Crop Science

Contributors:
Dr. Joven S. Lales
Mr. Danilo Lalican
Prof. Ma. Fatima O. Mercado
Dr. Celsa A. Quimio
Prof. Bong M. Salazar
Dr. Pompe Sta. Cruz
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 CROP SCIENCE
Part I. Principles
Unit I. The Nature and Importance of Agriculture
a) Some data and facts about Philippine Agriculture
b) Problems, status and prospects of Philippine Agriculture (AFMA,GATT/WTO,
BIOTECHNOLOGY)
c) The nature and features of agricultural systems
d) The nature of agriculture as a field of study

Unit II. Classification of Agricultural Crops

a) Botanical system of classification
b) Agronomic classification
c) Horticultural classification
d) Descriptive classification

Unit III. The Nature and Composition of Plants

a) The plant cell-parts and functions
b) The anatomical regions of a plant body
c) Plant tissues and tissue system
d) The Plant Organs

Unit IV. Plant Growth, Development and Reproduction

a) Concept of growth and development
b) Phases of plant growth and development
c) Other concepts related to plant growth
c.1 The Law of Minimum
c.2 The Law of Optima and Limiting Factors
c.3 The Law of Diminishing Factor
d) Plant Life Processes
d.1 Photosynthesis
d.2 Respiration
d.3 Translocation
d.4 etc
e) Plant Reproduction
e.1 Sexual Reproduction
e.2 Asexual Reproduction

Unit V. Factors affecting Crop Production

A. Environmental
a. Abiotic Factors
i. Climatic factors
ii. Soil and topography
iii. Orographic effects
iv. Climatic stresses
b. Biotic Factors
i. Beneficial organisms
ii. Pests
iii. Genetic Factors
iv. Interaction between genetic and environmental factors
v. Human Factors

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Unit VI. Crop Improvement and Seed Selection
a) Goals and basic concepts in crop improvement
b) General methods of crop improvement
c) Mating systems in crops
d) Classes of seeds
e) Production and distribution of certified seeds
f) Preservation of germplasm

Unit VII. Sustainable Crop Production

a) Features of sustainable crop production
a.1 Sustainable Agricultural Concept
a.2 Diversification
a.3 Resource conservation and regeneration
a.4 Productivity and stability of production system

b) Sustainable Crop Management for lowland and upland

b.1 Integrated Nutrient Management
b.2 Integrated Pest Management

Part II. Crop Science 2

Unit VIII. Site Characterization for Crop Production

Unit IX. Production Practices

A. Land preparation for annual and perennial crops
B. Planting material selection and preparation
C. Planting methods
D. Water supply and management
E. Soil nutrient management
F. Pest management
G. Specialized management practices
H. Specialized production systems
I. Harvesting and post production technology
J. Farming systems

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Philippine Agricultural Situation

Characteristics of Philippine Agriculture

 Agricultural land area 9.671 M ha
 Cropping intensity (cropping index) 1.26
 Land-man ratio of about 0.20 ha lower than world average of 0.28ha
 >80% of agricultural area: planted to three crops-rice, corn and coconut
 Generally small-scale and dependent on manual labor
 Farmers are heterogeneous: commercial, semi-commercial, subsistence and landless farm
workers

Philippine Agriculture R&D

 Public investment in agricultural research 0.03% of agricultural GVA
o Lowest in East Asia
o Less than a third of WB recommends
o Rate of return is about 40%- much higher than other investments in agricultural
development like infrastructure (15%)

Contributions of Agricultural Sector to the Economy

 Agricultural sector contributes about 18% to country’s GDP
 About 35% of total labor force is involved in agricultural activities
 About 33% of total income derived comes from agriculture

Philippine Agricultural Development Program

 Liberalization of International Trade- Agriculture
o Agreement on Agriculture (AoA), implemented under the auspices of World Trade
Organization
o Philippine Membership in WTO enactment of the AFMA to modernize Philippine
Agriculture
 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)
o Formed in 1947
o Outcome of the failure of different nations to create the international Trade
Organization
 World Trade Organization (WTO)
o Replaced GATT in January 1, 1995
o 75 founding nations
o 153 member nations
o Whereas GATT was a set of rules agreed upon by nations, the WTO is an institutional
body.
 Philippine Commitment towards the Liberalization of Agricultural Trade
o 1996- Philippine Senate ratified country’s membership in WTO
 Philippine Performance due to Globalization and Liberalization of Agricultural Trade
o Local market became flooded w/ cheap agricultural imports while the country’s
exports were not able to penetrate rich countries’ markets
o As of 2004, accumulated trade deficits have already reached a very high value of 9 B
USD
o Agricultural liberalization caused significant decline in the agricultural sector’s
productivity (GDP)

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 o Overall number of jobs created in agriculture has fallen from 128,000 in 1006 to
44,000 in 2004

Focus of Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization Act of 1997 (AFMA)

 Food Security
 Poverty alleviation and social equity
 Income enhancement and profitability
 Global competitiveness
 Sustainable development
 People empowerment
 Protection from unfair competition

Components of AFMA:
 Production and Marketing Support Services
o Designation of Strategic Agriculture and Fisheries Development Center
 Sustainable for economic scale production and agro-industrial development
o Medium and Long-term Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization Plan
 Global competitiveness, global climate change, WTO concerns and CARP concerns
o Access to credit
 Small farmers involved in production, processing and trading; small and medium
enterprises involved in agriculture
o Rehabilitation of existing irrigation system; promotion of affordable and appropriate
irrigation system and watershed conservation
o Provision of timely and accurate market and trade information system
 Supply, demand, price and price trends, product standards, etc.
o Other infrastructure requirements
 Seaport, airports, energy, communications, water supply, post-harvest facilities and
agricultural mechanization
o Use of product standards
 Production, processing, distribution and marketing of agricultural products
 Human Resource Development
 Research Development and Extension
o Establishment of the National Research and Development System in Agriculture and
Fisheries
o Use of appropriate technology to protect the environment, reduce production costs,
improve product quality and increase value-added for global competitiveness
 Rural Non-Farm Employment
 Trade and Fiscal Incentives
o 5-year exemption of private businesses from tariffs and duties
 Budget Matters
o PhP 20B for 1st year implementation

CLASSIFICATION OF CROPS

Why classify crops?

 For order and organization: imagine the difficulty in finding a certain book in a disorganized
library. It would be similarly difficult to find information about a certain organism if
organisms are not grouped based on similarities

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  For logical naming: common names are not adequate because common names vary from
country to country, even from region to region; classification of plants led to the
introduction of the so-called binomial nomenclature by Carolus Linnaeus in the 18th century
whereby a plant is given a two-word Latin name.

Bases for classification

 Aristotle classified plants based on structure and size (e.g. herbs, shrubs and trees)
 Linnaeus classified plants based on structure only. i.e. different species with similar
structural features were classified together in a broader group
 Modern classification of plants is based on phylogeny (i .e., the evolution of plants)and
therefore relies largely on evolutionary relationships, thus modern genetics has become a
very important tool of taxonomy; plant characters such as size, shape, color, flower
characteristics and kind of food reserves are likewise used as bases for modern
classification of plants/crops.

 Botanical System of classification

 This system of classifying plants or crops utilizes 7 categories (Kingdom, Division, Class,
Order, Family, Genus and Species);
 in many instances, an additional category (Variety or Cultivar) is needed
 Using the botanical system of crop classification, the rice hybrid variety "Mestizo" can
be classified as follows:

Kingdom: Plantae
Division: Magnoliophyta
Class: Liliopsida
Order: Cyperales
Family: Gramineae
Genus: Oryza
Species: sativa
Variety: Mestizo

 Agronomic classification
 Based on the purpose for which the crop is grown
 Categories or Groups:
o Cereals, legumes, root crops, fiber crop, industrial crop, forage and pasture, oil crop
 Horticultural classification
 Also based on the purpose for which the crop is grown
 Categories or groups:
o Vegetables- leafy, cole or crucifers, root and bulb, legume, solanaceous, cucurbits,
tree
o Fruit- tree, nut, small fruit
o Plantation- oil, fiber, beverage, spices, condiments and essences, latex and resin,
medicinal and pesticidal
o Ornamental-cutflower, flowering pot plants, foliage, landscape, turf

 Special Purpose classification

 Green manure legumes- grown then plowed under to improve soil fertility
 Silage- grown to be cut and preserved in a succulent condition for silage
 Soilage

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  Catch crop/Emergency crop- used to fill-in when regular crops have failed or when
planting is for some reason delayed
 Cover crop- seeded on land needing protection against wind and water erosion and
nutrient loss through leaching
 Companion crop- used to nurse new seedlings of the main crop
 Trap crop

 Other methods of classification

 Based on growth habit (vine, herb, shrub or tree)
 Based on habitat (terrestrial, aquatic, epiphyte)
 Based on lifespan (annual, biennial, perennial)
 Based on the mode of reproduction (sexual, asexual)

The Nature and Composition of Plants

 Plant Cell
 The Anatomical regions of a plant body
 Plant tissues and tissue system
o Major plant tissue system
 Ground
 This packing and supportive tissue accounts for much of the bulk of the young plants.
 It also functions in food manufacture and storage.
 It contains three main cell types called:
o Parenchyma
o Collenchyma
o Sclerenchyma
 Dermal tissue
 This is the plant’s protective outer covering in contact with the environment.
 It facilitates water and ion uptake in roots and regulates gas exchange in leaves
and stems.
 Vascular tissue
 Together the phloem and xylem form a continuous vascular system throughout
the plant.
 This tissue conducts water and solutes between organs and also provides
mechanical support.
 Plant Organs
o Root
 Regions of the Root
 Root cap
 Region of cell division
 Region of elongation
 Region of maturation
 Types of Root
 Tap Root System
o Primary root grows vertical downward
o Branches grows downward or horizontally outwards
o Functions:
 Absorb water, mineral, salts from soil
 Anchorage- can be modified to perform other function
 Adventitious Root System

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 o Roots that grow from any part of the plant of the plant body other than
radical
o Base of stem; node; internode; branch; leaf
o Stem
 Forms
 Erect or strong stems- unbranched; erect; cylindrical; stout; slim jointed stem
with solid nodes and hollow internodes
o Leaf
 Functions:
 Food manufacture (PS)
 Exchange of gases (PS & RN)
 Evaporation of water (Transpiration)
o Flower- a complete flower has all four parts of the flower (sepals, petals, pistil, stamen)
o Fruits
 Simple fruit- one fruit develop from single ovary of a flower with or without
accessory parts
 Aggregate fruits- collection of simple fruit developing from apocarpus pistil of a
flower e.g. strawberry
 Multiple or composite fruits- develop from a number of flower from an
inflorescence e.g. pineapple, peach fruit
o Seed- a ripened ovule which when shed from the parent plant consist of embryo and
stored food supply both of which are enclosed in a seed coat or covering.
 Dicotyledonous seeds- embryo lies w/in an axis of two cotyledons
 Monocotyledonous seeds- consist of seed coat, endosperm and embryo

Growth and Development

Development
 A property of an organisms from the moment of its inception
 A process characterized by growth and differentiation/organization (morphogenesis) into
tissues, organs, organisms
 Includes three aspects:
1. Growth
a. Quantitative aspect
b. ∆size (wt/ht)/time
c. Characterized through an S-curve or Sigmoid curve
2. Differentiation
a. Cells become “specialized”
b. External manifestation of a biochemical change in cells
3. Organization
a. Orientation and integration of differentiated sells with the consequent attainment of
form and structure of the complete organism

Nature of Plant Growth

 There is increase in size due to:
o Cell division
o Cell enlargement
o Change in cell density
 Distribution of growth is not uniform- it takes place in growth centers, i.e

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 o Meristem- production of new cells
o Regions of cell enlargement

Internal Growth Mechanisms

1. The Genome
 Sets the ultimate limit within which a plant may vary
 Inherited DNA compliment of a sexually produced plant
 Function: provide genetic information during growth
 This is accompanied by the sequential production of enzymes and enzyme co-factors,
the rate of production of which is determined by internal and external factors
 Internal growth mechanisms are also dependent on the supply of nutrients and general
metabolites, e.g. CHO, proteins, lipids, etc.
2. Correlation mechanism
 Growth is governed by some kind of a division of labor among cells and different plant
parts.
 There is mutual interaction among parts/organs which is attributed to certain
correlative forces. e.g. roots to shoot; shoot apex to lateral buds, as in apical dominance
3. Endogenous growth rhythms
 Growth can also be seen as a rhythmic process occurring at a regular oscillations or
cycles, regardless of environmental change
 Three common rhythms: annual, lunar and circadian (repeated every 24hrs)

Hormones (Plant Growth Regulators)

 Substances, other than nutrients, that are produced by plants that may
qualitatively/quantitatively modify certain plant processes
 The response need not be promotive it can also be inhibitive
 Usually, translocated from production sites to action sites
 Maybe effective even in minute concentrations

Five groups of well-accepted hormones:

1. Indole Acetic Acid (IAA), auxins
2. Gibberelins
3. Cytokinins
4. ABA (abscissic acid)
5. Ethylene
 Indole Acetic Acid (IAA), Auxins
o Discovered in 1926, first term used was auxin
o Some experts believe that IAA is the only true auxin hormone
o Synthesized from amino acid tryptophan in leaf primordial and young leaves and
developing seeds
o ROLE:
 Stimulate cell enlargement and stem growth, cell division in the cambium and
intissue culture, development of roots in tissue cultures, growth of ovary in
developing fruits, differentiation of phloem and xylem, growth of flower parts
 Promote flowering in Bromeliads, femaleness in dioecious flowers
 Delay leaf senescence, fruit ripening
 Retard abscission in leaves and fruits
 Mediate tropistic responses of shoots and roots to light and gravity
 Apical dominance- represses the growth of lateral buds

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  Gibberellins
o Discovered in Japan in 1930, but recognized only in the 1950s isolated from
gibberella fungi
o Synthesized from mevalonic acid in young tissues of the shoot and developing seeds
o ROLE:
 Cause hyper elongation on stems of dwarf plants by cell division and elongation
 Enhance germination of seeds that require cold or light treatment
 Induce production of enzymes such as hydrolases
 Bolting of long day plants and maleness in dioecious flowers
 Fruit setting and growth

 Cytokinins
o Discovered in 1954
o Biosynthesis is through the biochemical modification of adenine in root tips and
developing seeds
o ROLE:
 promote cell division, organ formation, shoot initiation in tissue culture
 leaf expansion due to cell enlargement
 release of lateral buds from apical dominance
 delays leaf senescence
 enhance stomatal opening
 promotes chlorophyll development and conversion of etioplast into chloroplast
 Abscissic Acid (ABA)
o Discovered in 1965 in Wales
o A growth inhibitor
o Synthesized from mevalonic acid in mature leaves in response to water stress
o ROLE:
 Induction and maintenance of dormancy in seeds and buds
 Regulators protein synthesis
 Promotes water balance
 Leads to stomatal closure due to water stress
 Counteracts the effect of gibberellins on amylase synthesis in germinating
cereal seeds.
 Ethylene
o Most recent
o The only gaseous hormone
o Also known as ripening and stress hormone
o Synthesized by tissues in response to stress
o ROLE:
 Expansion of cells during seedling growth
 Hastens flowering and fruit ripening
 Breaks seed dormancy and initiates germination
 Induce femaleness in dioecious flowers
 Promote leaf and fruit abscission

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CONCEPTS RELATED TO PLANT GROWTH

Liebig's Law of the Minimum:

 The growth factor in lowest supply (climatic, edaphic, biological, or genetic) sets the
capacity for yield.
 This law is otherwise known as the "barrel" concept. If a barrel has staves of different
heights, the lowest one sets the capacity of the barrel.

Blackman's Theory of Optima and Limiting Factors:

 When a process is conditioned as to its rapidity by a number of separate factors, the rate of
the process is limited by the slowest factor.
 Example: Light and carbon dioxide are needed for photosynthesis. According to Blackman's
theory, photosynthesis abruptly ceases (called Blackman's response) if either light or
carbon dioxide becomes limiting.
 Response is linear. This is not exactly true because this kind of response is rarely found in
biological systems.

Mitscherlich Law of Diminishing Return:

 Mitscherlich noted that when plants had adequate amounts of all but one limiting element,
the growth response was proportional to the limitation element. He also noted that plant
growth increased with additional increments of a limiting factor but not in direct
proportion. The response is curvilinear contrary to Blackman's concept of linear response.

PLANT LIFE PROCESSES

 Photosynthesis
o Considered as the most important biological process
o The fundamental basis for crop growth and culture is the size and efficiency of its
photosynthetic system
o Agriculture is basically a system which exploits photosynthesis
o The main task in modern scientific agriculture is to develop culture and cultural
management practices which will exploit photosynthesis to the fullest.
o The Photosynthetic System
 A system that converts solar energy into chemical energy
 Plant dry matter analysis- one measure of photosynthesis at the crop
 90-95%- from H2O and CO2
 5-10%- from mineral elements
 CO2 and H2O are practically free while the mineral elements have to be purchased
at times
 The product (grains, root, tubers, fruits) are essentially net products of
photosynthesis.
o The Photosynthetic organ
 Leaf-chief site of photosynthesis
 Structural parts: upper and lower epidermis: stomates; mesophyll cells-chlorophyll;
vascular bundles-transport.
o The Photosynthetic Reaction
 It starts when a photon of light strikes the chlorophyll molecule and excites an
electron, raising it to a high energy level that makes it capable of transforming this
energy to other compounds in the photosynthetic system.

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  Two steps of PS:
1. Light Reaction- photochemical reaction
2. Dark Reaction- non-photochemical reaction; synthesis of glucose from CO2
and H2O
 Stage of the Light Reaction:
 Light energizes chlorophyll
 Produce high energy compounds, ATP and NADP-H2
 Evolution of O2 through the photolysis of H2O and photoelectron transport
 Involves chlorophyll a(bluish green) and chlorophyll b(yellowish green) at a
ratio of 3a:1b
 Other pigments: carotene, xanthophylls
 Light adsorption: most intense in red and blue and lowest in green

 Stage of the Dark Reaction

 Assimilation of CO2 production of CH2O
 Use of ATP and NADP-H2 in the process
 Consists of a series of reactions:
1. Calvin cycle or C3 Pathway- first stable product is 3-CPGA and operates in
most crop plants
 Steps:
 carboxylation- addition of water and carbon dioxide to RuBP,
RUBISCO is the enzyme involved.
 Reduction of 3-PGA to 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde
 Regeneration of RuBP
2. Hatch and Slack or C4 Pathway- first product is 4-C oxaloacetic acid before
proceeding to the Calvin cycle and operates in sugarcane, corn, sorghum
 Steps:
 Carboxylation of PEP to OAA, PEP carboxylase is enzyme involved
 Reduction of OAA to malate or aspartate
 Decarboxylation of malate in the bundle sheath cells to form pyruvic
acid
 Transfer of pyruvic acid to the mesophyll cell
 Fixation of carbon dioxide to form 3-PGA
 Presence of Kranz anatomy.
3. CAM or Crassulacean Acid Metabolism Pathway- operates in orchids,
pineapple and other succulent plants wherein stomates are closed during
the day and open during the night.
 Factors affecting Photosynthesis:
o Light
o Carbon dioxide concentration
o Leaf diffusive resistance
o Temperature
o Water
o Leaf age
o Mineral status
 Implications to crop production
o Optimum spacing
o Row orientation

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 o Plant breeding
o Special practices such as trellising and pruning

 Respiration

Importance:
a) generates reducing compound (NADH) and high-energy compound (ATP),
b) produces carbon skeleton used for synthesis of other necessary compounds

Site: Respiration occurs basically in all parts of the plant

Component reaction:
 Glycolysis- breakdown of glucose, glucose-I-phosphate or fructose to pyruvic acid in the
cytosol (also in the chloroplast and other plastids). Oxygen is not involved. No carbon
dioxide is released.
 Krebs Cycle - also called citric acid cycle because citric acid is an important intermediate
product; also known as tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle because citric and isocitric acids have
three carboxyl groups. The cycle starts with the oxidation of pyruvic acid and release of CO,
followed by the combination of the remaining 2-carbon acetate with sulfur containing
coenzyme A (CoA) to form acetyl CoA.
 Electron Transport System CETS) and Oxidative Phosphorylation - in the ETS, the oxidation of
NADH is accomplished through electron transfer rather than direct oxidation with oxygen.
For every molecule of glycolysis-derived NADH oxidized, two molecules are formed while
three molecules from each Krebs cycle-generated NADH. Two molecules of ATP are
likewise formed for each molecule of ubiquinol oxidized. The formation of ATP from ADP in
the presence of Pi and oxygen is called oxidative phosphorylation which is uncoupled from
the ETS.
 Factors affecting respiration:
o Substrate availability-respiration depends on the presence of available substrate. This
explains why starved plants with low starch, fructan or sugar reserves have low
respiration rate. Leaves respire much faster just after sundown than just before sunrise.
Shaded lower leaves respire much slower than the sunlit upper leaves.

o Oxygen availability- magnitude of influence of oxygen on respiration rate varies among

plants and organs. Changes in partial pressure of oxygen in the air have little influence
on shoot respiration because of the relative ease of oxygen diffusion into the leaves,
branches and stems. The influence of oxygen availability is far greater on root
respiration. Presence of aerenchyma, which facilitates the diffusion of oxygen from the
shoot to the root, is an advantage.

o Temperature- respiratory enzymatic activity is influenced by temperature.

o Type and age of plant- land plants are very diverse and expectedly, their respiratory
rates vary widely.

 Implication to Crop Production

o Detasseling in corn (source-sink relationship)
o Pruning of unwanted branches
o Postharvest handling

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 PHOTOSYNTHESIS vs RESPIRATION
Photosynthesis Respiration
Only in green plants In all living cells
Only in light During cell’s lifetime
Uses CO2 + H2O Uses food and oxygen
Releases Oxygen Releases CO2 + H2O
Solar energy to chemical energy Chemical energy to heat
Weight increases Weight loss
Food is produced Food is broken down

 Translocation

Significance:
o In plants, a balanced and integrated transfer of materials is needed for proper
functioning of each plant part
o Materials transferred are in the form of nutrients and other dissolved substances
o In plants, there is a definite relationship between the roots and the shoot
 Roots derive water and nutrients from the soil but do not have chlorophyll (no PS)
 Shoot is where active production of food takes place
 Both roots and shoot are actively growing, hence, they both require materials to
maintain and sustain these processes
o Functions:
 Water moves up from the roots to the shoot thru the xylem
 It cannot be concluded that the phloem is the only translocatory system through
which organic substances are transferred
 Sugar may also reach high concentrations in the xylem vessels.
 The classical concept:
 Phloem- organic substances
 Xylem- inorganic substances (water and minerals)
o Factors affecting translocation:
 Temperature
 Inhibitors
 Water stress
 Potassium
 Hormones

 Transpiration

Importance:
1) aids mineral absorption and transport
2) helps regulate leaf temperature

Path of water from root surface to xylem tissue:

a) apoplastic path (movement of water between cells; Casparian strip is a serious barrier
b) symplastic path (water moves form one cell layer to another through the
plasmodesmata)
c) transcellular path (water moves across cell membranes)

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Ascent of water from roots to the leaves:
 most acceptable theory is the Cohesion-Tension theory; water has high surface tension and
cohesive force that prevents cavitation in the transpiration stream.

Drilling force:
 gradient in water potential, water tension gradient; these gradients are caused by
evaporation of water from the leaves (transpiration).

Factors affecting transpiration:

 Efficiency of water absorption- this is a function of total root absorbing surface. If efficiency
of absorption is low then transpiration rate even under well-watered conditions is also low.
 Efficiency of evaporating surface - this is a function of leaf area and stomatal density.
 Wind speed - transpiration rate increases as wind speed increases up to a certain speed
when transpiration declines due to stomatal closure.
 Solar radiation - transpiration increases as solar radiation flux increases until it reaches a
maximum beyond which transpiration declines due to closure of the stomates
 Temperature - effect on transpiration is similar to that of wind speed and solar radiation
 Humidity - low humidity promotes transpiration while high humidity suppresses
transpiration.

Concept of essentiality:
1) An element is essential if the plant fails to complete its life cycle in a medium devoid of the
element
2) An element is declared essential if it is a constituent of a necessary metabolite, e_g. sulfur in
methionine

The essential elements: 16 elements are essential for ail crops although, Na, Si and Co are
also essential to some plants.
General functions of the essential elements:
1. structural component - carbohydrates constitute the structure of plants; also as source of
metabolic energy. Approximately 45,6, and 43% of a plant biomass is composed of carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen, respectively.
2. enzyme activation - most of the micronutrients are essential mainly because they activate
enzymes
3. regulation of osmotic potential - all elements in soluble form ( free or bound structurally to
essential compounds) aid buildup of turgor pressure necessary to maintain form, speed of
growth, and allow certain pressure-dependent movements (e.g. stomatal opening), and
"sleep" movements of leaves.

Symptoms of nutrient deficiencies:

Deficiency, symptoms for any element depend largely on:

1. function(s) of the element
2. whether or not the element is readily translocated from old to younger leaves

 Nitrogen: plant is light green, lower leaves are yellow, drying to light brown color; stalks
are short and slender (if deficiency occurs at late stage of growth)

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  Phosphorus: plant is dark green with red and purple colors; stalks are short and slender
(later stage of growth)
 Potassium: mottled or chlorotic leaves with large or small spots of dead tissue usually at
tips and between veins, more marked at leaf margin; slender stalk
 Magnesium: localized mottling or chlorosis with or without spots of dead tissues on
lower leaves; chlorotic leaves may redden as in cotton; tips and margins of leaves cup
upward; stalks are slender
 Zinc: generalized spots, enlarging between veins and eventually involving secondary and
primary veins; leaves are thick; stalks have short internodes
 Calcium: tips of young leaves typically hook, then the tip and margins die, finally terminal
bud dies
 Boron: base of young leaves of terminal bud is light green; the leaves become twisted at
later growth, then stem at terminal bud dies
 Copper: permanent wilting of young leaves without spots or chlorosis; if deficiency is
severe, twigs could not stand erect
 Manganese: spots of dead tissues are scattered over the leaf; smallest veins tend to
remain green and produce checkered effect
 Sulfur: tissues between veins of young leaves are light green; dead spots are not common
 Iron: young leaves are chlorotic but the primary veins are typically green; stalks are
short and slender

Nutrient uptake mechanism:

1. passive - ions move with water without metabolic involvement; the characteristics of the
apoplast (non-living) path determines the rate of passive uptake of nutrients; transpiration
creates the force necessary for the ascent of sap
2. active - ions cross the plasmalemma with the involvement of metabolic energy from ATP
and ions move from one cell to another through the plasmodesmata; this type of uptake
moves ions from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration

Factors affecting nutrient uptake:

 Availability of Nutrients - this is partly determined by the pH of the solution; some nutrients
are chemically bound at low or high pH forming insoluble compounds
 Stage of growth and development - uptake varies depending on the demand which is
determined by growth rate; at late stage of development, the uptake of nutrients declines
due to the declining demand and also due to remobilization of certain elements, e.g.
nitrogen, potassium, etc.
Post-harvest Handling
 refers to all steps done on harvested produce prior to sale or use without changing their
basic appearance
 includes washing, trimming, sorting, packaging, storage and transport
Harvesting techniques
 Proper stage of maturity (maturity index)
o Change in color of skin/peel
o Change in fruit shape
o Age from flowering
o Sound of fruit when tapped
 Time of the day
o Latex burn in mango
o Oleocellosis in citrus

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  Method of harvesting
o Pulling
o Twisting
o using knife
o shaking of branches
o harvesting aids/tools
o Handling Practices
 Ladder
 picking pole
 catching net
 rope

Handling Practices:
1. Trimming
2. Washing/Soaking
a. ordinary water with or without disinfectant
b. hot water treatment
i. Mango - 52-55°C for 10 minutes
3. Sorting and grading
a. based on size, shape, degree of maturity/ripeness
4. Packaging
a. Objectives
i. increase handling efficiency
ii. protect the produce
iii. prevent contamination by microorganisms
b. Containers
i. bamboo basket (kaing)
ii. wooden or plastic crates
iii. cartons
c. Lining materials/cushions materials:
i. banana leaves
ii. paper
iii. styrofor
5. Storage
a. Methods
i. Refrigeration and control of relative humidity
1. Temp: 12°C
2. RH: 90-95%
ii. Evaporative cooling techniques
1. sprinkling water
2. covering fruits with moist sawdust of cloth
3. keeping produce in clay jar with water
iii. Modified atmosphere storage
1. keeping produce inside perforated polyethylene bag (lower O2 and higher CO2
high relative humidity)
iv. Controlled atmosphere (CA) storage
1. Control the precise levels of O2, CO2, ethylene, relative humidity and
temperature.

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 PLANT PROPAGATION

I. Sexual Propagation
1. Seed propagation
 most common method by which plants reproduce in nature
 most efficient and widely-used method for cultivated crops, e.g. rice, coconut,
papaya, tomato, orchid seeds arise from the fusion of male and female gametes to
form a single cell (zygote) within the ovule of a flower
 an easy and cheap method of multiplying plants
 most practical and profitable method of propagation for crops like papaya and
coconut
 Seed Storage: Behavior Categories
o Seed Dormancy
 Physiological or physical condition of a viable seed that prevents
germination even in the presence of otherwise favorable germination
conditions such as warm temp., adequate water and aeration.
 Seed Quiescence- condition in which seed cannot germinate because of
unfavorable condition.
o Advantages:
 Perpetuation of species
 Prevent germination while still in the field
 Keep seed quality while in storage
 Types of Dormancy:
 Primary
o Exogenous or coat-imposed dormancy- essential germination
components not available.
o Endogenous dormancy- caused by environment during seed
development and maturation
 Secondary
o Imposed by: temp, light/darkness, abnormal amount of water,
chemicals and gases
 Dormancy Terminology:
 Ecodormancy- due to one or more unsuitable factors in the
environment w/ nonspecific effect
 Paradormancy- due to physical factors or biochemical signals
originating externally to affected structure
 Endodormancy- regulated by physiological factors inside the
affected structure
o Seed Germination
 Series of events which take place when dry quiescent seeds imbibe water
resulting in an increase in metabolic activity and the initiation of a seedling
from the embryo;
 Resumption of embryo growth
 Criteria for seed germination
 Embryo must be alive
 Adequate moisture
 Oxygen available and should reach storage tissues
 Optimum appropriate environmental conditions present
 Primary dormancy must be overcome

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  Seed
o Orthodox
 Dries out naturally on mother plant to a low MC (≤20%)
 Can be dried to low MC (<5%) without damage
 Can be stored at low temperature
 e,g. rice, corn, beans, vegetable seeds, pili, etc.
o Recalcitrant
 Do not dry out normally on mother plant, shed in moist condition (50-
70%MC)
 Seed larger than orthodox- embryo is only 15% of that orthodox
 Killed if MC is reduced below critical values (12-30%)
 Susceptible to freezing (below 0⁰C) or chilling (10-15⁰C)
 e,g. seeds of aquatic species, large-seeded species, wild rice, tropical fruit
crops, jackfruit, cacao, rambutan, lanzones, etc.
o Intermediate
 Can withstand desiccation to about 10-12% MC and can be stored under
hermetic condition
 Lose viability more rapidly at low temperatures (<10⁰C) than at warm temp
(12-21⁰C)
 e,g. coffee, oil palm, papaya, citrus sp., star apple, chico, etc.
2. Embryo culture - done by aseptically removing the embryo from the seed and placing it
in a sterilized culture medium to germinate

II. Asexual Propagation - involves reproduction from vegetative parts of plants and is possible
because the vegetative organs of many plants have the capacity for regeneration.

1. Propagation by apomictic embryos

 Apomixis - production of embryo without meiosis and fertilization; embryos arise
from vegetative cells within the ovule
2. Separation and Division
 Separation - involves separating naturally detachable organs from the mother plant
 Division - procedure wherein specialized vegetative structures are cut into sections
modified organs which may be separated and/or divided:
 Bulb - a specialized underground organ consisting of a short, fleshy, usually vertical
stem axis (basal plate) bearing at its apex a growing point or a flower primordium
enclosed by thick, fleshy scales _e.g. tulips, lilies
 Bulbil- aerial plantlet formed on the axil of the leaves or flower stalk e.g. agave
 Corm - a swollen base of a stem axis enclosed by the dry-scale leaves e.g. banana.
Gladiolus, gabi
 Cannel - miniature corm which develop between old and new the corms
 Crown - pan of a plant at the surface of the ground from which new shoots are
produced e.g. aster, Shasta daisy
 Offset (syn. offshoot) - a characteristic type of lateral shoot or branch which
develops from the base of the main stem in certain plants (a shortened, thickened
stem of rosette-like appearance) e.g. Pistiasp.
 Pseudobulb - a specialized storage structure consisting of an enlarged, fleshy section
of the stem made up of one to several nodes e.g. Cattleyasp.
 Rhizome - a specialized structure in which the main axis of the plant grows
horizontally at or just below the ground surface e.g. banana, bamboo, sugarcane

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  Runner - a specialized stem which develops from the axil of the leaf at the crown of a
plant, grows horizontally along the ground, and forms a new plant at one of the
nodes e.g. strawberry, black pepper
 Slip - leafy shoot originating from axillary buds borne at the base of a plant or
peduncle of the fruit e.g. pineapple, cabbage
 Stolon - special modified stem, produced by some plants, that grow horizontal to the
ground, e.g. Bermuda grass
 Sucker - adventitious shoot that arise from underground stems below the ground
e.g. banana, pineapple
 Tuber - a modified stem structure which develops below ground as a consequence
of the swelling of the subapical portion of the stolon and subsequent accumulation if
reserve materials e.g. potato
 Tuberous root - thickened root which contain large amount of stored foods e.g.
cassava, sweet potato
3. Cutting - a portion of a stem, root. or leaf is cut from the parent plant, after which this
plant part is placed under certain favorable environmental conditions and induced to
form roots and shoots, thus producing a new independent plant
a. types:
i. Root cutting - e.g. breadfruit. Apple
ii. Stem cutting - types: hardwood, semi-hardwood, softwood, herbaceous
cuttings e.g. cassava, malunggay, coffee, rose
iii. Leaf cutting - e.g. snakeplant, begonia, African violet
iv. Leaf-bud cutting - e.g. black pepper, vanilla
4. Layering - a propagation method by which adventitious roots are induced to form on a
stem while it is still attached to the parent plant
a. types:
i. simple layering
ii. air layering or marcotting
iii. compound or serpentine layering
iv. mound or stool layering
v. trench layering
5. Grafting - connecting parts of plants together in such a manner that they will unite and
continue their growth as one plant
a. Scion-short piece of detached shoot with one to several dormant buds and which
is to become the upper portion of graft combination
b. Rootstock - lower portion of graft which develops into the root system of the
grafted plant
c. Interstock- a piece of stem inserted between scion and rootstock (to avoid any
incompatibility between scion and rootstock and/or to take advantage of its
growth controlling properties)
i. types of grafting:
1. whip or tongue grafting
2. splice grafting
3. side grafting
4. cleft grafting
5. wedge grafting
6. bark grafting
7. saddle grafting

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 6. Budding - an asexual propagation that like grafting, which involves joining 2 plant
parts such that the size of the scion is reduced to only one bud and a small section of
bark, with or without wood
a. types:
i. shield budding (T budding)
ii. modified forkert budding
iii. inert T budding
iv. chip budding
v. patch budding

7. Inarching (approach grafting)- an asexual propagation technique in which plants are

made to unite while growing on their roots

8. Tissue Culture techniques other than embryo culture- can be started from a variety of
plant parts which have cells capable of dividing, e.g. shoot-tip culture; meristem
culture and endosperm culture

FACTORS AFFECTING CROP PRODUCTION

Crop production can be viewed from two perspectives:
1 – at the CROP level
2 – at the SYSTEMS level
Crop production at the crop level:
In the form of an equation:
Y = f [G + E + (G x E)]
Where: Y = yield
G = genotype
E = environment
G x E = interaction of genotype and environment
Genotype and Environment
 Genotype - genetic design of a plant which dictates the ceiling of how much a
variety/cultivar can yield.
- genes controlling a character (yield, plant height, taste, color, etc.)
- varies among and even within species
- sets the ultimate limit for plant variation
 Environment - any factor external to the plant that influences its growth and development.
- may be biotic or abiotic; examples are climate, soil, topography, pest and diseases

G x E Interaction
A high yielding variety grown under poor environment will have low yield.

A low yielding variety grown in optimum (good) environment will still have low yield.
 An ideal genotype therefore is one that has a wide range of environmental
 An optimum environment is one that poses a minimum of constraints to crop growth and
development

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  Through G x E interaction, some particular elements of the environment may draw varying
responses from different genotypes.

Practical implications:
1. Develop management practices that can remove or avoid environmental constraints.
2. Continuously assess G x E interactions
3. Need for continuous development of improved varieties/cultivars.

In a production system;
 inputs – controllable, manageable resources such as seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, etc.
 output – yield
 environment – uncontrollable factors external to the system
 system – component crops, processes and activities
Practical implications:
1. Man (management has only partial control of the system.
2. Certain factors/conditions are given to which the system has to fit or adjust.
3. The design of the system emanates from man (his needs, objectives, knowledge and
capabilities)

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
 includes CLIMATIC or above-ground factors and EDAPHIC or soil factors (abiotic factors)
 also includes pests and beneficial organisms (biotic factors)

ABIOTIC FACTORS

 Climatic factors:
Definitions of terms:
o Climate
 the seasonal pattern of a particular place occuring from year to year.
 a composite of day-to-day weather conditions described in both averages and
variability
o Weather
 a momentary state of the atmosphere brought about by the combination of elements,
e.g., temperature, pressure, moisture content, air movements, radiation, etc.
 day-to-day changes of the state or condition of the atmosphere
o Macroclimate
 the climatic environment one meter above the plant canopy
o Microclimate
 generally refers to the climatic environment one meter below the canopy in the case
of tall plants or the climate within the leaf canopy for short (below one meter)
plants.

o The Climatic Elements

1. Precipitation– is any form of water particles falling on the ground in liquid or solid form
(rainfall, hail, snow, etc.)
a. Average rainfall in the Philippines = 2553 mm (Luzon – 2724 mm; Visayas – 2391.7
mm; Mindanao – 2349.8 mm

Role of water in plants

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 a. as a reactant in many biological reactions
b. enters into the structure of biological molecules
c. serve as medium of transport of nutrients and other substances
d. helps regulate plant temperature

Categories of plants based on need for moisture

a. xerophytes - desert plants
b. hydrophytes - aquatic plants
c. mesophytes - land plants; most economically important plants

Factors affecting amount and distribution of rainfall

 Topography greatly influences the amount and distribution of rainfall
 Mountain ranges present barriers to clouds, causing them to rise to higher elevations and
generally colder temperatures causing vapor to condense and water to fall on the windward
sides as the clouds pass over, leaving the leeward side relatively dry. Example is Los Banos
in Laguna and Sto. Tomas in Batangas. Sto. Tomas is drier than Los Banos due to the
presence of Mt. Makiling.
 Air circulation patterns affect the seasonal distribution of precipitation.

Rain formation requires

a. high relative humidity (RH)
b. sufficiently low temperature (below condensation point)
c. condensation nuclei
d. sufficiently low pressure

Drought – insufficiency of rainfall/moisture which seriously affect plant growth.

 Absolute drought – 29 consecutive days without rainfall of at least 0.25 mm.
 Partial drought – 15 consecutive days without rainfall of at least 0.25 mm.

2. Temperature
 the degree of hotness or coldness of a body
 every chemical, physiological and biological process in plants is influenced by
temperature.

Three (3) cardinal temperatures:

a. minimum temperature – that temperature below which the velocity of the reaction becomes
zero, due to the deactivation of enzymes.
b. optimum temperature – temperature where the velocity of the reaction is at maximum.
c. maximum temperature – that temperature above which the velocity of the reaction
becomes zero, due to the desaturation of enzymes.
Temperature of the environment depends upon:
a. solar radiation – vertical rays are more energy efficient/unit area than oblique rays (in
polar regions).
b. surrounding land masses or bodies of water.
c. altitude – for every 100 meter rise in elevation, there is a 0.6 C decrease in temperature.
In the Philippines:
 high elevation – 13. 2 – 24.6 C

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  low elevation – 23.3 – 31.5 C
Classification of crops according to temperature requirement
a. cool season crops – e.g., cole crops like cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower
b. warm season crops – e.g., rice, banana
c. tropical – e.g., coconut
d. sub-tropical – e.g., citrus
Effect of temperature on crops:
 vernalization requirement of certain crops for flowering (e.g., celery seed exposed to 4.4-10 C
for 10 days under imbibed condition)
 effect on crop maturation (crops mature faster in hotter environments than n colder ones)

3. Wind or air in horizontal motion

 normal wind speed in the Philippines = 7.2 km/hr

 at 30 km/hr = leaf tearing may already occur especially in banana and abaca

Effects of wind on plants:

a. increase transpiration
b. destructive effects of strong winds, typhoon (e.g., crop lodging, grain shattering)
c. sterility due to loss of pollens
d. disease spore dispersal
e. reduced CO2 levels especially in enclosed spaces
f. affects plant form

 Air circulation in the atmosphere results from the sun’s radiation falling more directly
on the tropical regions than on the polar regions, the warmer air rises and flow forward
the poles, cools and sinks as cold polar air and then returns toward the equator as
ground flow
 The interactions cause the establishment of regions, large and small, each with a
different climate.

4. Solar radiation or light – energy given out by the sun through radiation

Three aspects important to plants

 Light intensity – expressed in foot-candle or lux.
 plants are generally spaced so that maximum leaf area is exposed to sunlight
 some plants do not require high light intensity (shade-loving) because they have low
light saturation point.
 some plants require subdued light to survive. e.g., some ornamentals
 Duration or Daylength- expressed in hours per day
 Wavelength- expressed in Angstrom or nanometers or identified by color
 not all wavelengths of light are equally effective
o in Photosynthesis - red and blue wavelength
o in Photoperiodism - far red and red wavelength

Effect of light on plants:

a. photoenergetic effect – direct effect on photosynthesis (intercepted radiation is important)

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 b. photocybernetic effect – effect on plant development (light quality is rather important than
quantity of light)
c. photoperiodic effect (or response) – plant response as conditioned by daylength.

Classification of plants according to light intensity requirements

a. Heliophytes -sun loving
- light saturated at about 5000 foot candles
- examples: banana, chrysanthemum, corn, cotton, cowpea, cucurbits, eggplant, papaya,
peanut, sugarcane

b. Sciophytes - shade loving

- light saturated at about 500 foot candles
- examples: ginger, african violet, ferns, philidendron, coffee, begonia, black pepper

 Plants belonging to the intermediate group may be converted through acclimatization

into either heliophytes or sciophytes.

Classification of plants according to photoperiodic response

a. day neutral – will flower over a wide range of daylength
- examples: banana, citrus, coconut, corn, tomato
b. short-day plant
- requires a dark period exceeding some critical length to
induce flowering
- examples: coffee, kenaf, lima bean, rice, sesame, soybean, winged bean
- for cassava, sweet potato, taro and yambean, short-day condition is required for tuber
formation
c. long-day plant – inhibited from flowering when the dark period exceeds some critical
length, examples: aster, castor oil, onion, radish
5. Relative humidity – proportion/amount of moisture in the air
 Average RH in the Philippines = 82%
 Importance in Crop Production
o pest and disease incidences e.g., powdery mildew
o postharvest behavior of commodities
 very dry atmosphere wilting
 high humidity not conducive to grain drying; enhance mold, aflatoxin
buildup
 supplying water requirement during crop production
 low RH, high temperature high evapotranspiration
 high RH, high temperaturelow evapotranspiration

6. Gaseous environment
 Carbon dioxide
o hardly limiting in crop production except at no or little air circulation in dense plant
populations
o critical in enclosed environments like greenhouses
 Air pollution
o becomes crucial as the world becomes more industrialized
o toxic substances: lead, sulfur dioxide, smog, carbon monoxide, hydrofluoric acid (HF)

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7.Cloudiness
 cloud, including smog and fog, affect the amount of radiation received by plants. Most of the
solar radiation is reflected by clouds.
 clouds are also believed to be responsive for the GREENHOUSE EFFECT:
 clouds, acting similarly as the glass covering of a greenhouse, stop the transfer of
thermal radiant energy from the earth to the cold sky thereby slowing down the cooling
process of the earth.
 on the global scale air and water molecules present on clouds trap long-wave radiation
and reduce their outward flow to the space because the shorter wave lengths reaching
the earth’s surface when re-radiated as longer waves cannot pass through the clouds as
readily as the shorter wavelengths.

CLASSIFICATION OF PHILIPPINE CLIMATE (Corona Classification)

 Type 1. Pronounced wet and dry season
Example: Ilocos, Occ. Mindoro, Antique, Negros Occ.
November – May = dry
June – October = wet
 Type 2. No dry season with pronounced maximum rain period
Example: Most of Bicol, Samar, Leyte, Surigao, Agusan, Davao
November – January = maximum rain period
 Type 3. No very pronounced maximum rain period with short dry season lasting from
one to three months
Example: Cagayan, N. Viscaya, Capiz, Cebu, Negros Oriental, Masbate, Mt. Province
February – April = dry season
 Type 4. No pronounced maximum rain period and no dry season
Example: Isabela, Bohol, Cotabato, Lanao, Zamboanga, Bukidnon
Rainfall is distributed throughout the year
Climatic Stresses:
1. Typhoon and weather variations-
a. Typhoon- strong winds with speed greater than 21kph.
- Tropical depressionstormtyphoon
- Usually originated from the Pacific Ocean; circulation with a low central pressure with
air spirals towards the calm eye.
2. Ozone Destruction
- reported to be 50% (Antarctica)
- Ozone- protective shield against the harmful UV rays; it is 6-30miles above the earth
- Harmful effects:
o Depressed photosynthesis
o Reduced levels of seed protein, lipids and carbohydrates
o Deleterious effects on human (skin cancer, etc)
3. Global warming
- Increased concentration of carbón dioxide in the atmosphere
- Carbón dioxide concentration might doublé to around 600ppm in 30-75yrs
- Methane gas contributes to global warming
- Results to high atmospheric temperature which affect the ocean level by a few mm per year
- Ingress of saline wáter to a 15km distance in land
- Ocean levels will rise by as much as 30cm in year 2010 and up to 150cm by 2050

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4. El Niño/La Niña
 “EL NIÑO”
 What is El Niño?
 a periodic ocean – warming and atmospheric disturbance characterized by deficient
rainfall or prolonged drought in some areas, while heavy rains, storms or harricanes
occur in other areas of the globe
 for the past 30 years, the Philippines has been hit by some seven (7) El Niño episodes.
 The 1982-83 episode is rated as the most intense in the past century
 The 1997-98 episode, has comparable intensity – bringing immense damage to
Philippine crops, water/electric supply aside from contributing to poisoning of sea
foods (red tide)

 Origin of El Niño
 From the Spanish word meaning “Boy child or Little child”
 Used to be considered as a local event along the coasts of Peru and Ecuador - describing
the appearance of warm ocean currents flowing the South and Central American coasts
around Christmas time – believing that the temporary heavy harvest of fish was a gift of
the Christ child.
 El Niño Watch
 El Niño occurs in the Pacific Basin every 2 to 9 years. It usually starts during the
Northern winter (December to February). Once established, it lasts until the first half of
the following year, although at times, it stays longer. It exhibits phase-locking in annual
cycles.
 Climatic indicators of El Niño in the Philippines include :
 delayed onset of the rainy season
 early termination of the rainy season
 weak monsoon activity
 weak tropical cyclones activity
 El-Niño is said to be triggered when the strong westward-blowing trade winds weaken
and reverse direction.
 Effects of El Niño
a. fish kill especially cold water fish- tuna and milkfish catch declines
b. decrease in yield for most crops
c. human death

5. Acid rain
 Sulfur dioxide produces S which is released from natural sources and human activities
 Oxides of S and water will produce acid rain

6. Lahar
 Mt. Pinatubo eruption in the early 1990’s
 lead to decreased in agricultural lands resulting to low production

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EDAPHIC FACTORS

 refers to the soil as a factor in crop production

A. What is soil?
 Composed of mineral water, air, water and organic matter and organisms
 Soil as a three-phase system:
o Solid-mineral + organic matter
o Liquid- soil solution
o Gas- various gases
B. Soil Properties in relation to Crop Production

I. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
 Soil Texture- the relative proportion soil particles, i.e., sand, silt and clay in a particular soil.
Particle size
Sand >.02µ
Silt .02-.002µ
Clay < .002µ
o Soil texture range:
SAND SILT CLAY
<10% Equal >4.5%
clay Proportion of sand S,H and clay Clay

o Importance of soil texture to crop production

Heavy Soil Light Soil
Tillability Difficult Easy
Aeration Less More
Water-holding capacity High Low
Nutrient-holding capacity High Low

o Implication:
 The desirable soil texture for crops is that in between heavy and light, i.e., heavy soil,
to allow for easy workability and sufficient water holding capacity.
 Soil Structure- the arrangement of soil particles into aggregates
o How soil structure is formed?
 Ped- natural structure
 Clod- structure formed with the application of external force, e.g., plowing
 Organic matter- binding agent
o Types of structure
 Blocky
 Granular
 Columnar
 No structure
o Importance of soil structure to crops:
 To some extent, soil tillability is related to structure. There are soil that are
relatively easier to break-up because of their structure
 Soil structure influences the infiltration of water through the soil
 Soil structure influences soil aeration which is critical during seed germination and
seedling emergence

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  Soil Depth- particularly, the top soil relative to subsoil
o Top soil- from where crops obtain most of the nutrients. Also, where organic matter is
concentrated.
o Sub soil- storage of nutrient and water, but often less fertile than top soil.
 Bulk Density; Soil Porosity; Hydraulic conductivity- properties related to degree of aeration
and water holding capacity
 Soil organic matter content- composed of dead plant residues and wastes
o For most mineral soil- 5%
o For most Philippine soil- 2-4%
 Importance:
o Prevents loss of nutrients by forming complexes with nutrient elements
o Facilities absorption and percolation of water into and through the soil
o Increases water holding capacity
o Source of nutrients
o Improves penetration of roots
o Influences soil structure formation
o Influences soil chemical properties may contain N, P, S, B, Zn
o Determines the biotic composition
 Humus
o Amorphous, collided substance which is resistant to further decomposition
o Improves soil structure
o Increases CEC and water holding capacity of soil gives dark color to soil.

II. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

A. Soil pH or soil-reaction
 Degree of acidity or alkalinity
 Influences nutrient availability
 Negative logarithm of H+ activity
 7.0- neutral pH (H+=OH-)
 Decrease in soil pHacidity
 Increase in soil pH alkalinity
 pH Effects
 pH below 5.0 – Al, Fe &Mn become toxic Ca& Mo deficiency
 pH below 5.5 – Mo, Za, K & S deficiency
 pH 6-7 (neutral) – most nutrients are in available form
 pH above 7.5 – Al toxicity, salinity, Zn & Fe toxicity
 pH above 8.0 – formation of Ca phosphates
 pH above 8.5 – salinity, Zn & Fe deficiency
B. Cation Exchange Capacity - ability of soil to absorb and release cations through the soil
solution
 how? - soil particles can be colloidal (e.g., clay) and can contain excess (net) negative
charges
 how measured? - sum of exchangeable cations in a given wt. of soil expresses in
me/100 g. soil

Nutrient Holding Capacity - CEC

Particular me/100g
Humus 600
Good clay (Montmorillonite) 80 to 150

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 Not good clay (Kaolinite) 3 to 15
Sand 0
Good Soil 20 above
Bad Soil 5 and below

III. BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES

 Macroscopic organisms
 Microscopic organisms
o Fungi
o Actinomycetes and Protozoa- decomposers (aerobic)
o Bacteria (billion/g topsoil)
 Thiobacillus oxidizes S sulfate form
 Auxotrophic bacteria- oxidizes Mn and Fe to less available form
 Nitrifying bacteria
 N fixing bacteria
o Blue-green algae- Nitrogen fixation

 Root- microorganism association found in the nuts of legumes- Nitrogen fixation

o Bacteria- rhizobia in nodules
o Fungi- mycorrhizal fungi- converts phosphorus to biological forms
 Organic matter and humus
o OM 5%N; only 2% available to plant
o Philippine soils- 2.4%OM
 High fertility - >3.5%
 Medium- 2-3.5%
 Low- <2%
Soil Organisms

 FAUNA
o Macro- small mammals, insects, millipedes, centipedes, sowbugs, mites, slugs, snails,
earthworms, spiders
o Micro- nematodes, protozoa
 FLORA
o Roots of higher plants
o Algae- blue, blue-green, diatoms
o Fungi- mushroom, yeast, molds
o Bacteria- aerobic/anaerobic
o Actinomycetes
Benefits from Earthworms
 Burrowing – channels for drainage and aeration, entry of other animals, entry of water,
nutrients, roots
 Mix the soil, “plows” the soil
 Incorporates crop residues
 Contribute to OM
 Humus enrichment
 Improves soil structure
 Control pests (e.g., leaf miner pupa, scub pathogen)
 Nutrient recycling

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Topography
- whether the land is flat or sloping
- a major parameter in delineating lowlands and uplands
 in the Philippines, the slope of the land is used as the major determinant.
i.e., uplands - > 18% slope
- in crop production, topography is critical in:
 irrigation and drainage
 soil conservation
 in flat lands, the problem can be in drainage.
 in sloping lands, the problem can be in how to bring water up for irrigation.
 poor drainage can result into soil fertility problems.
 in sloping lands, soil erosion can be a major problem especially if crop production practices
do not consider soil and water conservation strategies.
 to a great extent, CEC is an indicator of soil fertility because most nutrients are taken up by
plants in cation form.
 the soil can also exchange anions
 roots of plant also have their own CEC – the exchange therefore depends on the interaction
of soil and root CEC.

BIOTIC FACTORS
- all living elements in the environment that can affect crop production
- includes: beneficial organisms pests

1. Beneficial organisms
 provide beneficial effects on crop production includes:
 Pollinators - important role in the preservation of species and in biodiversity conservation
 Decomposers
 an important part in the food chain which is related to energy flow in a crop production
system.
 a trophic level, usually consisting soil microorganisms (soil biotic factors)
 specifically important in the maintenance of soil organic matter.
 Natural pest enemies
 provide balance in a crop production system particularly in the control of pests
 as bio-control agents against pests
 Pests
 a collective term that includes insect pests, diseases, weeds, invertebrates and
vertebrates
 has always been a major limiting factor in crop production!
 Damage can go as high as 100%.

GENETIC FACTORS
- Includes all factors internal to the plant

1. Genotype- the genetic design of a plant which dictates the ceiling of how much a
variety/cultivar can yield
a. Genome- sets the ultimate limit for plant variation
2. Selection indices of major Philippine crops:
a. The choice of variety is one of the most critical decisions in crop production
b. Technologies required in growing a certain crops are dependent on the characteristics
of a particular variety especially;

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 i. Growth characteristics
ii. Quality of the product
iii. Market acceptability

GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS

 The latest development in biotechnology in relation to crop improvement
 In countries like the USA, Argentina, Canada and China, transgenic crops have been
commercialized
 Global area of transgenic crops in1999 is about 39.9 million hectares
 Transgenic crops: corn, tomato, soybean, cotton and potato.
The issue: (Kuyek D, 2000)
 Genetic engineering is vastly different from other methods used by breeders. While all
other processes for breeding rely on natural functions of organisms, GE moves genes from
one organism to another in ways that could never be possible in nature. The science is not
precise and the interactions between the GMO and the surrounding environment are
unpredictable.
Concerns:
 possible transfer of trans gene to other microorganisms like soil microorganisms
 possible effects of products on non-target organisms
 possible faster pest adaptation
 possible production of allergenic and/or toxic substances
 possible effects of transgenic products themselves

HUMAN FACTORS:
 often overlooked but probably the most critical of all factors
 from a system perspective, it is not only a factor, rather it is the core of the system itself (it
is the reason for crop production, for farming)
1. Farmer’s preference re: crop type, variety
 ideally based on farmer’s objectives and aspirations
 however, in the Philippines, this is often dictated by external factors, i.e., market
government policies
2. Farmer’s capability
 depends on: resources knowledge
 most Filipino farmers are resource-poor
 our culture is very rich in indigenous knowledge particularly about farming
3. Management
 a result of 1 and 2
 goes along with eco-social-political realities

CROP IMPROVEMENT AND SEED SELECTION

A. Plant breeding – science, art and business of crop improvement for human benefit.

B. Goals and objectives of plant breeding:

 higher yields, improved quality, disease and insect resistance, change in maturity duration,
agronomic characteristics, photo insensitivity, synchronous maturity, non-shattering
characteristics, determinate growth, dormancy, abiotic stress tolerance, etc.

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  Dependent on understanding
o Needs of clients
o Target environment
o Production practices of farmers
o Economic status

C. Activities in plant breeding:

1. CREATION OF VARIATION
 naturally existing variability
a. domestication - process of bringing wild species under human management
b. germplasm collection - collection of a large number of genotypes of a crop species
and its wild relatives
c. introduction - taking a genotype or a group of genotypes of plants into new
environments where they were not being grown before
• Primary introduction - introduced variety is released for commercial
cultivation without any alteration in the original genotype
• Secondary introduction - introduced variety subjected to selection or
hybridized with local varieties to transfer one or few characters from this
variety to the local varieties
 creation of new variability
a. hybridization - crossing genetically dissimilar individuals
 hybrid - the immediate product of hybridization
• inbreeding - mating of individuals related by ancestry; leads to production of
homozygous individuals
o Inbred - product of inbreeding hence consequently a homozygous individual
 selfing - mating with oneself: most intense form of inbreeding hence
approach to homozygosity is fastest
 full sibbing - Crossing between members of selected pairs of plants: full sibs
have both parents in common
 half sibbing - crossing one individual with several identified ones: half sibs
have one common parent or pollen source
o topcross - cross between an inbred and an open-pollinated variety
o testcross - cross between a plant or line and a tester (tester may be an inbred,
hybrid, synthetic or open-pollinated variety)
o backcross - a cross between a hybrid and one of its parents; also a breeding
method based on repeated backcrossing of the F I (first generation offspring of a
cross) and the subsequent generations to the recurrent parent usually to transfer
a major trait controlled by one or a few genes from the donor (as the non-
recurrent parent) and the recipient (as the recurrent parent)
 Line improvement through backcross method:
 Four backcrosses to recipient with selection for desired trait
 Finish with selfing or DH to isolate homogenous line
 Selgin or DH in case of recessive trait
 Linked genetic markers
o polycross - open pollination in isolation among a number of selected genotypes
arranged in a manner that promotes random mating
o reciprocal cross - mating of two individuals in which each is used as the male
parent in one cross and the female parent in the other.
o intraspecific cross- crossing individuals belonging to the same species

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 o wide or distant cross- crossing distantly related individuals
 interspecific- crossing individuals belonging to different species
 intergeneric- crossing individuals belonging to different genera
o intogressive hybridization- repeatedly backcrossing interspecific hybrids to one
of the parental species leading to the transfer of some genes from one species to
another

 Heterosis of hybrid vigor; superiority of the F1 hybrid over its parents; maybe positive
or negative; ex. Positive heterosis for yield and negative heterosis for days to maturity.
o Mid-parent heterosis
 Increase or decrease in performance of the hybrid in comparison with the
mid-parent value or average performance of the two parents
o Heterobeitiosis
 The increase or decrease in the performance of the hybrid in comparison
with the better parent of the cross combination
o Standard heterosis
 The increase or decrease in the performances of a hybrid in comparison with
the standard check variety of the region; type of heterosis practically
important to breeders
 Theories to support heterosis:
o Dominance hypothesis
 that heterosis is due to the accumulation of favorable dominant genes from
the two parents in the hybrid
o Over dominance hypothesis
 that heterozygotes are more vigorous and productive than either
homozygotes
 Heterosis is expected to be high when inbreds used in producing the hybrids have high
combining abilities.
 Combining ability- the ability of a genotype to transfer its desirable traits to its progeny
o General combining ability (GCA)
 Average performance of a strain in a series of crosses; estimated using testers
of broad genetic base and identifies mainly additive genetic effects
o Specific combining ability (SCA)
 Deviation from performance predicted on the basis of general combining
ability of parent lines; estimated by using testers of narrow genetic base and
identifies both additive and non-additive gene action
 Inbreeding depression- loss in vigor due to inbreeding
 Mechanisms promoting self-pollination
o Cleistogamy- flowers do not open at all ensuring complete self-pollination
o Chasmogamy- flowers open but only after pollination has taken place
o Stigmas closely surrounded by anthers
o Flowers open but stamen and stigma are hidden by other floral organs
o Stigma when receptive elongate through stamina columns
 Mechanisms promoting cross pollination
o Dicliny or unisexuality- flowers are either staminate(male) or pistillate (female)
 Monoecy- staminate and pistillate flowers occur in the same plant either in the
same or in different inflorescences
 Dioecy- male and female flowers are present on different plants, the plants in
such species are either male or female

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 o Dichogamy- stamens and pistils of hermphodite, flowers may mature at different
times facilitating cross pollination
 Protogyny- pistils mature before stamens
 Protandry- stamens mature before pistils
o Stigmas are covered with waxy film

Self-incompatibility
o Male sterility

 System of pollen control

o Emasculation- removal of immature anthers from a hermaphrodite flower using
clip, hot water or suction/vacuum methods
o Male sterility systems- male gametes non-functional but female gametes are fertile
 Cytoplasmic male sterility- genes for male sterility residing in the cytoplasm
particularly in the mitochondrion
 Genetic male sterility- sterility controlled by a nuclear gene, usually recessive
 Cytoplasmic-genetic male sterility- controlled by interaction between genetic
factors present in the cytoplasm and nucleus; presence of a male sterility gene
in the cytoplasm and a restorer gene in the nucleus results in the latter
overcoming the effect of the former to restore fertility
 Environment-sensitive genetic male sterility (EGMS)- genetic male sterility
system conditioned by environmental factors
 Photoperiod sensitive genic male sterility (PGMSO)- responds to photoperiod
or duration daylength for expression of pollen sterility and fertility
 Thermosensitive genic male sterility (TGMS)- male sterility/fertility alteration
conditioned by different temperature regimes
 Photothermosensitive genic male sterility (PTGMS)- conditioned by both
photoperiod and temperature
o Chemically induced male sterility- use of chemical hybridizing agents or
gametocides like ethrel, monosodium methyl arsenate and sodium methyl arsenate
 Self-incompatibility systems- failure of pollen from a flower to fertilize the same flower
or other flowers on the same plant.
o Heteromorphic system- flowers of different incompatibility groups are different in
morphology, ex. Pin and thrum flowers in Primula
o Homomorphic system- incompatibility is not associated with morphological
differences among flowers; incompatibility reaction of pollen may be controlled by
the genotype of the plant on which it is produced or by its own genotype.
Mutation
 Heritable change in an organism
o Spontaneous- mutations occurring in natural populations
o Induced- mutations artificially produced by treatment with certain physical or
chemical agents or mutagens
 Physical mutagens- β rays, α rays, fast and thermal neutrons, x-rays and γ rays, UV
radiation.
 Chemical mutagens- alkylating agents, acridine dyes, base analogues, etc.
 Chimera- an individual with one genotype in some of its parts and another genotype in
other parts

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 o Periclinal chimera- when the entire outer or inner layer of shoot apical meristem is
affected; outer layer gives rise to the dermal system and part of mesophyll while the
inner layer produces the rest of the plant.
o Sectoral chimera- only a part of the outer or inner layer is affected
 Polyploidization- increasing ploidy level to more than two identical or distinct genomes;
types of polyploids
o Euploidy- change in chromosome number involving one or more complete genomes;
chromosome number is an exact multiple of the basic or genomic number, ex.
Triploids, tetraploids, pentaploids, etc.
 Autopolyploid-when all the genomes present in a polyploidy species are identical
 Allopolyploid- two or more distinct genomes are present
 Amphidiploid- and allopolyploid that has two copies of each genome present in it;
have regular meiosis
 Segmented allopolyploid- contains two or more genomes which are identical with
each other, except for some minor differences
o Aneuploidy- change in chromosome number involving one or a few chromosomes of
the genome; nullisomics, monosomics, trisomics,etc.
o Somacional variation- heritable variation for both qualitative and quantitative traits
shown by plants regenerated from tissue and cell cultures
o Gametoclonal variation- heritable variation shown by plants regenerated from pollen
or anther culture

GENETIC ENGINEERING
 Production of transgenic plants
 Changing the genetic makeup of plants by direct introduction of genes from
microorganisms, animals or other plant species; done when sexual hybridization between
the recipient and donor is impossible
 Steps:
o Identification of genes, construction of vectors
o In vitro plant regeneration system
o gene introduction methods

o molecular analysis
o gene expression assays
o stability and transmission analysis

2. SELECTION
 identification of individuals or lines that are more desirable than others in a heterogeneous
population
o natural selection- change in gene frequencies from one generation to another because
of differences in survival and reproductive abilities of parent genotypes in natural
populations
o artificial selection- change in gene frequencies brought about by man as is done in
plant breeding where certain individuals or genotypes are not used as parent of the
next generation
 modes of selection
o stabilizing or normalizing selection- when adaptive individuals in the populations are
selected under a constant environment through the years; keeps the population
constant and eliminates the deviants; reduces the variability present in the population

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 o directional selection- change towards a particular direction due to changing
environments resulting also in change of genetic constitution of the population; mode
observed when breeders do artificial selection
o diversifying or disruptive selection- opposite of stabilizing selection; leads to either
formation of subpopulations differing in their characteristics or polymorphism in
which each genotype is represented by a distinct phenotype.
 Traits selected for:
o Qualitative traits- monogenic or oligogenic traits; show discrete or non-continuous
variation, controlled by one of few genes, less influenced by environment
o Quantitative traits- polygenic, metric or measurable traits; show continuous variation,
controlled by many genes, highly influenced by environment
 Bases of selection
o Phenotype (P) can be accounted for by the genotype (G), the environment (E) and the
interaction between genotype and environment (GxE).
o Components of Phenotypic variance:
 Phenotypic variance- sum of genotypic variance, environmental variance and GxE
variance
 Genotypic variance- sum of additive and non-additive types of gene action
 Additive- due to individual effects of genes
 Non-additive- due to intralocus and interlocus interactions
o Intralocus interaction- dominance interactions; interaction between alleles in the same
locus
 Complete dominance- heterozygote is equal to the dominant homozygote in value
 Partial dominance- value of the heterozygote is between the average of two
homozygotes and the value of the dominant homozygotes
 Overdominance- if the heterozygote has a value outside the range of the two
homozygotes
o Interlocus interaction- epistasis; interaction among alleles of different loci.
 Environmenal variance- effect of environment on the phenotype and estimated by
measuring variation in a genotypically uniform population grown in a certain
location
 GxE interaction- change in ranking and/or performance of genotypes when grown
in different environments; estimated by computing variances of genotypes when
grown in a number of locations which are environmentally diverse

Heritability- a portion of the phenotypic variation among individuals that is due to genetic
differences among them.
 Broad-sense heritability is estimated from the ratio of the total genetic variance to the
phenotypic variance
 Narrow- sense heritability is estimated from the ratio of the additive portion of the genetic
variance to the phenotypic variance.

 Selection intensity- the percentage of individuals selected in a population

 Selection differential- difference between the mean performance of genotypes selected from
a population and the overall population mean
 Gain from selection- increase in mean performance of a population that is realized with
each cycle of selection
 Methods of Selection:
o Self-pollinated crops:

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  Mass selection
 plant are chosen and harvested on the basis of phenotype and the seeds
composited without progeny testing; appropriate for qualitative characters with
simple genetic inheritance
 Pureline selection
 procedure for isolating purelines from a mixed population; Pureline- progeny
from self-pollination of a single homozygous plant
 Pedigree selection
 selection for plants with the desired combination of characters is started in the
F2 generation and continued in succeeding generations until genetic purity is
reached; requires detailed record keeping; suited to individual plant selection
 Bulk population
 Seeds harvested in the F2 and succeeding generations are bulked and grown,
with selection delayed until the F5 of F6 at which time the segregation will have
virtually ceased.
 Single-seed descent
 Progenies of the F2 plants are advanced rapidly through succeeding generations
from single seeds; selection may done at F5 and later generations
 Doubled haploid
 Haploid plants are generated from anthers of F1 plants or by other means and
the chromosomes of the haploid plants are doubled with colchicines to produce
homozygous diploid plants; selection may start in early generations;
preselection if DH is expensive.
o Cross-pollinated crops
Population improvement approach- increasing the frequency of genes in the population
for the desired breeding objective
 Recurrent selection
o Any breeding system designed to increase the frequency of desired alleles for particular
quantitatively inherited character by repeated cycles of selection
(i) Select best plants
(ii) Intercross selected plants to form next generation
 Phenotypic recurrent sel.: Mass selection
 Genotypic recurrent sel. : Evaluate offspring
 Mass Selection
o Individual plants are chosen visually for their desirable traits and the seeds harvested
from the selected plants are bulked to grow the following generation without any form
of progeny evaluation
 Very simple population improvement
 Efficient only for high heritability traits
 Half sib family selection
o New population is constituted by compositing half-sib lines selected from progeny
performance rather than from phenotypic appearance; ear to row selection; based on
maternal plant selection; without pollen control
 1st Season: Source population; select good-looking plants and intercross
 2nd Season: Progeny Test of selected plants in isolation
 3rd Season:
A. Composite Seed from superior progenies
B. Composite remnant seed from plants with superior progenies

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  Full-sib family selection
o Crosses are made between selected pairs of plants in the source population, with the
crossed seed used for progeny tests and for reconstituting the new population;
measures the combining ability from mating specific pairs of plants
 S1 progeny selection- utilized to evaluate selected plants from an open-pollinated
source; S1 is the progeny following self-pollination of plants in an open-pollinated
population or in the F2 following a cross.
 Reciprocal recurrent selection- improves two populations simultaneously; plants
are selected in each of two populations with the selected plants of one population
being selfed and outcrossed as the tester to the selected plants in the other
population; remnant seed from the plants with superior testcross progenies are
grown and intercrossed to reconstitute the two populations

3. EVALUATION- process of assessing the performance of newly developed lines of a crop

through appropriate multi location trials and tests

Sequences in the conduct of yield tests:

 observational yield test - may test separate groups of experimental lines; uses incomplete
block design or triple lattice design with 2-3 replications in one location
 preliminary yield test - evaluation including a check variety using incomplete block design
with 2-3 replications in at least 2 locations
 general yield test - uses randomized complete block design with 3 replications in at least 3
locations
 advanced yield test - elite lines from general yield tests evaluated using randomized
complete block design with 4- replications in 6-10 locations

Superior lines arc approved to be released as a variety by the National Seed Industry
Council (NSIC); the variety must have passed the tests for distinctiveness (D), uniformity (U) and
stability (S) or the DUS- test.

4. MULTIPLICATION
 seed multiplication of an entry after it has been identified for release; the seed produced by
the breeder after a strain is identified but before it is released as a variety is termed as the
stock seed. The stock seed is known as breeder seed once the identified strain is released
and notified.
 Seed - seed or any other propagating material used for raising a crop
 Seed multiplication involves:
o seed production - should observe proper isolation procedures to maintain genetic
purity of the variety
o Isolation - separation of a population of plants from other genotypes with which the
are capable of mating
 temporal isolation – isolation by differences in growth stages
 spatial isolation - isolation by distance
o seed processing - drying, cleaning and grading, testing (purity, viability and moisture
content determination), treating (disinfectants and protectants), bagging and labeling
 Types of varieties
o hybrids - first generation offspring of a cross between two individuals differing in one
or more genes

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 o synthetics - seed mixture of strains, clones, inbreds or hybrids maintained by open-
pollination for a specified number of generations; the component units are propagated
and the synthetic reconstituted at regular intervals.
o Composites- mixture of genotypes from several sources, maintained by normal
pollination
o inbreds - a pureline originating by self-pollination and selection
o multilines - or blends: composite of isolines.
Isolines - lines that are genetically similar except for one gene
o open-pollinated variety- variety maintained by natural cross pollination
o landraces - farmer-selected cultivated forms

 Hybrid seed production:

o 3-line system - male sterile line (A), maintainer line (B) and restorer line (R)
o 2-line system - male sterile line, the expression of which is influenced by environment
and any inbred variety as pollen parent
o 1-line system - use of apomixis to produce the F1seeds and maintain the genotype of
the FI

5. DISTRIBUTION
 Classes of seeds
o breeder seeds - controlled by the originating plant breeder; starting point of all the
subsequent classes of seeds: seeds obtained from uniform panicles by breeders:
100%pure
o foundation seeds - seeds produced from breeder seeds; source of registered and/or
certified seeds~ 98°-0 pure with at least 85% germination rate; carry a red tag
o registered seeds - produced from foundation or registered seeds and carry a green tag
o certified seeds - produced from foundation, registered or certified seeds and carry a
blue tag
o good seeds - produced from varieties not yet approved by NSIC

6. CONSERVATION OF GERMPLASM
 Germplasm- is the sum total of hereditary material or genes present in a species
 Plant germplasm - genetic source material used by plant breeders to develop new cultivars
(cultivated variety)
 Centers of diversity - where extensive genetic variability of cultivated species could be
found; also believed by Vavilov to be centers of origin
o primary centers- where domestication occurred
o secondary centers - where variation continued after domestication
 Germplasm storage
o as seeds in cold/refrigerated rooms
o maintained as living plants in field or through slow growth in vitro
o cryopreservation or freeze-preservation

FIELD AND SEED STANDARDS

 Certification of seeds of different class of seed can be given if both field and seed standards
have been adequately satisfied.

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NATIONAL SEED INDUSTRY COUNCIL
 The National Seed Industry Council was created by R.A. 7308 known as the Seed Industry
Development Act of 1992
 NSIC is authorized body that recommends varieties of different crops for release in the
Philippines.

Composition of NSIC
 Secretary, Department of Agriculture (DA) – Chairman
 Director, Bureau of Plant Industry (BPI) – Vice Chairman and Executive
 Dean, College of Agriculture, University of the Philippines Los Banos, Laguna (UPLB) –
Member
 Director, Institute of Plant Breeding (IPB) – Member
 Crops Research Director, Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural
Resources Research and Development (PCARRD) – Member
 Director, Philippine Rice Research Institute (PhilRice) – Member
 Two (2) representatives from accredited farmer’s organizations – Members
 One (1) representative from the Philippine Seed Industry – Member

SEED CERTIFICATION
 Purpose: Provide guidelines for seed multiplication of various crops
 Reasons: To assure cultivar identity, genetic purity, and trueness to type

Centers of Origin
Southeast Asia South America Africa Near East South Asia
-Pole sitao -Peanut -Sorghum -Wheat -Mungbean
-Taro -Sweet potato -Cowpea -Brassica -Mango
-Yam -Cassava -Yam -Lettuce -Cotton
-Eggplant -Potato -Okra -Pole sitao
-Mango -Tomato -Eggplant -sugarcane
-Banana -Squash -Coffee -Jute
-Rambutan -Pineapple -Cotton East Asia -Rice
-Mangosteen -Chico -Soybean
-Coconut -Atis Central -Pole sitao Pacific
-Sugarcane -Rubber America -Brassica -Taro
-Rice -Cacao -corn -Rice -Coconut
-Cotton -Sugarcane

PLANT BREEDING IN THE PHILIPPINES

Scientist/ Institution Significant Contribution
P.J. Wester Developed “Atemoya” hybrid, a cross between cherimoya and
sugar apple (atis)
J.P. Tirona Developed first wrapper type tobacco hybrid (“Tirona” hybrid), a
cross between Cagayan Native and Connecticut Broadleaf
Dr. Leon Gonzales Introduction of “Maharlika” rambutan variety
Prof. Calixto Mabesa Discovered an ornamental plant later named “Dona Aurora”
Dr. Elmer D. Merril Classified Dona Aurora as Mussaenda philippica
Dr. Dioscoro L. Umali Developed assortment of colorful Dona’s (later named as the
first ladies) from the cross between Dona Aurora and Dona
Trining

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Dr. T. York Led the team that produced the first bush sitao
Fernando Bernardo and Developed the first crosses between abaca and Pacol, to transfer
colleagues disease resistance to abaca
Felixberto Serrano Developed outstanding rice varietal crosses in the 50s
Esteban Cada Developed BPI 76, high quality and high yielding variety
Pedro Escuro, Romeo Opena, Developed C4-63, a cross between Peta and BPI 76
Anacieto Guevarra
IRRI Released IR-8, their first variety developed in 1962. This became
popular worldwide.
Mercado and Lantican Observed strong association between T-cytoplasmic lines with
hypersensitivity to infection by Helminthosporium maydis

IMPROVED VARIETIES
 Corn
 White Corn - For human consumption
 IPB Var 4
o Open-pollinated
o Harvest maturity: 105-110 Days
o 4.89 tons/ha grain yield
o Highly acceptable corn grit quality
 Yellow corn – for feeds and corn-based products; open-pollinated
 IPB Var 1 (Ginintuan)
o 4.55 t/ha
o 105 days
 IPB Var 9 (Tupi yellow)
o 5.39 t/ha
o 105 days
 Yellow corn – for feeds and other corn-based products
 IPB 929
o 3-way cross hybrid
o 7.0 t/ha
o 97-99 days
 IPB 911
o Single cross hybrid
o 7.18 t/ha
o 97-99 days
 Special types – open pollinated
 Supersweet
o Yellow
o 7.2 t/ha (fresh)
o 70-72 days
o For boiling
 Lagkitan
o White
o 6.5 t/ha (fresh)
o For native delicacies, viand and “kornik”
 Cassava
 All-purpose – suitable for food, starch, and feed production

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  Lakan 1
o Yellow fresh and cream cortex
o 32 t/ha (fresh)
o Root dry matter content: 45%
o Root starch content: 33%
o Resistant to cassava bacterial blight and leaf spot under field conditions
o Maturity: 10 months
o Adapted to all regions of the Philippines
 Industrial purpose – suitable for starch and feed production; maturity: 10 months;
adapted to all region of the Philippines
 Sultan 6 – 39.1 t/ha (fresh)
 Sultan 7 – 37.9 t/ha (fresh)
 All-purpose
 Rajah-2 – 34.4 t/ha
 Rajah-1 – 27.7 t/ha
 Industrial purpose
 Sultan 9 – 35.6 t/ha
 Sultan 8 – 39.1 t/ha
 Sweet Potato
 Suitable for human consumption and starch production; resistant to scab and weevil
under field conditions
 NSIC Sp31 (UPL Sp-11) – root yield: 16.3 t/ha
 PSB Sp23 (UPL Sp-14) – root yield: 16.0 t/ha
 UPL Sp-9
 UPL Sp-7
 UPL Sp-16 (PSB Sp-24)
 UPL Sp-1 (Kinabakab)
 Tinipay
 Vegetables
 ‘Sta. Rita’ ampalaya - 36-40 t/ha
 ‘Rizalina’ squash – 26-38 t/ha
 ‘Mistisa’ eggplant – 30 t/ha
 ‘Mara’ eggplant – 15 t/ha
 ‘Rica’ tomato and ‘Rosanna’ tomato – 15-30 t/ha
 ‘Tambuli’ upo
 UPL PS 1 Pole sitao
 CSL 19 Pole sitao – 19 t/ha
 ‘Talisay’ Patola – 25 t/ha
 ‘Bituin’ cucumber – 35 t/ha
 CES 18-6 Cowpea – 11 t/ha
 UPL BS-3 Bush sitao – 16 t/ha
 ‘Smooth Green’ okra
 Legumes
 Biyaya series - peanut
 Biyaya 2
 Biyaya 10
 Biyaya 16 – two-seeded Spanish type; 1.68 t/ha; moderately resistant to peanut
rust and late Cercospora leafspot

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  Tiwala Series – soybean; high- yielding soybean adapted to tropical environments
o Central and Northern Luzon, post-rice: 2.5 t/ha (irrig.), 1-1.5 t/ha (rainfed)
o Cagayan Valley, December planning: 2 t/ha (rainfed)
o CARAGA, April planting: 2.5 t/ha (rainfed)
o Rest of Mindanao, dry season after corn: 1-1.5 t/ha (rainfed)
 Pag-asa Series – Mungbean
 Pag-asa 19 – seed yield: 1.27 t/ha; suited for bean thread or sotanghon
production
 Pag-asa 21 – seed yield: 1.23 t/ha; resistant to powdery mildew and moderately
resistant to Cercospora leafspot; recommended for wet season planting
 Fruits
 ‘Mabini’ jackfruit
o For food and jackfruit-based products
o Prolific bearer
o Fruits have scanty latex
o Yellow-orange, smooth, sweet, and juicy fruitlets with strong aroma
 ‘Red princess’ cashew
o Recommended for apple and nut production
o Vigorous, prolific
o Bears 400-500 fruits per tree per season
 ‘Aguinaldo’ guyabano
o Sour fruits
o Ideal for processing
o Few seeds, less fiber
o With high edible portion
 ‘Mapino’ chico
o Medium-sized fruits
o Very fine flesh texture, very sweet, juicy and has a melting taste
 ‘Amarilo’ Rambutan
 ‘Roja’ Rambutan
o Oblong fruits
o Sweet, juicy, thick smooth white flesh
o Prolific bearers
 ‘Sinta’ papaya
o Semi-dwarf
o Highly prolific
o Average of 20 fruits or more per fruiting cycle
o Medium, yellow, Sweet and firm fruits
o Weighs 0.5 to 3.5 kg/fruit
o Storage life: 7-10 days
o Moderately tolerant to papaya ringspot virus (PRSV)
 Ornamentals
 Hibiscus hybrids
 Centennial series
 Millennium Series
 Celebrity Star series
 Oblation Series
 Hoya
 Mussaenda

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SUSTAINABLE CROP PRODUCTION

A. Sustainable Agricultural Concept

I. Definition of SA in the Philippine Situation
 ILEIA- Information Center for Low External Input and Sustainable Agriculture
o Economically feasible and based on ecological principles that remain connected to
people’s cultural roots
o It is ecologically sound when they:
 Restore degraded ecosystems
 Improve nutrient recycling
 Increase biodiversity and
 External inputs like pesticide, chemical fertilizers and hybrid varieties are used in a
judicious and complementary way
 Principles and Practices in Sustainable Agriculture (SA)
o Whole-system approach to the management of the complex interactions among crops,
livestock, soil, water, climate and people.
o Overall goal- integrated all factors into a production system that is:
 Productive, yet environmentally benign and
 Appropriate for the socio-economic conditions and the people where the farm is
located
o Best achieved by imitating natural systems- creating a farm landscape that mimics the
complexity of healthy ecosystems.
 The philosophy, system, method, technique and technology of production that makes
agriculture
o Ecologically sound
 An ecologically sound agriculture must focus on the maintenance and enhancement
of the natural resource base, resource efficient in order to conserve precious
resources.
 Integrate practices that alleviate systems toxicity/stresses
o Economically viable
 Agriculture is economically viable when:
 There is reasonable positive net return or at least a balance in terms of
resources expended and returned and
 At the very minimum, the system should provide the food and other basic needs
of the farmer and the farm family
 Included in the accounting are:
 Numerous subsidies that make conventional agriculture appear economically
viable;
 The hidden costs of externalities such as loss of wildlife, increase soil acidity and
 Health care costs from chemical exposure are accounted for.
o Socially Just and Equitable
 System must assure that resources and power are distributed equitably so that the
basic needs of all are met and their rights are assured.
 Equitable access to information, market and other related resources, especially land,
which should be provided to all irrespective of sex, societal standing, religion and
ethnicity.

o Culturally appropriate
 Must embody the enhancement of and the protection of diverse cultures

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  Culturally appropriate agricultural systems give due consideration to cultural
values, including religious and traditions in the development of agricultural systems,
plans and programs.
o Grounded on Holistic Science
 Agriculture based on holistic science (as against reductionist science in conventional
western science)
 Gives importance to the social, economic, environmental, cultural and political as
much the biophysical aspects of agriculture
 Considers the dynamic interactions among on-farm, off-farm, non-farm and farm
related activities and recognizes that these activities to complement each other.

PRODUCTION PRACTICES

C. Land Preparation

 Benefits from land preparation

o Gives the soil a fine tilth to increase adsorption of nutrients
o Control pests
o Increases soil porosity and aerates the soil
o Incorporates crop residues and other inputs
o Mixes the soil to bring up leached deposits
o Levels the field
o Prepares the soil for subsequent farm operations
 Types of Land Preparation
o Wetland/Lowland Preparation
 Soaking
 Plowing
 Harrowing
 Levelling
o Upland/Dryland Preparation
 Plowing
 Harrowing/Rotavation
 Leveling
 Characteristics of well-prepared upland field
o Granular, friable yet compact enough so that seeds are in close contact with the soil
o Contains sufficient moisture for germination and subsequent growth
o Field is level, with minimum depressions where water may accumulate
o Free from weeds

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  Lowland vs. Upland Preparation (Physical Change)

LOWLAND UPLAND
Flooding and soaking involved No flooding
Puddling- destroy soil structure and particles No puddling- structure and granulation
densely packed maintained
Macropores are lost, micropores maintained Macropores and micorpores are
and increased bulk density upon drying- maintained-high seepage and percolation
leaching percolation reduced
Formation of plowpan- further reduces Water drains easily, good drainage except
percolation and seepage when plowpan is developed
When dried, puddle soils become denser, hard Tillage is easy specially at field capacity
and structureless- tillage without submerge
more difficult

Lowland vs. Upland Preparation (Chemical Change)

LOWLAND UPLAND
Formation of thin oxidized layer and a reduced zone- Well aerated root zone
anaerobic root zone
Presence of aerobic anaerobic microorganisms in Presence of aerobic organisms
oxidized and reduced layers
Reduced zone- redox potential decreased Redox potentials is high and positive
Increase in pH in acid soils and reduction in pH pH stable
alkaline soils
Increase in availability of nitrogen- although Mineralization is high- some N
mineralization is slower in anaerobic condition immobilizes by microorganisms at
initial phases
Availability of P, K, Si and Mo increased Lesser availability of P, K, Si and Mo
Water-soluble concentration of Zn & Cu reduced Availability of Zn and Cu not affected
Generation of CO2, CH4, N2O, H2S and toxic Lesser generation of gases and organic
reduction products- organic acids acids

 Forms of Tillage Operation

o Conventional tillage
 Syn. Intensive tillage
 Usually involves a series of field operations that result in a residue-free soil surface
at the time a crop is planted
 Can extend over many months and take place before, during and after planting
o Conservation Tillage
 Involve pre-plant tillage but maintain residues from a previous crop on the soil
surface
o Minimum Tillage
 Reduced tillage intensity
 Combines several operation into one pass
o Zero Tillage
 No tillage (plowing/harrowing) operations before planting

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 Selection and Preparation of Planting Material

 Planting Material Selection

 Selection of species/varieties
o Market demand
o Suitability of the area for growing
o Yield quantity and quality
o Tolerance to pest and diseases
o Tolerance to environmental stresses
o Other traits unique to species/variety
o Farmer’s preference
 Basis for selecting variety
o Economic yield

 Planting Materials (ANNUALS)

o Seed
 All grain crops
 Vegetable crops
 Grain legumes
 Plantation Crops
o Vegetative Planting materials
 Runners
 Slips
 Suckers
 Corms
 Root/leaf bud/stem cuttings
 Asexual materials
 Plantlets

 PLANTING MATERIAL PREPARATION
o ANNUALS
 Seed
 Seed Storage
o Control of seed moisture content, storage temperature and oxygen level
o Variable in orthodox, intermediate and recalcitrant seeds
 Pre-Germination Treatment
o Seed treatment w/ fungicide- ex. Use of metalaxyl to control downy mildew
in corn and vegetative stage
o Vernalization or cold treatment
o Seed inoculation
 Vegetative Plant Parts
 Cassava- mature portion of stem is cut into 20-25 cm length pieces; viable for 5
mo if properly stored
 Sugarcane- top portion of stalk is used w/ at least 3 nodes
 Sweet Potato- cuttings of 25-30cm from tip of the vine
 White Potato- tuber cut into seed pieces, each contains a bud; fungicide
treatment

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 o PERENNIALS
 Seed Variability
 Recalcitrant seeds
o Moisture content is initially high and drying (below 20% in rambutan and
rubber seeds) loss in viability
o Mango, Durian, rambutan, mangosteen, lanzones, santol, jackfruit, tea, citrus,
rubber, oil palm
o Storage
 Sand, sawdust or charcoal moistened to 10% in polyethylene bags at
27⁰C
 Or refrigerated condition may prolong viability from 1-2 wk to 1-4mo
 Orthodox seeds
o Can be dried at 5-14% to prevent respiratory process and placed in airtight
container
o Atis, chico, guayabano, passion fruit, tamarind, coffee
o Storage:
 Refrigeration and use of desiccants can prolong viability for >1yr
 Site or Infrastructure
o Open area field-grown crops and transplanted rice
 Seedbeds concrete pavements
 Seedboxes
 Seedling trays
o Nursery vegetables, fruits, plantation crops
 Seedbeds, concrete pavements
 Seedboxes
 Seedling trays
 Pots, plastic bags, improvised cointainers
o Seeds are maintained until ready for planting, transplanting or repotting/rebagging
 Desired seedling size at transplanting
o Asexual propagated plants grown until ready for planting in the field
o Soil medium
 Ordinary soil/ garden soil for germination
 Light-textured soil (sand/garden soil/ organic matter) for rooting.
o Necessary nutrient, water, pest management and special requirements imposed during
seedling stage.

 Size and Age of seedlings at Transplanting

o Seedling height
 Generally 30cm
 May vary with crop species
o Number of developed leaves
 3-4 leaves

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 o Age at planting
PLANT/CROP
2-4 weeks Cereals and field crops (annual)
2-3 months Papaya
4-6 months Jackfruit/guayabano
3-4 months Guava
6-10 months Coffee
6-9 months Coconut (splitting of leaves)
8-15 months Oil palm (5-8 leaves developed)

 Shade Management
o Germination/ Rooting stage require partial shading
 Coconut, mango, citrus can be exposed to full sunlight
 Coffee, cacao, rambutan, mangosteen, lanzones, banana and grafted/budded planting
materials need 25-50% partial shade
 Hardening
o Pre-sowing hardening
 Soaking of seeds in water for 1-48hr depending on seeds
 Then air-drying to their original moisture content before sowing
o Hardening
 Starting 1 month to few days before planting or transplanting (depending on crop)
cultural practices to reduce transplanting shock are imposed:
 Gradual withdrawal of water and fertilizer application
 Gradual exposure to sunlight (if grown in partial shade)
 Partial pruning/cutting of leaves and roots (blocking)
 Gradual balling/burlapping of big trees (1 mo before transplanting)
 Use of protectants/anti-transpirants to reduce transpiration

FARMING SYSTEM
 Forms of Multiple Cropping
o Intercropping
 Growing of two or more crops simultaneously on the same field
 Crop intensification in time and space dimensions and competition occurs at particular
stage of crop growth
 Types of Intercropping:
 Mixed intercropping
o growing two or more crops simultaneously with no distinct row arrangement
 Row Intercropping
o growing two or more crops simultaneously where one or more crops are
planted in rows;
o often referred to as intercropping.
 Strip Intercropping
o growing of two or more crops in strips
o Wide enough to permit independent cultivation but narrow enough for the
crops to interact agronomically
 Relay intercropping
o Growth of two or more crops overlaps at the l;ater stage of the first crop
o A second crop is planted after the first crop has reached its reproductive stage

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 o Often referred to as relay cropping
o Sequential Cropping
 Growing of two or more crops in sequence on a same field in a farming year
 Types of sequential cropping:
 Double, Triple or Quadruple Cropping
o Growing of two, three of four crops, respectively, on the same land in a year in
sequence
 Ratoon cropping
o Cultivation of “crop regrowth” after harvest
o Not necessarily for grain crops

Primary Processing of Durables

Abaca (Musa textilis)

1. Topping - removal of crown leaves
2. Tumbling - harvesting of the pseudostems with the use of a sharp cutting blade
3. Tuxying - separation of the bracts which contain fibro-vascular bundles
4. Extraction of fiber with the use of native hagutanor stripping machine
5. Cleaning of fiber and drying
6. Grading and baling of fiber

Coffee (Coffea spp.)

a. Wet process
1. Hand-picking of ripe berries (priming)
2. Soaking of berries in a soaking tank to loosen the pulp and separate the floaters
or light berries
3. Depulping of berries with a machine
4. Fermentation in tanks in 2 - 3 days
5. Washing of parchment coffee
6. Drying for 24 - 48 to 12 - 16% moisture
7. Dehulling of parchment coffee in a dehuller
8. Grading
b. Dry process
1. Harvesting (Strip method)
2. Drying
3. Dehulling
4. Grading -

Cacao (Theobroma cacao)

1. Harvesting
2. Seed extraction from the pod
3. Fermentation for 3 to 7 days to allow products of fermentation to drain out. (Phenolic
compounds are removed by fermentation; bitterness of chocolate is minimized and
richness of butterfat is enhanced by the process).
4. Drying of beans to 6 to 7% moisture.

Coconut (Cocos nucifera)

1. Harvesting of nuts
2. Dehusking with tapasan
3. Splitting of nuts

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 4. Drying
 in a tapahanor smoke kiln for 16h
 sundrying for 7 days
 Los Baños multi-crop dryer
5. Grading

Rubber (Hevea braziliensis)

1. Tapping with a tapping knife
2. Latex collection with the use of a metal spout and collection cup
3. Pre-classification and standardization of latex for dry rubber content
4. Coagulation in aluminum tanks or pans by treating with acetic and formic acid diluted
to 1 % solution
5. Pressing or milling coagulum into sheets using a hand-or power-operated machine
6. Dripping wetsheets
7. Smoking or Drying of sheets for 4-5 hrs in specially-constructed smoke house
8. Sorting, grading, baling into sizes at 50kg each.

Rice (Oryza sativa)

1. Harvesting
2. Threshing
3. Drying- reduction of MC to 12 to 14%

Corn (Zea mays)

1. Harvesting
2. Drying- initial moisture reduction to 16-18%
3. Shelling- separation of the kernels from corn cobs
4. Blowing or cleaning to remove impurities
5. Drying- reduction of MC to 12 to 13%

Maturity Indices of Common Crops

Types of Maturity
• Physiological maturity
o end of developmental stage of fruit when it has developed the ability to ripen
normally at harvest
• Horticultural or commercial maturity
o stage of development when the plant part possesses the necessary characteristics
required by the consumers
o varies depending on the intended use

Agronomic Crops
 Corn (Zea mays)
• 95-105 days from planting
• 55 days from flowering (silking)
• the base of the kernels show a black layer when husks are dried
• kernels are nearly glazed

 Cotton
• 110-170 days from planting
• 45 days from flowering

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 • flozzing (boll opening)

 Mungbean
• 55-65 days from planting
• 30-35 days from flowering
• pods turn black or tan

 Peanut
• 90-100 days from planting
• 70-80 days from flowering
• leaves of majority of the plant begin to wither and turn yellow
• pods full and firm

 Rice
• 100 to 150 days from planting/transplanting
• 27 to 30 days from flowering
• 80% of the grains are straw-colored
• hulled grains on the upper portion of the panicles are clear and firm and most of those
at the base are in hard dough stage

 Soybean
• 80-90 days from planting
• 50-60 days from flowering
• leaves of the plant turn yellow and slowly drop off from the stem
• pods change in color from green to brown or dark brown

 Sugarcane
• 10-12 or 12-14 months from planting
• uniform TSS reading from basal, middle, and top portions of the stalk

 Sweet/glutinous corn
• 18 days from silking
• kernels are soft and tender

 Tobacco
• 60-65days after transplanting
• 15 leaves are fully expanded
• lower 6 leaves turning pale green
• leaves are silvery

Fruit Crops
 Banana
• fullness of finger (loss of angularity)
• change in peel color from green to yellow
• increase in fruit size
• drying up of leaves
• number of days from flower emergence (or shooting) to maturity

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  Durian
• 120-135 days after anthesis for ‘Monthong' and 100-115 days for 'Chanee'
• color of spine apex turns from green to dark brown
• groves among spines expand and turn darker
• spine becomes more flexible or elastic
• mature fruit sounds hollow
• strong odor of fruit
• prominence of abscission zone

 Jackfruit
• dull, hollow sound when the fruit is tapped by the finger
• last leaf of the peduncle turns yellow
• fruit spines become well-developed and well-spaced
• spines yield to moderate pressure
• aromatic odor

 Lanzones
• fruits turn yellow
• disappearance of bloom on the peel
• all the fruits on the bunch are full yeilow
• peduncle loses most of its green color

 Mango
• 110-120 DAFI or 82-88d after anthesis
• flattened shoulders at the stem-end
• fullness of cheeks
• presence of bloom (powdery deposit) on the peel
• yellowing of the pulp (flesh)
• sinkers' in 1% salt solution
 Papaya
• 3 to 6% color break on the peel surface and on internal tissues
• 5 to 6 months after flowering
• has about 8⁰Brix

 Pineapple
• space between the eyes fills out; color becomes dark green
• eyes change from pointed to flat
• more aromatic, light or golden yellow when ripe
• 5 to 6 months after flowering

 Rambutan
• 90% of the fruit changes to yellow, yellow-red, or red depending on the variety

Vegetable Crops
 Bitter gourd
• 80-90 days from planting to first harvest
• 10-14 days from flowering
• Change in color of fruit from deep to light green

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  Cabbage
• 55-60 days from planting
• head is compact

 Cauliflower/Broccoli
• 50-60 days from planting
• curd is compact

 Eggplant
• 70-90 days from planting to first harvest
• 7-10 days from flowering
• firm, color changes into a lighter shade and shiny appearance

 Garlic
• 110-120 days from planting
• drying of the leaves

 Ginger
• 9 months from planting
• tops begin to dry and rhizomes full

 Muskmelon
• 80-85 day: to first harvest
• conspicuous netted appearance
• development of abscission zone

 Okra (Hibiscus esculentus)

• 3 days from flowering
• pods are young, tender, and snap-ready

 Onion (Allium cepa)

• 75 to 90 days after planting
• neck tissue begins to soften and tops start to fall over and decolorize
• 50-75% of plant leaves fall

 Potato
• 90-100 days from planting
• tops mature and dry out
• skin slipping from the tuber indicates immaturity

 Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum)

• 60-70 days from planting to first harvest
• 30 days from flowering
• Change in color of fruit from green to light color

 Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus)

• dull, hollow sound is produced when thumped
• tendrils accompanying fruit dry up
• color of the portion resting on the ground changes from pale white to creamy yellow

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 • leaves start to dry
• development of abscission zone

Ornamental Crops
 Anthurium (Anthurium spp)
• female part is rough (lower part of the spadix)
• peduncle begins to stiffen

 Chrysanthemum
• for immediate use: fully opened but before center petals have reached full size or lost
their greenish color

 Dendrobium
• 30-50% of florets in the spike are open

 Gladiolus
• for immediate use: florets at the bottom of the upper I '3 of the spike show color
• lower most floret is fully open
• for storage: first 2 florets show color

 Rose (Rosa spp.)

• for storage: tight bud stage
• for immediate use: ½ of the petals are open or when the first 2 petals begin to unfold

Plantation Crops

 Abaca (Musa textilis)

• 18-24 months from planting
• emergence of flag leaf indicates maturity
 Black Pepper (Piper nigrum)
• one of the peppercorns ill the spike turns yellow or red seed shows a brownish color
when the pulp is pinched peppercorns appear plump

 Cacao (Theobroma cacao)

• 5-6 months from flowering
• color change:
- for green-podded cacao varieties = green to orange-yellow
- for red-podded varieties = red to orange
• seed rattle inside when tapped and produce hollow sound

 Coconut (Cocos nucifera)

• buko production - 8-9 months from flowering
• copra production
- 11-12 months from flowering
- harvesting is done every 45 days
- nuts should be partially or completely brown

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  Coffee (Coffea spp.)
• berries mature 8 to 11months after flowering depending on climatic conditions:
- Arabica- 10-11 months
- Robust - 10 months
- Liberica and Excelsa- 10months
• color change from green to red or yellow (Arabica and Robusta) or red (Liberica and
Excelsa) also indicates maturity

Special Management Practices

Special management practices refers to production practices that are regularly done but are
particularly applicable to a specific crop or group of crops

1. Windbreak establishment
Windbreaks or shelterbelts are rows of trees and shrubs that protect crops from strong
winds
• a windbreak can reduce windspeed up to 20x its height
• windbreaks should have deep root system and dense canopy (examples: ipil-ipil,
bamboo, pili, tamarind, narra, eucalyptus, mahogany, etc.
• windbreaks should be planted perpendicular to the direction of the wind
• for small areas, these are planted along the borders while for large areas. These are
planted every rows of crop.

2. Shading
• forsciophytes, shading is required for normal growth and development
• ways of achieving shaded condition
 increase plant density
 use of shade trees
 use of built-in structures e.g. slat houses, nets, etc.

3. Hardening
• exposing young plants slowly to the outdoor environment
• involves withdrawal of water and fertilizer and gradual exposure to increased light and
high/low temperature

4. Pricking
• transfer of seedlings from overcrowded container to another container

5. Rouging
• removal of off-type or diseased plants

6. Mulching
Mulch is a protective layer of a material that is spread on top of the soil
• mulching materials can either be organic (e.g. grass clippings, straw, bark chips. etc.)
or inorganic (plastic. stones, brick chips, etc.)
• Benefits from mulching:
 prevents weed growth
 conserves soil moisture
 reduces soil erosion
 keeps fruits and vegetables clean

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  cools soil surface and stabilizes soil temperature
 adds organic matter to the soil if mulch materials are organic in nature
 improves aesthetics of landscape

7. Pruning
• removal of plant parts to attain a specific objective
• general effect is the reduction in plant size
• types of pruning according to its purpose:
 preventive pruning - removal of dead and diseased branches or plant parts
 formative pruning - done to improve/ develop the desired plant shape
 corrective pruning - removal of interlacing branches which are out of place. Done after
formative pruning
 rejuvenative pruning - done to re-invigorate or reshape the top of old trees
• other purposes of pruning:
 removal of undesirable watersprouts and suckers
 open the tree canopy to allow sunlight and facilitate spraying operation
 produce a less dense canopy
 Types of pruning according to nature of cut:
 Heading back- cuts are made on the terminal portion of the plant
 Thinning out- complete removal of a branch of a trees

8. Fruit Thinning
• removal of some fruits to minimize 'inter-fruit' nutrient and assimilate competition
• e.g. case of guava and melon

9. Deblossoming
• removal of flowers on the young woody plants to have full canopy development

10. Ratooning
• growing of a new crop out of the shoots arising from previous crop
• reduces cost of production since land preparation and planting materials are no longer
needed
• e.g. case of sugarcane, pineapple, rice, eggplant and sorghum

11. Desuckering
• removal of unnecessary slickers from the base (mat) of banana or abaca
• controls mat population
• prevents overcrowding and shading
• reduce competition for water and nutrients
• source of planting material

12. Training
• directs the growth of the plants in terms of shape, size, and direction
• involves bending, twisting and tying of plants to support structures mayor may not
involve cutting of plant parts

13. Trellising
• provision of structural support to plants so that:
 stem and leaves are kept away from the ground
 allow better exposure to sunlight

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  preventing fruits from coming in contact with the soil
• for viny crops (e.g. cucurbits, gourds, pole sitao, yam, grapes, passion fruit)
• for some other crops that cannot stand vertically (e.g. tomato, vanilla, black pepper)
• Types of Trellis
 arbor or overhead type
 fence type
 pole type
 T-type
 A-type
 teepee type
14. Propping
• practice of providing support to bunches or stalk which tend to bend due to heavy load of
fruits (e.g. case of banana, durian, mango, rambutan, santol and pummelo)
• types of propping
 single pole
 double pole
 cable propping
 tying plants to other plants or branches to trunk or other branches

15. Fruit Bagging

• enclosing or wrapping fruits either individually or as a group, with suitable materials (e.g.
newsprint, jute sack and PEB)
• protection of the fruits from possible damage due to insects, diseases, birds, strong wind,
etc.

16. Latex stimulation

• use of Ethrel to stimulate latex production of old rubber trees (>28 years old)

17. Flower induction

• Mango
 hacking - creation of wounds along the trunk of mango to release ethylene
 smudging - creation of a smokey fire below the tree canopy and allowing smoke to
pass through the foliage for several days
 use of potassium nitrate (KNO3)
o applicable only to 'Carabao', 'Pico· and 'Pahutan' cultivars
o KNO3, is sprayed at 2.0 - 3.0% during the early season (Jul-Nov) and 1.0-1.5%
during the late season (Dec-May) to shoots which exhibits readiness-to-flower
 use of other chemicals - mango flowering can also be brought by thiourea, ethephon,
calcium nitrate, and paclobutrazol
• Pineapple
 use of calcium carbide (CaC2)
o granular - size of bean seed; placed in the 'hear!' or central portion of the plant
o solution - 2 kg/20L of water; apply 30 mL/plant poured in the ' heart' of the plant
 use of Ethrel
o 240 ppm + 1% urea – pour/pray 30 mL on the heart of the plant
o 25 ppm + 2% urea + 0.04% CaCO3- pour/spray 50 mL on the heart of the plant
 use of other chemicals
o 10 ppm naphthalene acetic acid (NAA)
o 2500-5000 ppm β-hydroxyethylhydracine

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 • Other fruits
 timing of irrigation - irrigation of lanzones, calamansi, rambutan, and durian trees
after drought period stimulates flowering
 heavy pruning - stimulates flowering of atis, lime and grapes
• Vegetables
 vernalization
o a process of thermal induction in plants, in which growth and flowering are
promoted by exposure to low temperatures (1°C to 6°C)
o the effect of cold treatment increases with its duration until response is saturated
o the longer the cold treatment the more permanent is the effect of vernalization
 use of chemical
o exogenous application of gibberellic acid (3µg to 100µg or more) enables many
cold-requiring plants to flower without low temperature
o gibberellins can substitute for the cold requirement needed to induce flowering
• Photoperiodic flower induction
 Photoperiodism- a phenomenon by which the duration of day and night, as measured
by the built-in-timing mechanism, determines when a plant is going to flower
 types of plants based on their response to daylength:
o short day plants (SDPs) - flower rapidly when days get shorter than critical
daylength:
e.g. pineapple, sugarcane, poinsettia, soybean
o long day plants (LDPs) - flowers rapidly when the days are longer
e.g. aster. Lettuce, potato, cabbage, carrot
o day-neutral plants (DNPs) - not affected by daylength
e.g. modem varieties of rice, corn and mungbean, banana, citrus, coconut,
sampaguita, coffee, cucumber, tomato, eggplant, sweet pepper
18. Use of pollinators (seed production)
• these are needed to increase percentage of seed setting
• i.e. put up beehives as source of pollinators or release beehives during pollination
• normal practice in vegetable production area is 1-2 beehives per hectare
19. Control of sex expression (seed production)
• in cucurbits, the primordium of the floral bud is pistillate, staminate, or hermaphrodite
flower originally bisexual and can develop into a depending on genetic constitution and
environment:
• long days and high temperature enhance maleness
• short days and low temperature enhance femaleness
• auxin and ethylene increases femaleness
• gibberellins increase the staminate/pistillate ratio in monoecious cucurbits like
bittergourds and induce staminate flowers of gynoecious lines of cucumber

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 20. Distance Isolation (seed production)
• done to maintain genetic purity and to avoid seed variability very critical especially for
cross-pollinated crops.
Vegetable Mode of Pollination Isolation Distance (m)
garden pea normally self-pollinated min of 10m radius
chickpea normally self-pollinated 10m radius
tomato normally selfed with crossing by insects 30-60m
eggplant partially-selfed and cross-pollinated 400-900m
cucumber partially-selfed and cross-pollinated 400-1000m
cabbage largely crossed pollinated by insects 300-1000m
cauliflower cross pollinated by insects 300-1000m

21. Time Isolation (seed production)

• if seed production is small and distance isolation is not possible, there should be
difference in time of flowering especially if the crops planted are of the same species
• there should be at least 3 weeks difference in flowering
• or bagging of emasculated flowers of plants selected for seed production is also practiced
to avoid contamination by pollens from other plants

LANDSCAPING

 the art and science of selecting, arranging and growing plants together with the landscapes for
aesthetics, privacy and pleasure.

Three major phases in landscaping

1. Landscape design
2. Landscape implementation
3. Landscape maintenance

Basic elements of landscape design

1. Line - created by extending many points on a plane
2. Form - the outline that an object creates as well as the 3-D effects it produces
3. Texture - visual roughness or smoothness of objects in the landscape
4. Color - visible pattern of the design
5. Light - element which allows us to see a variety of intensity in colors, texture and
recognition of lines and shapes in our landscape
6. Volume or Space - defines the boundary of the landscape

Basic principles of landscape design

1. Balance - connotes stability by giving an illusion of equilibrium around a real or
imaginary central axis
2. Unity- arrangement of pans that will produce a single, harmonious design
3. Repetition - using the same size, same color, same texture, and same form of material
4. Sequence - transition from one area to another area within a landscape
5. Contrast/Variety - creates interest and breaks monotony brought about by too much
repetition
6. Emphasis - focuses the attention of the viewer on some dominant or accent features of
the landscape and gives importance to what needs to be noticed.

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 7. Scale and Proportion - the relative size of plants and objects with a particular reference
to human being
8. Harmony - refers to the pleasing relationship of objects making each component within
a landscape a unified whole

Kinds of plants according to use in landscaping

1. ground covers - plants used to cover the ground to minimize erosion
2. edging plants - low growing plants used to define pathways and shapes of planting areas
3. specimen plant - plant of special beauty or unusual quality grown to be exhibited alone
4. accents or focal point - one or more plants used as prominent features in the garden
5. barriers/screens/hedges - plants that provide security and privacy
6. foundation plant - dense shrub grown near or along a building

POSTPRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY

 Encompasses all practices and operations from harvesting to consumption

 Improper postproduction practices can lead top losses ranging from:
o 23-42% for fruits and vegetables
o 15-20% for ornamentals
o 5-10% for grain crops and legumes
 Primary purpose is to bring the product to the consumer of good quality

 Primary processing
o Postproduction activities that involve handling of produce to make them suited to the
manufacturers or consumers
 Secondary processing
o postproduction activities that involve conversion of the produce into more stable form
that can no longer be changed to other forms
o types of secondary processing:
 heat sterilization
 inactivates the enzymes that may alter the quality of the product and kill the
microorganisms that can grow during storage
 used in canning, puree and juice making
 Dehydration
 Removal of water from the product
 Dried fruits and vegetables
 Fermentation
 Involves the action of microorganism
 Pickling, wine making, vinegar making
 Freezing
 The lower the temperature and the shorter the time of exposure, the better the
quality of the produce
 Frozen vegetables and fruits

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 Post Harvest Handling

 procedures to which crops are subjected after harvest including all the technological
aspects of distribution
 Types of crops based on their postharvest characteristics:
o Durables- have low MC (≤14%), eg. Corn, rice, mungbean
o Perishable- have high MC (80-95%), eg. Fruits, vegetables, ornamentals.
 After harvesting, perishables are transported to a packinghouse
 Packinghouse- any area that provides shelter where commodities are assembled
from different production areas and prepared in such manner as to meet quality
requirements of a target market
 In the packinghouse, the procedure undergo one or several preparatory processes
like:
 Washing, trimming, curing, waxing, pre-cooling, fumigation, sorting, grading,
packaging, storage, degreening, etc.
 Transport packages should be appropriate to ensure adequate protection and safe
delivery of the produce from the producer to the consumer
 Kinds of packages:
 Flexible packages- burlap or gunny sack, mesh or net bags, PEBs, palm leaf,
bags/baskets, sacks of woven plastic fabric
 Rigid and semi-rigid- baskets (bamboo and rattan), wooden crates, cartons,
wood-paper laminated container, plastic crates and foamed plastic boxes.
 Shelf-life of perishables can be prolonged by:
 Cold storage
 Evaporative cooling
 Modified atmosphere (MA) storage
 Controlled atmosphere (CA) storage

Postharvest Science

Definition of Terms
 Air cooling (syo. room cooling) - method of pre-cooling which relies on rapidly moving air
that is made to flow through the container: heat exchange is mainly through conduction
 Airjet cooling – pre-cooling method done by allowing high velocity air (blasts) on top of
open containers
 Ammonia injury- caused by leaking ammonia in storage rooms; slight injury manifests as
greenish-black discoloration of the outer tissues of fruits and vegetables
 Atmospheric modification - packaging, storing, or transport of produce in an atmosphere
that differs substantially from normal air with respect to proportion of O2, CO2, and N2;
metabolism is slowed down in low O2 or high CO2 atmosphere thus retarding, respiration,
softening, compositional changes, and ethylene production and action
 Bulk packing (syn. bulk handling)- packing in bulk bins or packing cases for lifting by
forklifts
 Chilling injury - occurs when a commodity is stored at temperatures lower than is required:
exposure time-temperature effect
 Cleaning - the objective is to render the commodity more saleable by removing dirt, latex,
residues, mealy bugs, sooty molds, and other extraneous materials
 Control points - points in the food distribution where control must be exercised to reduce or
eliminate hazard or risk

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  Controlled atmosphere - the supply and level of CO, and O2 are manipulated through gas
generators and appropriate control devices in properly designed storage structures
 Critical control point (CCP) - a step, procedure or operation at which control could be
applied and hazard could be prevented, eliminated or reduced to acceptable levels
 Curing - process of toughening and self-healing of bruises and skinned areas in roots and
tuber crops, and rapid closing of the neck in bulb crops under favorable conditions
 Ethylene - a potent growth regulator affecting senescence of plants in concentrations as
little as 0.01µL/L
 Evaporative (syn. adiabatic cooling) - fruits and vegetables give off heat during respiration
and when a source of heat is within the vicinity, heat given off is used in evaporating water
resulting in a drop in temperature and increase in relative humidity
 Face packing - only the first layer is place-packed, the rest of the produce is volume-filled
 Food handling - Postharvest handling of all food crops including meat, fish, and marine
products
 Forced air cooling (syn. pressure cooling) - method of pre-cooling which uses the pressure
difference between two sides of container to facilitate heat exchange; heat transfer by
conduction combine with facilitated air flow; 6 to 10 times faster than room cooling
 Freon R-12 (syn. Freon 12; dichlorofluoromethane) or Freon R-22 (syn. Freon 22;
monochlorofluoromethane) - a low power-requiring, non-toxic, non-corrosive compound
used for refrigerators and small cold rooms
 Fresh cut products (syn. minimally-processed, lightly-processed, fresh-processed, ready-to-
use products) - fresh fruits and vegetables which have been subjected to cleaning, various
size reduction operations and packaging but still contain tissues that are physiologically
active
 GAP - good agricultural practices
 GMP - good manufacturing practices
 Grade standard - set of criteria and specifications of quality determining the grades
 Grades - names of the groups to which the produce are classified
 Grading - process of classifying the produce into groups according to a set of criteria of
quality and size recognized or accepted by the industry
 Half-cooling time - gauge of performance of a cooling method; time required for produce to
cool down to half the difference between the initial produce (pulp) temperature and cooling
medium
 Hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP) - a system which allows to determine where
hazard are likely to occur, to take corrective actions and to verify that the staff do the work
 Hydra-air cooling – pre-cooling by using a mixture of cold air and cold water in a fine mist
circulated around the stack of containers; cold air is humidified by forced convention
 Hydrocooling - precooling method facilitated by allowing direct contact of cold water with
produce surface: heat exchange is by conduction
 Hydrovacuum cooling - precooling method which allows continuous wetting of the
commodity by spraying throughout the vacuum cycle: a shower is installed near the ceiling
in a vacuum tube and is turned on for brief periods during the vacuum cooling cycle
 Inspection - process of measuring, examining and resting samples to determine whether the
grade standards have been interpreted or enforced properly
 Irradiation - physical process of treating food involving exposure to controlled amount of
radiation in a specially constructed room called an irradiator
 Loose packing or bulk transport - no package is used the truck bed acts as the package

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  1-MCP (syn. 1-methylcyclopropene) - a gas (at STP) with a MW of 54 and formula of C4H6;
inhibits ethylene action by binding on ethylene receptors; affinity to the receptor is about
10x more than ethylene
 Minimal Processing - preparation of ready-to-eat, ready-to-cook or ready-to-process fresh
produce.
 Modified atmosphere (MA) storage/packaging - respiration of the produce modifies the
atmosphere; uses any of low density polyethylene (LDPE), polyvinyl chloride (PVC),
polypropylene (PP), waxes, temperature-compensating packages and vacuum or hypobaric
packaging
 Package icing - precooling method using crushed ice in a package to lower produce
temperature (finely crushed ice, flaked ice, ice-water, liquid ice)
 Packaging - technology or process that ensures adequate protection and safety delivery of
the produce from the producer to the consumer
 Packinghouse - any area that provides shelter where commodities are assembled from
different production areas and prepared in such a manner as to meet quality requirements
of a target market
 Packinghouse operations (syn. market operations) - preparatory processes done to the
commodity to meet market requirements includes washing, trimming, curing, waxing, pre-
cooling, fumigation, sorting, grading, packaging, storage, degreening
 Place packing - produce is wrapped and carefully placed in molded trays or cells which
separate individual units
 Postharvest handling - procedures to which crops are subjected after harvest including all
the technological aspects of distribution
 Postharvest horticulture - science that deals with harvested horticultural crops in their
fresh form prior to cooking or food processing
 Postharvest losses- any change in the availability, edibility, acceptability, and quality of the
produce; maybe quantitative or qualitative
 Postproduction - general term applied to the handling of crops from harvest until they reach
the consumer
 Precooling - rapid cooling of a commodity to required transit or storage temperature
 Prepacks - also called consumer packs or retail packs; produce may be in intact form or as
fresh cuts
 Primary processing - postproduction activities that involve handling of produce to make
them suited to the manufacturers or consumers
 Quality - involves all the attributes, characteristics, and features of a product that the buyer,
consumer, or user expects
 Quality assurance - involves those planned activities designed to consistently satisfy
customer expectations by defining objectives, planning activities, and controlling variability
 Quality circle - any of the small groups of workers that as a management technique, meet
regularly to suggest and discuss ways to improve production
 Quality control - scientific evaluation of the handling processes including on-line evaluation
of samples and packaging materials to ensure adherence to acceptable standards
 Quality management - form of business management committed to customer satisfaction
through continuous improvement
 Raw material handling - postharvest handling of fruits and vegetables for processing and of
florist crops for making dried plant art forms
 Secondary processing - postproduction activities that involve conversion of the produce
into more stable form that can no longer be changed into other forms

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  Seed technology - postproduction activities that involve the handling of seed crops for
planting
 Senescence - phenomenon encompassing deterioration changes resulting from endogenous
regulation of death in the harvested produce
 Solanine - a potentially toxic compound found in 'greening of potatoes', a physiological
disorder caused by prolonged exposure to light in cold rooms
 Sorting - produce is classified into groups designated by the person classifying it according
to whatever criteria he may desire
 Standardization - process of formulating and issuing grade standards
 Sufficient air circulation - expressed as air change calculated for empty space; air change is
the ratio of volume of outside air introduced into the store room in one hour to the volume
of the empty room
 Sufficient refrigeration capacity - amount of heat a refrigeration system can remove within a
given time (expressed in BTU or ton refrigeration)
 Sulfites - substances that contain sulfur such as sulfur dioxide gas (502), potassium bisulfite,
and sodium metabisulfite: acts as preservative and prevents browning, discoloration, and
spoilage of produce through enzymatic and non-enzymatic reactions
 Surface area to volume ratio - determines the reactive area for respiration, transpiration,
and penetration of chemicals: the greater the surface area to volume ratio, the shorter the
postharvest life
 Top icing - precooling method done by placing of a 2-4 inch layer of finely crushed ice over
the top of load.
 Tray or cell-packing - produced is placed in molded trays or cells which separate in
individual units
 Trimming - general term for removing unwanted parts, those likely to be rejected by the
consumers or those which will shorten storage life
 Tunnel cooling - precooling method done by allowing high velocity air (positive pressure)
forced through stacks in a tunnel; needs 300m min air flow
 Vacuum cooling - precooling method wherein air is pumped out of an air-tight chamber at
sub-atmospheric pressure (~4.6mm Hg)
 Ventilated cooling - ventilation eliminates heat evolved during respiration which will
otherwise enhance respiration, sprouting, and rooting
 Volume filling (syn. jumble packing or tight filling) - products are placed by hand or
machine into the container until the desired capacity
 Water elimination - drying of surface moisture after washing or waxing when commodities
are harvested wet
 Waxing - application of a thin film of surface coating to fruits and vegetables

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