrade heat unit (C.H.U)

i)Calorie is defined as the amount of heat required to raise

the temperature of 1 gram of water through 10C (15 to
160C) .

ii) Kilocalorie is defined as the amount of heat required to

raise the temperature of 1 kilogram of water through 10C .
1 Kilocalorie = 1000 calorie

iii) British Thermal Unit (B.T.U) is the quantity of heat

required to rise the temperature of one pound of water
through 10 Fahrenheit (60 -610F ) , ( 1BTU = 252 cal).
Combustion of Fuels 15.3

15.4 Gross Calorific value ( G.C.V)

Gross Calorific value can be defined as the total amount

of heat produced when one unit of the fuel is burnt
completely and the products of combustion have been
cooled to room temperature.

During the experimental determination of calorific value,

the latent heat of condensation of steam also is included.
When the products of combustion steam along with other
products are condensed to room temperature, the calorific
value determined includes the latent heat of condensation
of steam and it is otherwise known as gross calorific
value or Higher calorific value.

15.5 Net Calorific value ( N.C.V)

Net calorific value is the quantity of heat produced

when unit mass of the fuel is burnt completely and the
products are permitted to escape.
Hence net calorific value is the gross calorific value
excluding the latent heat of condensation of steam.

N.C.V = G.C.V – Latent heat of condensation of steam

= G.C.V – Mass of hydrogen  9  Latent heat of steam

It is a fact that one part of hydrogen produces 9 parts of

water. Hence the value 9 is included in the above equation.
The latent heat of steam is 587 cal/gm.

H2 + O2 H2 O
2 16 18

Let H is the % of H2 in the fuel,

15.4 Engineering Chemistry

9
 N.C.V = G.C.V  H  587 k.cal/kg (or)
100
cals/gm
= G.C.V – 0.09H  587

15.6 Determination of Calorific value of a

solid or Liquid Fuel:

The calorific value of a fuel can be determine by using

bomb calorimeter.

Principle
A known weight of the fuel is completely burnt in a bomb
calorimeter and the net rise in temperature of the known
weight of water in the calorimeter is measured. From this
the calorific value can be calculated.

Apparatus

The apparatus consists of a strong stainless steel bomb

inside which the fuel sample is placed . The bomb is
airtight and there are two stainless steel electrodes and an
oxygen valve which extends out of the bomb. Inside the
bomb a small ring is attached to one of the electrodes and
the coal sample along with the crucible is fixed in the ring.
To the coal sample magnesium fuse wire terminals are
connected with stainless steel electrodes.

The bomb is placed in a copper calorimeter filled with a

known weight of water. The calorimeter is surrounded by
an air jacket and water jacket to prevent loss of heat due to
radiation. The copper calorimeter is provided with a
Combustion of Fuels 15.5
Beckmann thermometer in one side and stirrer at the other
side.

G.V Battery

Beckmann’s
thermometer Oxygen valve
Electrically
Operated stirrer

Copper
calorimeter

Stainless
steel bomb
Weighed
fuel sample Stainless steel
crucible
Water jacket
Air jacket

Fig 15.1 Bomb calorimeter

Working Procedure
A known weight of the coal (0.5 to 1.0 gm) of the given
fuel sample is taken in the crucible and placed in the Bomb
calorimeter. The magnesium wires are made to touch the
fuel sample. The bomb lid is tightly screwed and through
the oxygen valve, oxygen gas at 25 atmospheric pressure is
15.6 Engineering Chemistry
filled inside the bomb. The bomb is placed inside the
copper calorimeter containing a known mass of water.

The stirrer is electrically operated and the initial

temperature of the water in the calorimeter is noted through
the Beckmann’s thermometer. The electrodes are then
connected to a 6 volt battery and the sample inside the
bomb is allowed to burn completely. The heat liberated
rises the temperature of water in the calorimeter. Find the
final maximum temperature of water in the calorimeter.
The stirring of the water in the calorimeter through the use
of stirrer should be continued from the beginning to end of
the experiment.

Calculation
Let the mass of fuel taken = X gms
Mass of water in the calorimeter = W gm
Water equivalent of calorimeter and stirrer = w gm
Initial temperature of water in calorimeter = t1
Final temperature of water in calorimeter = t2
Higher calorific value of the fuel = C cal/gm
Heat liberated by the fuel = C  X
Heat absorbed by water and apparatus = (W+ w) (t2 – t1)
Heat liberated by the fuel = heat absorbed by the fuel
C  X = (W+ w) (t2 – t1)
(W  w)(t 2  t1 )
 C
X

The water equivalent of the calorimeter is determined by

burning a fuel of known calorific value and the only
unknown quantity ‘w’ in the above equation can be
calculated.

H is the percentage of hydrogen in the fuel, the mass of

water produced from
Combustion of Fuels 15.7
9H
1 gm of fuel = g = 0.09 H
100
Heat taken by water forming steam = 0.09 H  587 cal
(587 cal/g is the latent heat of steam)

Net calorific value or lower calorific value of fuel

= Gross calorific value – Latent heat of water formed
= ( C – 0.09 H  587 ) Cal/g

The following corrections are applied to the experimental

value to get a more accurate value.

i) Fuse wire correction : During the experiment the heat

liberated by the fuse wire is also included which actually
has to be excluded from gross calorific value.

ii) Acid correction

During the experiment fuels containing S and N also get
oxidized under high pressure and temperature to sulphuric
and nitric acids respectively.

S + 2H + 2O2 H2SO4 + Heat

2N + 2H + 3O2 2HNO3 + Heat

Formation of these acid produce heat energy ( exothermic

reactions). Hence these heat values have to be deducted
from the gross calorific value. The correction for 1 mg of
Sulphur is 2.25 Cal and if 1 ml of 0.1 N HNO 3 is formed
the heat produced is 1.43 Cal.
Cooling Correction
For calculating correction, the time taken for cooling the
calorimeter water from maximum to minimum temperature
(room temperature) is noted and the rate of cooling is found
out, which is multiplied with the time taken for cooling t0

Cooling correction = dt/minute  t

15.8 Engineering Chemistry

(W  w)[(t 2  t1  cooling correction)]  (Acid  Fuse correctio

C
X

15.7 Theoretical calculation of calorific value

(or) Dulong’s Formula

For theoretical calculation of calorific value, Dulong’s

formula is given by

1   O 
G.C.V (or ) H .C.V  8080C  34500 H    2240S 
100   8 
(kcal/kg)

Where C, H, O and S are the % of the corresponding

elements in the fuel.
It is assumed that the calorific values of C, H and S are
equal to 8080,34500 and 2240 kcal respectively.

We know that , all the oxygen in the fuel is present in

combination with hydrogen in the ratio H : O as 1:8 by
weight.Thus,
O
the surplus hydrogen available for combustion = H 
8
9
 N.C.V (or) L.C.V = H .C.V  H  587 kcal/kg
100

Problems based on calorific value

Example 1
Combustion of Fuels 15.9
When 0.5g of a fuel on complete combustion in excess
oxygen, increases temperature of water in a calorimeter
containing 1000g of water to 2.100C. Calculate gross
(higher) calorific value and net calorific value of the fuel if

the fuel contains 7% of H2 and the water equivalent of the

calorimeter is 120 g.

Solution

(W  w)(t 2  t1 )
G.C.V ( Higher calorific value )=
X
(1000  120)  2.10
=
0.5
= 4704 Cal/g
Net calorific value (N.C.V)
= G.C.V – (0.09 H  latent heat of condensation of steam)
= 4704 – 0.09  7  587
= 4334.19 cal/gm

Example 2 : A sample of coal contains 92% C, 5% H ,

3% ash. When this fuel sample is tested in the bomb
calorimeter for finding the calorific value, the following
results are obtained. Calculate the gross and net
calorific values of the fuel.

Weight of coal burnt = 0.95 g

Weight of water taken = 700 g
Water equivalent of calorimeter = 2000g
Rise in temperature = 2.480C
Cooling correction = 0.020C
Fuse wire correction = 10.00 Cals
Acid correction = 60.00 cals
Solution:
Gross calorific value ,
15.10 Engineering Chemistry

(W  w)[(t 2  t1  cooling correction )]  (Acid  Fuse correctio

C
X
(2000  700)(2.48  0.02)  (60.0  10.0)

0.95 g
= 7031.6 cal/g

Net calorific value = Gross calorific value – 0.09H  580

= 7031.6 – 261 cal/g
= 6770.6 cal/g

Example 3:
Calculate the gross and net calorific values of a coal
sample having the following composition
C = 78% ; H = 8%; O = 4%; S = 4%; N = 2% and
ash = 4%
Solution

G.C.V
1   %O  
 8080  %C  34500 % H    2240  % S  kcal / kg
100   8  

1   4 
 8080  78  34500 8    2240  2.5 kcal / kg
100   8 

1
  630240  258750  5600 kcal / kg
100

= 8945.9 kcal/kg

15.8 Calculation of Minimum Quantity of

Air Required for the Complete Combustion
of a Fuel.
Combustion of Fuels 15.11
The main elements present in most of the fuels are C,H,O
and S. On combustion of fuel these elements are converted
into gases like CO2, H2O and SO2 etc.
For efficient combustion, sufficient quantity of air must be
brought into intimate contact with the fuel. The amount of
air and oxygen required for the complete combustion of a
fuel can be determined by considering the following points:

1. Substances always combine in definite proportions based

on the molecular weights of the substances.
Example
Combustion of carbon :

C + O2 CO2 (g)
(12) (32) (44)

For complete combustion, 12 kg of carbon requires = 32 kg

 For ‘C’ kg of carbon in the fuel oxygen required for

32
complete combustion = C
12
Combustion of Hydrogen :

2H2 + O2 2H2O ( l )
2 2 32 36
1 : 8
4 kg of hydrogen requires O2 for complete combustion
= 32 kg
 For complete combustion, H kg of hydrogen in the fuel
32
requires =  H kg of oxygen …….. (1)
4
Some of the hydrogen is present in the combined form with
oxygen as H2O. This combined oxygen does not take part
in combustion reaction.

8 parts of oxygen combines with 1 part of hydrogen

15.12 Engineering Chemistry
 The amount of hydrogen available for combustion
O
= H –
8
 Oxygen required for combustion of hydrogen
32  O
= H   ……. (2)
4  8

Combustion of sulphur :

S + O2 SO2 (g)
32 32 64

32 kg of sulphur required oxygen for complete combustion

= 32 kg

The given sulphur (S) required oxygen for complete

32
combustion = S …….. (3)
32

On combining the above three combustion equations, we

get the equation for the theoretical oxygen requirement for
the combustion of C, H and S
32  O
=  C  8 H    S
12  8

Air contains 23% by weight of oxygen and 21% by volume

of oxygen

 Minimum weight of air required for combustion

100  32  O 
=   C  8 H    S 
23  12  8 
 Minimum volume of air required for combustion
100  32  O 
=   C  8 H    S 
21  12  8 
Combustion of Fuels 15.13
Volume or weight of air required for complete
combustion of some combustable matters

i) CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O

16 64 (by weight)
1 1 ( by volume)

ii) S + O2 SO2
32 32 (by weight)
1 1 (by volume)

iii) C2H6 + 7/2 O2 2CO2 + 3H2O

30 112 (by weight)
1 3.5 ( by volume)

iv) CO + ½ O2 CO2
28 16 (by weight)
1 0.5 (by volume)

Excess air supply

It is necessary to supply excess air for complete
combustion of the fuel.

The amount of air required if excess air is supplied

Theoretical amount of air

  [100  % Excess air]
100

Important points on combustion reactions

1) We know that air contains 21% oxygen by volume and
23% of oxygen by weight.
2) From the amount of oxygen required for the combustion
by the fuel, the amount (weight) of air can be calculated.
3) From the combustion reaction equations, we can
calculate the quantity of oxygen by weight or volume.
15.14 Engineering Chemistry
The following steps must be followed to calculate the
amount of air required for complete combustion of the fuel.

Step 1 : Write combustion reaction equation.

Step 2 : From this equation, calculate the amount of
oxygen required by the elements or compounds present in
the fuel.

Step 3 : If oxygen is mentioned in the problem , substract

the weight or volume of oxygen already present in the fuel
from total oxygen required by the other elements or
compounds.
Step 4 : Since, N2 , CO2 and H2O do not burn , they do not
require any oxygen (air) . Therefore, their values is
mentioned in the problem can be ignored.
Step 5 : Finally calculate the amount of air required by the
fuel by multiplying 100/21 ( if volume %) with total
amount of oxygen required and 100/23 ( if weight % ) with
total amount of oxygen required.
Step 6 : Excess air for combustion : More than the
theoretical amount of air is necessary in practice to achieve
complete combustion.

This excess air is expressed in percentage of the theoretical

100  Excess air
air = Theoretical air 
100

Problems based on Combustion Reaction

Example 1
Calculate the minimum volume of air used for the
complete combustion of a fuel having the following
composition by weight.
C = 90 % ; H2 = 5% ; O2 = 3% , ash = 2%
Solution
C = 0.9 kg ; H2 = 0.05 kg; O2 = 0.03 kg

Minimum volume of air required for combustion

Combustion of Fuels 15.15

100  32  O 
   C  8 H    S 
21  12  8 
100  32  0.03  
   0.90  8 0.05    0
21  12  8  
= 13.19 m3

Example 2
Calculate the amount of theoretical air by weight and
volume required for complete combustion of 2 kg coke
assuming 100% carbon content.
Solution
C + O2 CO2
12 32
weight of oxygen required for combustion of 2 kg of coke
32
= 2 = 5.333 kg
12
Amount of air required for the complete combustion of 2
100
kg of coke =  5.333 = 23.2 kg
23
Volume of air required for the complete combustion of 2 kg
100
of coke =  5.333 = 25.4 m3
21

Example3
Calculate the minimum of air by weight required for
the complete combustion of fuel having the following
composition by weight
C = 82% ; H2 = 13%; O2 = 3%
C = 0.82 kg ; H2 = 0.13 kg ; O2 = 0.03 kg

Solution
Weight of air required for combustion
100  32  O 
   C  8 H    S 
23  12  8 
15.16 Engineering Chemistry
100  32  0.03  
   0.82  8 0.13    0
23  12  8  
100
  3.197
23
= 13.9 kg

Example 4
The percentage composition of a sample of coal is C =
88%; H2 = 5% O2 = 4% N2 = 2% S = 1% .
i) Calculate the minimum weight of air required for
combustion
ii) Calculate the percentage composition of dry products
by weight.

Solution
i) C = 0.88 kg O2 = 0.04 kg
H2 = 0.05 kg S = 0.01 kg
100  32  O 
Weight of air required    C  8 H    S 
23  12  8 
100  32  0.04  
   0.88  8 0.05    0.01
23  12  8  
100
  2.717
23
= 11.81 kg

44
ii) CO2 formed   0.88 = 3.227 kg
12
64
SO2 formed   0.01 = 0.02 kg
32
N2 = N2 in the sent air + N2 in the fuel
77
  11 .81 + 0.01
100
= 9.104 kg
Combustion of Fuels 15.17

Weight Percentage analysis

Products Weight %
CO2 3.227 kg 26.13 %
SO2 0.02 kg 0.162 %
N2 9.104 kg 73.71 %

Total = 12.351 %

Example 5
Determine the volume of air needed for complete
combustion of one cubic meter of producer gas having
the following composition by volume.
Hydrogen = 25%; CO = 15% , CH 4 = 5% ; Nitrogen
52%
Solution
The combustion equations are

H2 + ½ O2 H2O
1 vol 0.5 vol 1 vol

CO + ½ O2 CO2
1 vol 0.5 vol 1 vol

CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O

1vol 2 vol 1 vol 2vol

Volume of oxygen needed for complete combustion of 1m3

of gas
= 0.250.5 + 0.15 0.5 + 0.05  2
= 0.3 m3
15.18 Engineering Chemistry
Volume of air needed for complete combustion =
100
 0.3
21
= 1.428 m3

Example 6
The percentage composition of a sample of coal by
weight was found to be C = 72% , H = 6.5% ,
O = 13% , N = 2.5% , S = 1.8 %
i) Calculate the minimum weight of air for complete
combustion
ii) Calculate the weight of dry products formed if 50
percent excess air is used.
Solution
1 kg of coal contain C = 0.72 kg , H = 0.065 kg ,
O = 0.13 kg , N = 0.025 kg, S = 0.018 kg

Minimum weight of air necessary for complete combustion

of 1 kg of coal

 32 16 32  100
 0.72   0.065   0.018   0.13 
 12 2 32  23
100
= [1.92 + 0.52 + 0.018 – 0.13 ] 
23
= 10.122 kg

10.122
volume of 10.122 kg of air at N.T.P =  22.4
28.94
= 7.83 m3
(where 28.94 is the molecular weight of air)

Masses of dry products of combustion if 50% excess air

is used.
44
CO2 = 0.72  = 2.64 kg
12
Combustion of Fuels 15.19
150 77
N2 = 10.122   = 11.691 kg
100 100
50 23
O2 = 10.122   = 1.164 kg
100 100
64
SO2 = 0.018  = 0.036 kg
32

Example 7
Fuel oil has the following analysis C = 90%; H = 6% S =
2.5%, O= 1%, ash = 0.5%. Calculate the quantity of air
required for complete combustion of 1 kg of the fuel if
30% excess air is used.
Solution
C = 0.9 kg
H = 0.06 kg
S = 0.025 kg
O = 0.01 kg

Solution :
100  32  O 
Weight of air required    C  8 H    S 
23  12  8 
100  32  0.01  
   0.9  8 0.06    0.025
23  12  8  
100
  2.895
23
= 12.586 kg of air
 The amount of air required if 30% excess of air is used
(100  30)
= 12.586 
100
= 12.586  1.3
= 16.362 kg of air

15.9 Flue gas analysis-Experiment

15.20 Engineering Chemistry
Flue gas is a mixture of gases produced from the products
of combustion of a fuel. It’s major constituents are CO,
CO2, O2 and N2.

The efficiency of combustion can be understood by the

qualitative analysis of flue gases. Flue gases CO, CO2 and

O2 are quantitatively analysed by the help of Orsat’s

apparatus.

Orsat’s Apparatus

Description:
Three-way stop cock Gas burette
The apparatus consists of a burette surrounded by water
Separating
funnel
maintaining constant temperature. One end of the burette is
connected
Flue gas to a leveling bottle through a rubber tube. The
leveling bottle contains saturated sodium chloride solution
which do not absorb any flue gases.

I II III

Absorption Water Jacket

bulb for CO2 Absorption
Fused CaCl2 Bulb for CO
for drying Absorption
flue gas Bulb for O2

Fig 15.2 Orsat’s Apparatus

Combustion of Fuels 15.21

By raising and lowering of the leveling bottle, the volume

of gases present in it are made to over flow . The horizontal
tube is also connected with three different absorption bulbs
I, II and III for absorbing CO2, O2 and CO.

Absorption pipette-I contains potassium hydroxide

solution , which absorbs CO2 only.
Absorption pipette–II contains alkaline pyrogallol
solution , which absorbs CO2 and O2.
Absorption pipette-III contains standard ammoniacal
cuprous chloride solution , which absorbs CO2, O2 and CO.

Working
To flush out the air in the apparatus, the three way stopcock
is opened to the flue gas supply after closing the entries of
absorption pipettes. By lowering the leveling bottle , the
flue gas is admitted in the burette and the three way
stopcock is opened to the flue gas supply after closing the
absorption pipettes . Now the leveling bottle is raised and
gas-air mixture is pushed out into the atmosphere. The
procedure is repeated until the pure flue gas occupies the
apparatus. Then adjust the leveling bottle and exactly
permit 100 ml of flue gas as noted in the burette and close
the three way stop cock completely.

i) Absorption of CO2
First the stopper of the absorption pipette-I , having KOH
solution is opened and the flue gas in the burette is forced
into pipette solution by raising the leveling bottle. By
repeatedly raising and lowering of the leveling bottle, the
15.22 Engineering Chemistry
gas is brought into intimate contact with the pipette KOH
solution which absorbs the CO2 gas completely. Then the
residual gases are taken into the burette . By adjusting the
leveling bottle the volume of residual gases after the
removal of CO2 by the absorption pipette is measured in the

burette. The decrease in volume gives the volume of CO 2 in

100 ml (%) of the gas sample.

ii) Absorption of O2
Stopper of the absorption pipette-I is closed and stopper of
absorption pipette-II is opened where O2 present in the flue
gas is absorbed by alkaline pyrogallol. The decrease in
volume of flue gas in the burette indicates the volume of
O2.
iii) Absorption of CO
Now stopper of the absorption pipette-II is closed and
stopper of absorption pipette-III is opened where CO
present in the flue gas is absorbed by ammoniacal cuprous
chloride. The decrease in volume of flue gas in the burette
indicates the volume of CO.
The remaining gas in the burette after the absorption of
CO2, O2 and CO is taken as the nitrogen.

Significance of flue gas analysis

1. The efficiency of combustion can be determined by the
qualitative analysis of flue gases.
2. Excess oxygen in the flue gas suggest that excess of air
is supplied for combustion.
3. More carbon monoxide content in the flue gas suggest
incomplete combustion process due to various reasons.
4. Based on the flue gas analysis of fuel, combustion
improvement in the design of I.C engines, combustion
chamber, furnace etc can be done.

15.10 Explosive range

Combustion of Fuels 15.23

Most of the gaseous fuels have two limits i.e., an upper and
lower limit of inflammability when present as fuel air
mixture. For continuous burning, the amount of gas present
in the fuel air mixture should not go below the lower or go
above the upper level. But increase in temperature changes
the limits of inflammability. The limits of inflammability is
otherwise known as explosive range. Some of the limits of
inflammability are given in table below

Lower limit of Upper limit of

inflammability inflammability
H2 4.2 74.0
CO 16.2 71.2
CH4 5.8 13.0

At ordinary atmosphere pressure , the increase of

temperature increases the explosive range by lowering the
lower limit and increasing the upper limit.

15.11 Calorific Intensity

Explosive range
It is the maximum temperature when the fuel is completely
burnt in the critical amount of air. The calorific intensity
depends upon factors such as
i) nature of fuel
ii) Specific heat of gaseous products of combustion
iii) Absence of volatile matter.
When a fuel burns without appreciable flame, the heat
liberated on combustion is concentrated over a small area
and the fuel produce a high local fuel-bed temperature.
Hence fuels producing high local fuel bed temperatures are
having high calorific intensity. Usually low flame fuels
burn with high calorific intensities.
15.24 Engineering Chemistry
Calorific intensity

Heat of combustion  sensible heat of air and fuel


Total quantity of combustion product  their mean specific hea

15.12 Ignition Temperature

Calorific Intensity
Ignition temperature is the lowest temperature to which the
fuel must be pre-heated so that the combustion process
goes on smoothly. In the case of liquid fuels it is known as
flash point. Usually the ignition temperature of a good fuel
should neither low nor high. If the ignition temperature is
low the fuel can catch fire very quickly and prone to fire
hazards on transporting. On the other hand if the ignition
temperature is high it is difficult in igniting the fuel. In
most of the external combustion engines, fuels with
moderate ignition temperature are preferred.

Review Questions

1. Describe Orsat’s apparatus

2. How is flue gas analysed using Orsat’s apparatus
3. Discuss the calculation of minimum air requirement
for the complete combustion.
4. What is flue gas ?
5. Discuss Dulong’s formula
6. Define i) Gross calorific value ii) Net calorific value
7. Write the importance of flue gas analysis
8. What are the important points one must keep it in
mind on combustion reactions ?
Combustion of Fuels 15.25