CHAPTER 1

DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Agriculture is the Backbone of our Society. Every human being needs foods in order
to survive in the day to day of living. As population increases, our food production
decreases. We need to utilize our pieces of land in order to feed the over-populated world.

This chapter focuses in the history and branches of agriculture, origin and
domestication of some important crops, world food situation and centers of production, the
Philippine agriculture and Meaning and scope of crop science.

Module 1

History of Agriculture

Overview

This module discusses the history and branches of Agriculture and origin and
domestication of some important Crops.

Desired Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students must:

 Discuss what is agriculture;

 Discuss the early development of agriculture and
 Elaborate the origin, domestication and history of some important crops.

Content Focus
What is AGRICULTURE?
Agriculture
 Is a late Middle English word from the Latin word agricultūra originating from
the root words ager meaning “field”, and cultūra meaning “cultivation or
growing”.
 Simply, it is the domestication of plants and animals for human consumption.
 The management or cultivation of plants and the raising of animals for food and
other needs.

Two Main Branches of Agriculture

 Crop Production - the art and science of producing plants which are useful to
man either directly or indirectly, raw or processed, aimed at increasing
productivity and quality of the products in order to maximize monetary returns
but at the same time minimize, if not completely eliminate, the negative effects
on the environment.

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 Crop Science: the science that deals with the study of the principles and
practices in crop production
 Animal Production or Animal Husbandry - the art and science of producing
animals to meet human needs and luxury.

Two Main Divisions of Crop Production

 Agronomy
- Is an early 19th century word from the French words agronomie or agronome
meaning “agriculturist”. The words agronomie or agronome also originated
from the greek words agros meaning “field”, and nomos meaning
“arranging” which was also derived from the greek word nemoein meaning
“arrange”.
- The production of field crops or the production of crops under a system of
“extensive” or large-scale culture. The products are usually utilized in high
dry matter form or in a “nonliving state”.

 Horticulture
- Is a late 17th century word derived from the Latin word hortus meaning
“garden” and the English word agriculture.
- The production of crops under a system of “intensive culture”. Horticultural
products are usually utilized in the “living-state” with high moisture content,
thus highly perishable. A science that deals with the production and
utilization of garden crops.

Branches of Horticulture
 Floriculture - the production of ornamental crops
 Olericulture - the production of vegetable crops
 Arboriculture - the study of how plants grow and respond to cultural practices
and to their environment. is the cultivation, management and study of
individual trees, shrubs, vines and other perennial woody plants
 Pomology - the production of fruit crops
 Landscape horticulture - the art and science involved in beautification and
protection of the environment
 Viticulturte – is the cultivation and harvesting of grapes.
 Post-harvest – maintaining the quality of, and preventing the spoilage of
horticultural crops.

Origin, Domestication and History of some Important Crops

Theories explaining the origin of life on earth

 Creation - 7 days of creation of life on earth including Adam and Eve by God
 Spontaneous Generation - living things arouse from non-living things
 Descent and Natural Selection - species descent with modification
 Panspermia - life forms that can survive the effects of space, such as
extremophiles, were trapped in debris and ejected into space after collisions of
planets but become active and evolving upon occurrence of an ideal condition
on a new planet. This theory intends to explain the distribution of life forms
(and its possibility) in the universe.

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  Chemical Evolution - small first molecules which were carbon-containing
compounds in prebiotic soup linked together to form nucleic acids and proteins
which acquired the ability to self-replicate, becoming the first living entity
which led to biological evolution.

Patterns of plant evolution

Period Group of species involved
Pre-Cambrian, more than 2 billion years - Archaic bacteria, the first
organized living things
Pre-Cambrian, about 2 billion years -“Uralgae”, the first oxygen
producing plants
Cambrian, 600 million years - Chlorophyta, first organized
chloroplast
Silurian, 420 million years - Psilophyta, first true stems
Devonian, 390 million years - Filicophyta, first true leaves
Carboniferous, 345 million years - Gymnospermae, first true seeds
Cretaceous, 135 million years - Angiospermae, first flowers

Domestication - the process of bringing wild species (plants or animals) under the
management of man.

 First Domesticated Plants

1. Rye - 11,050 BCE, believed to be domesticated during the Epi-
Paleolithic Era at Abu Hureyra in Syria
2. Bottle Gourd - 10,000 BC, somewhere in Asia and brought by the
immigrants to America
3. Cereal Crops (e.g. Wheat and Barley) and Pulses (e.g. Lentils and peas) -
10,000-9,000 BC in Mesopotamia between the Tigris and Euphrates
rivers (in Fertile Crescent) including the now modern countries of Iran,
Iraq, Turkey, and Syria (Middle East)

 First Domesticated Animals

Animal Approximate date Region
Dog 15,000 BC - Multiple locations
Goat 10,000 BC - Asia and Middle East
Sheep 8,000 BC - Asia and Middle East
Pig 8,000 BC - China
Cattle 8,000 BC - India, Middle East
and Sub-Sahara
Chicken 6,000 BC - India and South East Asia
Water buffalo
- China
Silkworm 3,000 BC - China

 Consequences of Domestication

 Change in plant type and limited ecological adaptation

 Higher yield

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  Loss of seed dormancy
 Conversion from perennial to annual
 Increased susceptibility to diseases

Centers of Origin of some Important Crops (Abellanosa and Pava, 1987)

 China - millet, buckwheat, soybeans, legumes, many vegetables.

 India (Indo-Malayan Center including the Philippines) - rice, sugarcane,
many legumes, many tropical fruits such as mangoes and citrus
 Central Asia - wheat, peas, lentils, several oil plants and cotton
Near East - wheat, rye, grapes, peas, cherry, almond and fig
Mediterranean Center - St. John bread, beet and several vegetables
 Ethiopia - barley and wheat
 South Mexico and Central America - corn, beans, squash, chili
pepper, many fruits, cacao and cotton
 South America (Peru, Ecuador and Bolivia) with sub
centers in Chili, Brazil and Paraguay - white potato, cassava, peanut,
pineapple, cashew, rubber tree

Earliest Civilizations

 Sumer - about 5,000 BC or earlier. The Sumerians were a race who occupied
the Fertile Crescent between the great Euphrates and Tigris Rivers in the
Near East. Egypt: 4,000 BC in the Nile River.

India - prior to 2,500 BC along the banks of the fertile River Indus
in what is now Pakistan.

China - about 3,000 BC along the banks of Hwang-ho or Yellow

River.

Other Historical Events Relevant to Agriculture

 Development of the Plow - 3,000 BC, Egyptians cultivated figs,

dates, bananas, cucumbers, grapes, olives, melons, lettuce and lemons.
Cultivation of Beans and Maize - 2,000 BC, when Mayas from Asia
settled in America.
 Development of Landscaping - 1,500 BC, Egyptians developed landscape
gardens in which flowering plants, shade trees and ornamental shrubs were
planted and cultivated for their beauty alone.
 Development of Terrace Gardening with Irrigation - 605-560 BC,
Nebuchadnezzar II built the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, one of the Seven
Wonders of the Ancient World (Iraq) in four hectares. They were not hanging
gardens, but gardens with balconies or terraces supported with concealed large
pillars, irrigated from below by pumps manned by slaves or oxen.
 Discovery of Tea, and Development of Paper and Bonsai Making - 200
BC- AD 200, Han Dynasty of China. Tea was discovered and paper was made.
Monks practiced bonsai making.
 The Green Revolution - initiated in the year 1940s but soared in the late
1960s. Characterized by a series of research, development, and technology

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 transfer initiatives which resulted to increased agricultural production around
the world especially Asia. Led by Dr. Norman Borlaug, the "Father of the
Green Revolution" and a Noble Peace Prize fellow, who is credited for saving
over a billion people from starvation due to the development of high yielding
varieties of cereal grains, more efficient irrigation infrastructures, modern
agricultural techniques, hybrid crops, synthetic fertilizers, and pesticides.

Self-Check: (2 points each)

1. Give Five (5) examples of Agronomic Crops and Horticultural Crops.

Agronomic Crops Horticultural Crops

1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
4. 4.
5. 5.

Self- Reflect: 200 Words (10 points)

2. What is the importance of AGRICULTURE to our daily life?

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References

Chantrell, Glynnis, Ed. (2002). The Oxford Dictionary of World Histories. Oxford University
Press. P. 14. ISBN 019-863121-9.

Http://Education.Nationalgeographic.Com/Education/Encyclopedia/
Domestication/?Ar_A=1

Http://Www.Merriam-Webster.Com/Dictionary/Agronomy

Rimando, Tito J. Fundamentals of Crop Science. Department of Horticulture, College of

Agriculture, U.P Los Baños, Laguna. 2004.

Tilman D, Cassman Kg, Matson Pa, Naylor R, Polasky S (August 2002). "Agricultural
Sustainability and Intensive Production Practices". Nature 418 (6898): 671.
Doi:10.1038/Nature01014. Pmid 12167873.

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 Module 2

World Food Situation, Centers of Production and History of Philippine

Agriculture

Overview

‘Food security’ is a complex concept. It implies ‘physical and economic access to

balanced diets and safe drinking water to all people at all times’ (Swaminathan,
1986). This means that ample food is grown, processed and transported, and that
everyone has either money to buy food or grow it.

This module discusses the present situation in the world in terms of

production, centers of production and the history of Philippine Agriculture.

Desired Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students must:

 Explain the status of food situation in the world;
 Elaborate the centers of production in agriculture and
 Discuss the history of Philippine agriculture.

Content Focus

World Food Situation and Centers of Production

 Food Security - “A situation that exists when all people, at all times, have
physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that

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 meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life.
Based on this definition, four food security dimensions can be identified: food
availability, economic and physical access to food, food utilization and stability
over time” (FAO, 2013).
 Food Insecurity - “A situation that exists when people lack secure access to
sufficient amounts of safe and nutritious food for normal growth and development
and an active and healthy life. It may be caused by the unavailability of food,
insufficient purchasing power, inappropriate distribution or inadequate use of food
at the household level. Food insecurity, poor conditions of health and sanitation
and inappropriate care and feeding practices are the major causes of poor
nutritional status. Food insecurity may be chronic, seasonal or transitory” (FAO,
2013).
 Current World Population - 7,674, 000,000 people (2019)
 Number of people suffering from chronic hunger: 842 million people (12% of
global population), year 2011-2013

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 Sub-Saharan Africa: remains the regions with the highest prevalence of
undernourishment

 Major Source of Food in the World

 Agriculture: mainly 75-80%
 Fisheries or aquaculture: 15-20%
 Forestry

 Centers of Agricultural Production

 International Rice Research Institute(IRRI) - research and development in
production of rice
 CIMMYT- International Maize and Wheat Improvement
Center
 CIP - International Potato Center of CGIAR (Consultative Group on
International Agricultural Research)
 FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

The Philippine Agriculture

 Proclamation of the Philippine Independence (June 12, 1898): President

Emilio Aguinaldo formed the Department of Agriculture (DA) as one of the
first agencies in the Philippines. The first three directors of the DA are Jose
Alejandrino (1898-1899), Graciano Gonzaga and Leon Ma. Guerrero, both
during the latter part of 1899.
 The DA was renamed to the Department of Agriculture and Natural
Resources (DANR) in the year 1947, and in the years 1953-55, under DANR
Secretary Salvador Araneta, three major agricultural agencies were created
including Agricultural Tenancy Commission (precursor of the Department of
Agrarian Reform); Philippine Tobacco Administration (forerunner of the
National Tobacco Administration); and Philippine Coconut Administration
(now known as Philippine Coconut Authority).
 The Abaca Development Board (forerunner of the Fiber Development
Authority) was created in the year 1961 under Cesar Fortich as DANR chief.
 The Bureau of Agricultural Economics (forerunner of the Bureau of
Agricultural Statistics); and the National Rice and Corn Administration or
RCA (now known as the National Food Authority) were established in 1962
under President Diosdado Macapagal and DANR Secretary Benjamin M.
Gozon.
 The Philippines was able to export rice for the first time in the year 1968 due
to improved rice production programs in the country.
 The DANR was split into two agencies, Department of Agriculture (DA) and
Department of Natural Resources (DNR) during the early years of Martial
Law in the year 1974, which became Ministries four years later. DA became
Ministry of Agriculture and Food (MAF).
 The Philippines became self-sufficient in rice and white corn, and an active
rice exporter under Arturo R. Tanco, Jr. as Minister of Agriculture and Food.
Masagana 99 is among his programs for the improvement of rice production
in the country.
 The Intensive Rice Production Program (IRPP), an import-substitution
program, was initiated in 1984 which included government’s animal dispersal
program such as the Bakahang Barangay (cattle raising at village level) and
Pagbababuyan (swine raising), under MAF Minister Salvador H. Escudero
III.

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 The EDSA People Power Revolution arouses in the year 1986 which resulted
to higher farm gate prices of agricultural goods.
 Executive Order No. 116 signed by President Corazon Aquino in the year
1987 led to the renaming and reorganization of MAF to DA which introduced
reforms in rural credit system and established Comprehensive Agricultural
Loan Fund (CALF).
 The Livelihood Enhancement for Agricultural Development (LEAD)
program was launched in the year 1988 for farmers' organizations to access
financing, management expertise, and marketing. Also, Agriculture and
Fishery Councils (AFCs) were set up at the sectoral, regional, provincial and
municipal levels to provide inputs on major programs and policy decisions
and help plan and monitor government projects under DA.
 Other programs or projects launched under the DA included Rice Action
Program (RAP) and Corn Production Enhancement Program (CPEP) in the
year 1990, Medium-Term Agricultural Development Plan (MTADP) in the
year 1992, Gintong Ani in the year 1996, Agrikulturang Makamasa in the
year 1998, Ginintuang Masaganang Ani Countrywide Assistance for Rural
Employment and Services (GMA-CARES) in the year 2001, and Roll-On,
Roll-Off or RORO transport program in the year 2002. Other programs
focused on modernization of agriculture in the Philippines including the
recently organized program (year 2010) Agrikulturang Pilipino or Agri-
Pinoy.
 Presidential degrees (PD), Republic Acts (RA), Executive Orders (EO) and
others passed by the Philippine government for agriculture include:
 P.D 1433 (The Plant Quarantine Law)
 E.O I986 (Pesticide Residue Analysis and Monitoring)
 E.O 1061 (creation of the Philippine Rice Research Institute or
PhilRice)
 E.O 116 (creation of the Bureau of Agricultural Research or BAR
under DA)
 E.O 430s (creation of the National Biosafety of the Philippines or
NCBP in the year 1990)
 E.O 514s (the strengthening of the NCBP)
 DAO 8-S (guidelines for importation and use of genetically modified
or GM crops in the year 2002),
 R.A 7394 (Consumer Act of 1992)
 R.A 7308 (The Seed Industry Development Act of 1992, or the
replacement of the Philippine Seed Board into the National Seed
Industry Council)
 R.A 7607 (Magna Carta for Small Farmers)
 R.A 5185 (Decentralization Act of year 1967)
 R.A 7160 (Local Government Act of 1991)
 Morill Act (Land Grant Act of 1862)
 R.A 9168 (The Plant Variety Protection Act of
2002)
 R.A 8435 (Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization Act or AFMA of
1997)
 R.A 10068 (The Organic Agriculture Act of 2010).
 R.A 10601 (Agricultural and Fisheries Mechanization
“AFMech” Law of 2012)
 R.A 10611 (Food Safety Act of 2013)
 R.A 8048 (Coconut Preservation Act of 1995)

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 Self - Check
Matching Type: match the column A (Commodities) to the column B
(Agencies). Write the letter of the correct answer before the
number.

Column A Column B
______1. Rice a. CIMMYT
______2. Maize b. IRRI
______3. Potato c. FAO
______4. Wheat d. CIP

Self – Reflect 100 words per item (10 points each)

1. Based on your observation, what do you think is the current situation in terms of
food production in the world?
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2. In the current situation of Philippine Agriculture, did you think that our food
production is sufficiently enough to feed our over-populated country? Why?
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References

Chantrell, Glynnis, Ed. (2002). The Oxford Dictionary of World Histories. Oxford University
Press. P. 14. ISBN 019-863121-9.

Swaminathan, M.S. (1986) Building national and global nutrition security systems. In:
Swaminathan M.S. and Sinha S.K. (eds) Global Aspects of Food Production. Natural
Resources and Environment Series, Vol. 20. Tycooly Publishing Ltd, London, pp.
417–449

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 Module 3

Meaning and Scope of Crop Science

Overview

Food is the major source of energy. Every living organism on this planet needs food
to stay alive and to continue all other essential life processes. Plants are the main source of
food on which both humans and animals depend. We cannot imagine life without food.
With the rapidly growing population, demand for more food, loss of produced crops,
and other problems in the agricultural output are the main reasons for the scarcity of food and
is the biggest concern in some parts of the world facing today. This has led to an increase in
the requirement of strategies that can help in the management of the crops produced.
This module focuses on the meaning and scope of crop science, how do plants/crops
survive in the environment?

Desired Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students must:

 Discuss the meaning of crop science;
 Differentiate the crops from the plants and
 Elaborate the branches of horticulture.

Content Focus

What is CROP SCIENCE?

Crop Science – Is the scientific knowledge, learning, practice and

understanding of the cultivation, management, processing and production of
crops and how scientific principles can be applied to each of these.
- Is the art and science that deals with the domestication
or production of crops including the principles and practices in crop production.

Crop Science 1 - focuses on the principles of crop production,

specifically on the biology and ecology of crops

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  Plants
 Any organisms belonging to the kingdom plantae typically lacking of
active locomotion or obvious nervous system or sensory organs and has
photosynthetic ability.
 organisms capable of synthesizing organic compounds from inorganic
materials
 capable of undergoing growth, differentiation and reproduction
 have chlorophyll and develops cell wall
 photoautotrophs: phototroph (takes energy from light) and autotroph
(take carbon from carbondioxide, CO2)
 capable of photosynthesis

 Crops
 Domesticated/cultivated plants that are grown for profit. It usually
connotes a group or population of cultivated plants.

 plants grown for human consumption (directly to eat or indirectly for

other purposes)

 plants that are grown to meet human requirement for food, shelter and
clothing, as well as, other needs and luxury items

How are Plants/Crops different from other Organisms?

Crop Production - the art and science of producing plants which are useful to man
either directly or indirectly, raw or processed, aimed at increasing productivity and
quality of the products in order to maximize monetary returns but at the same time
minimize, if not completely eliminate, the negative effects on the environment.

Two Main Divisions of Crop Production

 Agronomy - The production of field crops or the production of crops under a

system of “extensive” or large-scale culture. The products are usually utilized in
high dry matter form or in a “non-living state”.

15
 Horticulture - The production of crops under a system of “intensive
culture”. Horticultural products are usually utilized in the “living-state” with high
moisture content, thus highly perishable. A science that deals with the production
and utilization of garden crops.

Branches of Horticulture

 Floriculture - Is a branch of horticulture that deals with the cultivation,

processing and marketing of ornamental plants for landscaping of small or large
areas, and maintenance of gardens so that the surroundings may appear
aesthetically pleasant.
It includes annual (seasonal), biennial and perennial ornamentals, such as
cacti and other succulents, bromeliads, trees, shrubs, climbers, bulbous plants,
lawn and ornamental grasses, bamboos, orchids, palms, cycads, foliage,
bedding, pot and house plants, cut and loose flowers, fillers, ferns, seed and
bulb production of ornamentals, dried flowers or plant parts, and other value-
added products, such as extraction of essential oils, edible pigments, and their
marketing in relation to making and maintenance of gardens.

 Olericulture - the production, storage, processing and marketing of vegetable

crops.

 Arboriculture - the study of how plants grow and respond to cultural practices
and to their environment. is the cultivation, management and study of
individual trees, shrubs, vines and other perennial woody plants

 Pomology - the production of fruit crops

 Landscaping - the art and science involved in beautification and protection of

the environment.
It refers to the treatment given to a piece of land in order to make it
attractive and beautiful. Landscaping is becoming common as it beautifies an
area, adds calmness and freshness to the surroundings, and increases the
property value. It is important for offices, residences, educational institutes,
supermarkets, etc., as it is the building’s exterior that leaves the first impression
on people. Parks and gardens offer a place to people to relax and enjoy the
nature’s beauty. A lawn is an integral part of a garden and is primarily laid for
aesthetic purposes.

 Viticulture – is the cultivation and harvesting of grapes.

 Post-harvest –is the stage of crop production immediately following harvest,
including cooling, cleaning, sorting and packing. Post-harvest treatment largely
determines final quality, whether a crop is sold for fresh consumption, or used
as an ingredient in a processed food product.
The most important goals of post-harvest handling are to keep the
product cool, to avoid moisture loss and slow down undesirable chemical
changes, and avoiding physical damage such as bruising.

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Self-Check: (2points each)

1. Differentiation between Crops from the Plants.

Crops Plants
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
4. 4.
5. 5.

2. In your own words, elaborate and explain the branches of Horticulture.

(5 points each)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

References

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STANDS4 LLC, 2021. "crop science." Definitions.net. Web. 9 Jun 2021.
<https://www.definitions.net/definition/crop+science>.

Rimando, Tito J. Fundamentals of Crop Science. Department of Horticulture, College of

Agriculture, U.P Los Baños, Laguna. 2004.
Tilman D, Cassman Kg, Matson Pa, Naylor R, Polasky S (August 2002). "Agricultural
Sustainability and Intensive Production Practices". Nature 418 (6898): 671.
Doi:10.1038/Nature01014. Pmid 12167873.

For further readings:

Dagoon, J. (2000). Farm Crop Production and Agro-Forestry

De leon, M. (1995). Basic Agriculture

Martin, et al. (1967). Introduction to Crop Production

Para, H. (1996). Introduction to Crop Science.

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