CAPIZ STATE UNIVERSITY

CAPSU VISION

“Center of Academic Excellence

Delivering Quality Service to All”

CAPSU MISSION

Capiz State University is committed to provide advanced knowledge

and innovation; develop skills, talent and values; undertake relevant research,
development
and extension services; promote entrepreneurshipand environmental consciousness;
and enhance industry collaboration and linkages
with partner agencies.

CAPSU GOALS

Globally –competitive graduates

Institutionalized research culture
Responsive and sustainable extension services
Maximized profit of viable agro-industrial business ventures
Effective and efficient administration
 General instructions for study

These are self-instructional modules. They provide necessary information on PRINCIPLES OF

SOIL SCIENCE. You are expected to master each module. After finishing the first, you may
take the posttest and proceed to the next module
MODULE 1: DEFINITION AND COMPOSITION OF SOIL

Overview

Soil is the foundation for profitable farming. In this subject the principles of chemistry,
physics and biology will be used to determine the effects of agricultural practice on soil. Topics
include soil morphology, soil physical and chemical properties, clay mineralogy, soil biology &
ecology, soil acidity and alkalinity, and the biogeochemical cycles of C, N, and other elements.
Field trips will be used to train students in understanding the relationship between landscapes,
soils and land use, and in the description, sampling, and mapping of soils.

Outcomes

1. Present to the students a unified view of the soil as a medium for plant growth and as a natural
resource;
2. Develop in the student skills in problem solving problems requiring the use of numerical data
obtained from physical, chemical and biological experiments involving the soil;
3. Provide basic information bout the role of plant nutrients so that the students will be able to
recognize and diagnose soil problems associated with poor plant growth;
4. Develop in the student the ability to apply the principles of soil management in the control of
soil fertility. Soil pH, and soil erosion; and
5.Develop in the student the ability to interpret soil survey report.

Global objective:

After finishing this module, you are expected to study the definition and composition of
soil.

Behavioral objectives:

 Define soil science

 Explain about the scope and importance of soil science
 Describe the branches of soil science

Topic:

a. Soil defined: edapological and pedological

b. Fields of specialization in soil science
c. Composition of the soil
1. Air
2. Water
3. Organic matter
4. Mineral matter
 d. Composition of the mineral matter
1. The three major fractions: sand, silt and clay
2. The clay fraction: crystalline and non-crystalline
components
e. Elemental composition of the earth’s crust
f. The essential nutrient elements
1. Macro and micronutrients
2. Criteria of essentiality
3. Ionic forms of nutrients

STUDY THE FOLLOWING:

SOIL

 thin portion of the earth crust which is a mixture of

organic and inorganic materials formed from the
weathering of rocks and minerals and whose properties are
conditioned in various degrees by the influence of climate,
living organism, and relief acting on parent material over a
period of time
 serves as medium for plant growth

APPROACHES IN STUDYING SOIL

 PEDOLOGICAL APPROACH
 study of soils for their taxonomic classification
 study of soils as they occur in nature with principal interest on characterization
and differentiation of their properties and with only minor emphasis on their
practical use
 EDAPHOLOGICAL APPROACH
 study of soil fertility
 study of soil with emphasis on their practical use, particularly the relationship of
soil properties

IMPORTANCE OF SOILS

 Medium for plant growth

 Source of raw materials (minerals and quarry)
 Foundation for buildings and infrastructures
 Repository of waste
 Filters water
 Producer and absorber of gases
  Home to organisms
 Essential natural resource.
 Research

FIELDS OF STUDY IN SOIL SCIENCE

1. SOIL FERTILITY
-status of a soil with respect to the form, amount, and availability to plants of nutrient
elements necessary for plant growth.

2. SOIL PHYSICS
-deals with characteristics, properties or reactions of soil which are caused by physical
forces and described by equations

3. SOIL CHEMISTRY and MINERALOGY

- study of the original rocks and
minerals which constitute the
materials which from which soils
are derived
-characterization of the reaction of
the nutrients in the soil and in the
soil solution
4. SOIL MICROBIOLOGY
characterization of important groups of
microorganisms in the soil and their role in
the physical and biochemical changes

5. SOIL CONSERVATION and MANAGEMENT

 protection of the soil against physical loss by
erosion or chemical deterioration
 totality of all tillage operations, cropping
practices, fertilization, liming. etc. conducted on
soil for crop production
6. LAND USE
- deals with the utilization or allocation of lands for agriculture,
forestry, settlement and military reservation
Crop Agriculture and Land Use in the Philippines
 14.60 M ha (49%) = suitable for agriculture
 73 M population by 1998 à land-man ratio of 0.20
ha lower than world average of 0.28 ha.
 Cropped area = 13 M ha
 Cropping intervals (cropping index) = 1.26
 physical area = 10.299 M ha
 more than 80% of agricultural area is

planted to three major crops: rice, corn
and coconut
7. SOIL GENESIS, MORPHOLOGY, and
CLASSIFICATION
 deals with the structural characteristics,
mode of origin, and systematic
arrangement of soils
Chemical Nature of Soil Constituents

An ideal soil is composed of about :

• 45% minerals
• 5% organic matter
• 25% water
• 25% air

Soil Air

 - the gases found in the air space between soil components

 - composition is dictated by the water content in the soil

Gases Soil Air Atmosphere

N2 78.6 78.03

O2 20.0 21.0

CO2

Soil Water
Nutrient
0.50

Available to Plant as
o
S
l
i
G
l
o
S
d
u
q
i
L
s
a
0.03

o
p
m
C e
n
t

N NO3-, NH4+

P H2PO4-, HPO42-
 K K+

18 essential elements

Note Presence of other salts like sulfates,

carbonates and chlorides. But only 18 are
essential.

Soil Solid

o
l
i
S
i
n
a
g
r
oc
I
O i
i
l
o
S
o
p
m
C
d
t
e
n

Discuss definition of organic and inorganic

Compounds that have C but not considered organic:
carbides, c arbonates, carbon oxides and cyanides

TERMS AND DEFINITION

1. SOIL PROFILE
 cross-section of soil from surface to
bedrock showing the different soil
horizons
2. SOIL HORIZON
- Layers of soil that are almost parallel to the surface
with distinct range of properties which different
from other layers
 3. The Soil Profile
 O-horizon
- Organic horizons that form above the mineral horizon
- Result from litter derived from dead plants and animals
- Specific horizons are:
Oi-organic material are slightly decomposed
Oe- residues are intermediately decomposed
Oa- residues are highly decomposed

3. Eluvial horizons
- Mineral horizons that lie at or near the surface
- Zone of maximum leaching or eluviation ( from Latin ex or e, out and lavere, to wash)
-Zone of maximum organic matter accumulation
-Specific horizons are : A, E, AB or EB, E/B, and A/C

4. Eluvial horizons
A: topmost mineral horizon, containing a strong admixture of humified organic matter, which
tends to impart a darker color than that of the lower horizons
E: horizon of maximum eluviation of clay, iron and aluminum oxides and a corresponding
concentrations of resistant materials, such as quartz.

5. Eluvial horizons
AB or EB: transition layer between A or (E) and B with properties more nearly like those A (or
E) than of the underlying B.
E/B: horizon that would qualify as E except for including parts constituting less than 50% of the
volume that qualify as B.

6. Eluvial horizons
A/C: transition layer between A and C, having subordinate properties of both A and C but not
dominated by properties of either.
7. Illuvial horizons
-Region of maximum accumulation of materials such as iron and aluminum oxides and silicate
clays
-Specific horizons are BA (or BE), B/E, B, BC, and CB.
8. Illuvial horizons
Region of maximum accumulation of materials such as iron and aluminum oxides and silicate
clays
9. Specific horizons are BA (or BE), B/E, B, BC, and CB.
 C horizon
 Consolidated material underlying the solum (A and B)
 Outside the zones of major biological activities
R horizon
- Underlying consolidated rock
  SOIL PIT
 A 1m x 1m x 1m volume of
soil, excavated to show the
soil profile
 PEDON “SOIL”
 Smallest unit of studying soil
individual
 Mature soil- well-developed
A, B, C horizons
 Young soil- A and C
horizons
 Old soil- A, B, and C
horizons with very deep B
and C horizons

 REGOLITH
 A, B and C horizons
• SOLUM (True Soil)
- A and B horizons
• PARENT MATERIAL
- C horizons, the weathered rock or unconsolidated sediments

Subordinate distinction
 The characteristics of the master horizon are further specified by lowercase letters:
a – highly decomposed organic matter
b – buried soil horizon
c – concretions or nodules
e- intermediately decomposed organic matter
f- frozen soil
g- strong gleying
h-illuvial accumulation of humus
i – slightly decomposed organic matter
k – accumulation of carbonates
m- strong cementation
n- accumulation of sodium
o- residual accumulation of sesquioxides
p- plowing or other disturbance
q- accumulation of silica
r – weathered or soft bedrock
s – illuvial accumulation of sesquioxides
t- accumulation of clay
v- plinthite
w- color or structural B
x- fragipan
y- accumulation of gypsum
z- accumulation of salts

SOIL FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT

ROCK
 aggregate of one or more
minerals
 Classification of rock
 Igneous rock
 Sedimentary rock
 Metamorphic

IGNEOUS
 originated from magma, a hot
fluid mass or rock melt
2 modes of igneous rock formation:
1. Extrusive- happens when the magma is
ejected out of the earth’s crust through volcanic
eruption and solidifies on the surface; are fine-
grained and have smaller crystals (RAB)
2. Intrusive- happens when magma solidifies
within the earth’s crus t (GDG)

• SEDIMENTARY
- Consolidated fragments of
igneous and/or metamorphic rock
• METAMORPHIC
-Chemically and/or physically
transformed igneous or sedimentary rock by heat
and/ or pressure

8 most abundant elements in the earth’s crust

1. Oxygen (46.6%)
2. Silicon (27.7%
3. Aluminum (8.13 %)
4. Iron (5.0%)
5. Magnesium (2.09%)
 6. Calcium (3.63%)
7. Sodium (2.83%)
8. Potassium (8.13%)

Examples of Igneous Rocks

1. Granite : quartz, K-feldspar,
biotite
2. Diorite: plagioclase, amphibole,
quartz
3. Rhyolite: K-feldspar, quartz, biotite
4. Gabbro: pyroxene, plagioclase, olivine
5. Andesite: plagioclase, amphibole, quartz
6. Basalt: pyroxene, plagioclase, olivine
7. Obsidian: volcanic glass
8. Volcanic tuff: fragmental volcanic rocks

Examples of Sedimentary Rocks

1. Sandstone
2. Siltstone
3. Shale (claystone)
4. Conglomerate
5. Limestone (CaCO3)
6. Gypsum (CaSO4. 2H20)
7. Chert (SiO.quartz)

Examples of metamorphic rocks

Pre-existing rock Metamorphic Rock Equivalent

Granite Gneiss
Basalt Schists
Sandstone Quartzite
Limestone Marble
Shale Slate
Conglomerate Meta-conglomerate
Meta-conglomerate
  Mineral
 Naturally occuring chemical
element or compound formed as a
product of inorganic processess
Two group of minerals
1. Primary Minerals
2. Secondary Minerals
Primary Minerals
3. formed at temperatures and/or pressure higher than that normally encountered at
the earth’s surface e.g. quartz, feldspar, mica, amphibole, apatite, olivine,
components of igneous and metamorphic rocks
  Secondary Minerals
 form under conditions of temperature and pressure
found at the earth’s surface by the weathering of
pre-existing minerals
e.g. clay minerals, limonite, gibbsite, calcite, dolomite, gypsum,
rock phosphate

:Calcite, limonite, gibbsite, Dolomite,

Weathering

 rocks on exposure to the

weather change on character,
decay and finally crumble
into soil
 physical weathering break
rocks into pieces so more
surface is exposed to
chemical weathering which
breaks it down further
 weathering is controlled
largely by climate

 in warm temperatures
chemical weathering is
proceeds faster
 arid climates, weathering
processes is very slow
 mechanical weathering is
the dominant weathering on
arid climates
 weathering of rocks
produces soil particles

TYPES OF WEATHERING
 Physical Weathering
 Rocks get broken
into pieces but its
chemical composition
remains unchanged
 Processes of Physical
Weathering
 Freeze/ Thaw
weathering
 Biological weathering
 Exfoliation

1. Freeze/ Thaw weathering

 - Occurs when temperature freezes at night and rises during day
- water expands when frozen which forces rocks open

2. Biological weathering
- roots of plants grow into cracks and force cracks open

3. Exfoliation
- when rock at earth’s surface is worn
away
B. Chemical Weathering
- rock broken down by chemical
change
- produces clay
- tend to weaken rock, making it easier
to break
hgExp:duPyG
occursc
icas,bntilteKw
Pedochemical

ates,
1. Climate

wi
from
Kt
kv
Common chemical weathering processes:
Hydrolysis, Dissolution, Oxidation

Types of chemical weathering

E xample: redox
Example: oxidation,
reactions, acid
Geochemical
reduction,
weathering:
weatheri
weathering:
ng of layer
hydration,takes
Factors influencing soil Formation

sili removal
hin the
- Components of climate that strongly
influence soil development
- Temperature

belowhydrol
the ysolum
from micas,
sis,
- Weathering of rocks and minerals
and biochemical reaction increases
with temperature
- Precipitation
- With more rainfall, greater weathering and leaching therefore faster rate of soil development

2. Organisms
- vegetation, microbes and soil animals
3. Relief Topography
- the soil’s position in the landscape
- effects of topography
 Slope and aspect
 Parent material
interactions
 Salt build up
 Interaction with
vegetation

4. Parent material
- geological or organic precursors to the soil
- inorganic and organic material where soils may originate
Types of Parent Material
1. Residual- bedrocks; igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic
2. Transported- loose materials like sand, silt, and clay deposits
5. Time
- length of time for the soil to form
- age of a soil is not considered in
years but how much development the
soil has undergone
- the time it takes to develop a soil is
relative.
Dependent upon:
- climate
 - vegetation
- human interaction

TIME AS FACTOR OF SOIL FORMATION

1. Catenas
- soils are developed on the same parent material and the soils only differ on the basis of
drainage due to variations in relief
2. Chronosequence
- sequence of related soils that differ in certain properties primarily as a result of time as a
soil-forming process
3. Lithosequence
- group of related soils that differ as result of parent material
4. Climosequence
- sequence of soils that differ as a result of changes in climatic regimes (temperature and
precipitation)
5. Biosequence
- differ in kinds and numbers of plants and soil organisms

Four Basic Processes of Soil Formation

1. Transformation
 Soil constituent are chemically or physically modified or destroyed and others are
synthesized from precursor materials
 changes to soil structure, development of clay minerals, weathering of minerals
to elements
2. Translocation
- movement of organic and inorganic materials horizontally or vertically across a pedon
- movement from one horizon to another of organic matter, clay, water, iron and
nutrients in colloidal size
- clay films on peds are evidence of translocation
3. Additions
- inputs of materials from outside sources
(i.e. plant litter, water, organic matter, air, soil particles, salt)
4. Losses
- materials that are removed from the soil profile by leaching or erosion

Processes of soil formation

 addition

losses
Soil processes
translocation

transformation

losses

Evaluation

Multiple Choice: Write the answers to the following questions

1. A dynamic natural body on the earth’s surface composed of both living and non-living
materials where plants can grow
a. Soil profile b. Soil horizon
c. Soil d. Soil pedon
2. The study of soil from the standpoint of higher plants or plant production
a. Petrology b. Pedology
c. Edapology d. Physiology
3. The size of the soil particle is less than 1µm.
a. Silt b. Soil colloids
c. Sand d. Organic matter
4. Mature soil have the following horizons
a. AB b. ABCD
c. ABC d. BC
5. In relation to crop production, clayey soils are known to be
a. Easy to cultivate
b. More fertile than sand
c. Low water holding capacity
d. High percolation rate
6. The parent material of an organic soil is usually located in what part of the profile?
a. Topmost b. Lowest part
c. Middle d. Any place
7. In relation to crop production, sandy soils are known to be
a. Droughty b. Easy to cultivate
c. Easy to drain d. All of the above
8. The soil is called a because it comes from the weathering of naturally occuring rocks and
minerals.
a. Dynamic body b. Natural resource
c. Weathered rock d. Natural body
9. Young soils have the following horizons
a. AB b. AC
c. ABC d. BC
10. Rocks formed by cooling and solidification of molten magma and lava in the crust
a. Extrusive rocks b. Sedimentary rocks
c. Igneous rocks d. Intrusive rocks
11. Individual soil layers or layers parallel to the ground surface.
a. Profile b. Horizon
c. Pedon d. Solum
12. What is the moisture regime of the soil Tropaquepts which are Inceptisols that are found in
the tropics.
a. Ustic b. Aquic
c. Aridic d. Xeric
13. The non-crystalline organic colloidal fraction of the soil.
a. Organic material
b. Humos
c. Clay
d. Silt
14. The philippine adopts the soil classification system
a. United State Department of Agriculture
b. Food and Agriculture ( FAO)
c. International Soil Science Society ( ISSS)
d. Soil Science Society of America
15. The topsoil usually refers to this horizon
a. AB b. B
c. A d. C
16. The driving force of water flow under condition
a. Tension gradient b. Hydraulic gradient
c. Hydraulic d. gravity
17. Loose earth materials above soil rock
a. Solum b. Profile
c. Pedon d. Regolith
18. Describes darkness or lightness of soil color
a. Hue b. Chroma
c. Value d. Intensity
19. Soil texture that would be best for growing lowland rice
a. Sandy soil b. Sandy loam
b. Silty sand d. Clay
20. A sedimentary rock which is a recemented clay
a. Conglomerate b. Siltstone
b. Sandstone d. Shale
21. The upper diameter size limit of sand particles is
 a. 2.0 mm b. 0.02 mm
c. 0.2 mm d. 0.002 mm
22. Charateristics feel of sand separates when rub in between the finger is
a. Smooth b. Sticky when moist
c. Coarse d. All of the above
23. An example of physical weathering process is
a. Hydrolysis b. Exfoliation
c. Hydration d. Oxidation
24. It refers to the arrangement of primary soil particles into secondary units or aggregates
a. Soil consistency b. Soil density
c. Soil texture d. Soil structure
25. A subsoil with high clay accumulation is written in symbol as
a. Btc b. Bt
c. Ct d. Ct1

Describe differences in and characteristics of the following:

a. kaolinite
b. mica ( illite)
c. monthmorillonite
d. vermiculite
e. chlorite
f. oxides of iron
g amorphous

Exercise 1: Soil Color

Name……………………………………………Year & Section………………………Score ………….

Describe the soil color of each horizon using your own terminology and then use the Munsell Color
notation to describe the soil color.

Soil Color (your terminology)………………………………

Munsell Color Notation …………………………………….
Munsell Soil Color…………………………………………..

Study Questions

1. List the three main components of soil texture. How might a person distinguish between them?
2. How does the texture of surface horizons compare with the texture of subsurface horizons?

3. When manipulating a moist soil sample, you observe noticeable grittiness, yet you are able to form a
ribbon of 4 inches consistently. What is the probable textural class for this soil?

4. Which type of structure is most common in surface soil? What soil constituent is most important in the
formation of structure in surface horizons? 12 5. What type(s) of structure are most common in
subsurface soil? What constituents and/or processes contribute to the formation of structure in subsurface
horizons?

6. What is the significance of structure to plant growth?

7. In general, how do surface colors compare with subsurface colors?

8. Name five soil constituents and the soil color you would expect them to be associated with.

9. What is the significance of mottles in making interpretations for soil use and management?

References:

https://www.google.com/search?
q=sample+question+in+principles+of+soil+science&oq=&aqs=chrome.3.35i39l8.5106395j1j4&
sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8
UPLB, VSU, MSU reviewer for Agri. Board Exam.