Principles
of
Crop Production
(PRINCIPLES OF CROP SCIENCE-CRSC1
PREPARED BY:
DENNIS L. LABINDAO
INSTRUCTOR/LICENSED AGRICULTURIST
TABLE OF CONTENTS
REVIEW
CHAPTER I. Introduction
A. Agricultural Development
B. Origin, domestication and history of some importance crop
C. World food situation and center of production
D. Philippine Agriculture
E. Major crop in the Philippines and their geography distribution
F. Meaning and Scope of Crop Science
CHAPTER II. Physiological processes in crop production
A. Photosynthesis
B. Respiration
C. Transpiration
D. Translocation
E. Mineral nutrition
F. Growth and development
G. Plant movements
H. Crop adaptation
CHAPTER III. Factors affecting Crop production
A. Environment
B. Genetic Factors (Genotypes, GMO)
C. Human factors
a. Preference of farmers
b. Capability of farmers Cultural practices
CHAPTER IV. Sustainable crop production
A. Man and Crops in an Ecosystem
a. Ecosystems/Agro-ecosystems
b. The flow of energy
c. Cycling of nutrients
d. Pollution
B. Production systems and crop management
C. Features of sustainable crop production
a. Sustainable agriculture concept
b. Diversification
c. Resource conservation and regeneration
d. Productivity and stability of production system
D. Biotechnology and other advances in crop production system
E. WTO and Conservation Crop Diversity
F. Patents and farmers right Government program in
Agriculture
Introduction
REVIEW
Plant
Any organism belonging to the kingdom
plantae, typically lacking active locomotion or
obvious nervous system or sensory organs and
has photosynthetic ability.
Crop
Domesticated/cultivated plants grown for
profit. It usually connotes a group or
population of cultivated plants.
CHAPTER I. Introduction
Crop Production as a Science, Art and Business.
-Its science is derived from the adoption or
application of the basic sciences of chemistry,
mathematics, physics and from various applied
sciences like physiology, meteorology, anatomy,
plant breeding etc.
-It requires skills to produce crops even with little or
no scientific training.
-Plants are not grown simply to satisfy the needs of
man but to realize some profit in the process of
production
A. Agricultural Development
Definition:
Agricultural development is defined
as the process that creates the
conditions for the fulfilment of
agricultural potential. Those conditions
include the accumulation of knowledge
and availability of technology as well as
the allocation of inputs and output.
Introduction
What is Agricultural Development?
1. Someone who specializes in agricultural
development may be tasked with calculating how to
increase crop yields.
2. Applying methods of pest control are part of
agricultural development.
3. Agricultural development promotes the proper
conditions for farming so that planting, harvesting and
processing of crops can be done effectively.
4. Agricultural development can help people in
developing countries get out of extreme poverty.
5. Damaged soil may be an obstacle in
agricultural development.
Introduction
A.Someone who specializes in agricultural development may
be tasked with calculating how to increase crop yields.
Many small farmers in rural areas
depend on agricultural sales for their
livelihood to provide for their
families. Large numbers of poor
families rely on agricultural products
for daily nourishment. Unfortunately,
in many poor regions, soil conditions,
seed supply and other factors are not
ideal for successful farming, which
leads to poverty in the developing
world. Agricultural development
promotes the proper conditions for
farming so that planting, harvesting
By: auremar
and processing of crops can be done
effectively, which ultimately can
reduce poverty and save lives.
Introduction
B. Applying methods of pest control are part of
agricultural development.
There are many agricultural
challenges that the practice of rural
development can overcome. Some of
the obstacles facing the agricultural
industry include soil that might
have been damaged by overuse, in
addition to shortages in seeds,
fertilizers and other irrigation
supplies. A farmer's crops must be
protected from disease and other
threats, such as bugs and extreme
weather conditions. Without the
development of any of these basic
By: Hemeroskopion
farming components, a farmer
cannot sell his or her goods to the
market. Introduction
C. Agricultural development promotes the proper conditions
for farming so that planting, harvesting and processing of
crops can be done effectively.
Transportation is also a key component
to agricultural development. Even if a
farmer does grow enough agricultural items
to sell, if there is no way to transport these
products to the market, the farmer cannot
sell the crops and make money. In some
regions, problems with roads and
infrastructure interfere with a farmer's
ability to sell his or her goods.
Communication is another component to
agricultural practices. This is because in
order for a farmers to know the type of crop
they must yield to generate a profit, they
need to know the market prices for the types By: Johan Larson
of crops they are growing.
Introduction
D. Agricultural development can help people in developing
countries get out of extreme poverty.
Solving these problems is where
agricultural development and government
funding comes into play. Agricultural
development extends beyond the physical
conditions of farming and into research,
technology and political policy. For
example, until some developing nations
adopt aggressive funding programs to
improve harvesting conditions, agricultural
development is limited. There are
endowments and foundations, however,
that earmark large sums of capital toward By: Andrea Izzotti
improving farming conditions in developing
nations.
Introduction
E. Damaged soil may be an obstacle in agricultural
development
Advancements in farming
technology can result in better
yielding crops for small farmers. This
is because with the right technological
advancements, farmers are able to
get more from their land. Proper
water purification systems coupled
with quality seeds, fertilizers and soil
are all necessary for a bumper crop,
and all of these components can be
enhanced through technological
developments. These advancements
could have widespread benefits, By: kez53
ranging from higher profits for a
farmer to declines in poverty levels
and economic growth in surrounding
areas.
Introduction
B. Origin, domestication and history of some
importance crop
Agriculture has no single, simple origin. A
wide variety of plants and animals have been
independently domesticated at different times
and in numerous places. The first agriculture
appears to have developed at the closing of the
last Pleistocene glacial period, or Ice
Age (about 11,700 years ago). At that time
temperatures warmed, glaciers melted, sea
levels rose, and ecosystems throughout the
world reorganized. The changes were more
dramatic in temperate regions than in the
tropics. Introduction
Plowing and sowing in
Thebes. Painting from
Tomb No. 1, Sennedjem,
Thebes, Egypt.
By Andre Held
Painting of herdsmen
and cattle,Tassili-n-Ajjer,
Algeria.
By Jean-Dominique Lajoux
Origin, domestication and history of some importance crop
Wheat and Barley(Cereal) together with
lentil were among the earliest crops to be
domesticated in the arc of land that connects
the river valleys of the Euphrates and the
Tigris with that of the Jordan.
The word Cereal is derived from the name
of the most important grain deity; The
Roman Goddess Ceres(Also known as the Greek goddess
Demeter, Ceres was the goddess of the harvest and was credited with teaching
humans how to grow, preserve, and prepare grain and corn. She was thought to
be responsible for the fertility of the land). (according to tradition, in 496 BC)
In Asia, the early civilization have
established; Rice and Beans.
Origin, domestication and history of some importance crop
C. World food situation and center of production
In the past couple of years, developments in global food
supply, demand, and trade have raised concerns about the
world’s future food supply.
▪ The prices of wheat and maize rose rapidly during 1995
and the first half of 1996, and at the same time global
cereal stocks fell sharply.
▪ China’s net imports of grain increased substantially in
1995 following two years of net exports.
▪ Many of the countries of Eastern Europe and the former
Soviet Union failed to make significant advances in
economic transition and agricultural development, and
flows of food aid and official development finance to
developing countries declined.
▪ The recent reemergence of El Niño is affecting
temperature and rainfall patterns around the world and
could have potentially severe implications for food
security.
Introduction
The prices of wheat and maize rose rapidly during 1995 and the first half of
1996, and at the same time global cereal stocks fell sharply.
Y E A R
Food and cereal price index.Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations.
Introduction
D. Philippine Agriculture
▪ The Philippines has 6 months of rains, typhoons and is
inundated by endless floods. But after 3 months of dry
spell, we cry “Water!”
▪ The Philippines is ranked No. 5 among the world’s
countries with the longest shorelines at 39,285
kilometers but we are not the top fisheries, aqua and
marine products producer.
▪ In fact, we still import some fisheries and marine
products and our fingerlings for the national fish
“Bangus” and shrimps.
▪ Rice is our staple food and the foremost research
body for the crop - the International Rice Research
Institute - is based in Los Baños, Laguna yet we are
one of the biggest importers of rice in the world.
Introduction
Philippine Agriculture
▪ There are 247 large rivers in the country, thousands of
tributaries, creeks, springs, watershed areas and rich
aquifers but only 1.4-million of the estimated 3.1-million
hectares planted to rice are served by irrigation water
▪ The Philippines is a land of verdant plains and lush
vegetation ideal for animal feeds but we are a heavy
importer of beef and 99% of dairy and milk requirements
come from foreign lands.
▪ The country has a land so fertile that one Israeli agriculturist
once said that the Philippines could produce enough food
to feed the world and seas so wide and islands so plentiful
we could not even get the exact number. Yet the poorest
sectors of society are in farming and fisheries
(by EMMANUEL F. PIÑOL,2016).
Introduction
Philippine Agriculture
Employment by Industry Group, January 2018
(Source of Basic Data: PSA 2018)
Introduction
E. Major crop in the Philippines and their
Geography distribution
▪ The Philippines used to be Number 1 in Coconut.
Thailand has overtaken us. In many stores in the
United States of America, coconut products from
Thailand are sold.
▪ Abaca is endemic to the Philippines but we have
neglected the product and now Ecuador which got its
planting materials of the Manila Hemp from the
Philippines is fast tracking its Abaca development
program.
▪ “Milagrosa,” the aromatic rice found only in the
Philippines has been developed by Thailand and now
marketed worldwide as Jasmine Rice. Worse, they
have claimed the brand name as theirs.
Introduction
Major crop in the Philippines and their
Geography distribution
Philippines VS. Thailand
DIFFERENT METHOD OF COCONUT HARVESTING
Introduction
Major crop in the Philippines and
their Geography distribution
▪ Banana, Pineapple, Durian, Malunggay,
Mangosteen, Cacao, Coffee, Rubber, Oil
Palm,, are high-value products the
Philippines could excel in but these
sectors have largely been left by
government to fend for themselves.
Introduction
F. Meaning and Scope of Crop Science
CROP SCIENCE
Crop Science is the study of agricultural issues
and challenges, including
•resource use consistent with sustainable
production of food, feed, fibre and fuel
•production, processing and marketing of high
quality food and non-food products
•research
•development and implementation of
innovative and efficient production
•processing and marketing systems.
(https://admissions.usask.ca/crop-science.php#About)
Introduction
Scope of Crop Science
It is divided into areas as follows:
a. Agronomy- deals with the principles and practices
of managing field crops and soils
b. Horticulture-deals with gardens and plants within
an enclosure. It includes:
i. Pomology(fruits)
ii. Olericulture(vegetables)
iii. Floriculture(flowers)
iv. Nursery management
v. Landscape gardening
Introduction:Meaning and Scope of Crop Science
Physiological processes in Crop production
CHAPTER II. Physiological processes in crop production
A. Photosynthesis
B. Respiration
C. Transpiration
D. Translocation
E. Mineral nutrition
F. Growth and development
G. Plant movements
H. Crop adaptation
a. Photosynthesis
A process by which plants uses light
energy, water and carbon dioxide to
produce food and oxygen
Produces food for all living organisms
Balances the composition of atmospheric
air by removing carbon dioxide and
releasing oxygen
Physiological processes in crop production
Photosynthesis :
6CO2 + 6H2O ------> C6H12O6 + 6O2
Sunlight energy
Carbon dioxide + water + energy from light produces glucose and oxygen
Physiological processes in crop production-PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Physiological processes in crop production-PHOTOSYNTHESIS
B. Respiration
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
O process by which
organisms break
down glucose into
a form that the cell
can use as energy.
Respiration:
C6H12O6 (glucose) + 6O2 (oxygen) --> 6CO2 (carbon dioxide) + 6H2O (water) + 32 ATP
Physiological processes in crop production-Respiration
Physiological processes in crop production-Respiration
C. Transpiration
Transpiration is the
evaporation of
water from plants
occurring at the
leaves while their
stomata are open
for the passage of
CO2 and O2 during
photosynthesis.
Physiological processes in crop production-Transpiration
❑ Factors affecting the rate of transpiration
1.Humidity 3.Strong wind
2.Evaporation 4.Light
Physiological processes in crop production-Transpiration
Physiological processes in crop production-Transpiration
D. Translocation
Translocation is
the movement of
sugar produced in
photosynthesis to all
other parts of the
plant for respiration
and the other
processes described
above. This occurs
in phloem cells.
Physiological processes in crop production
Translocation
❑ Translocation is the movement of organic
compounds (e.g. sugars, amino acids) from
sources to sinks.
The source is where the organic compounds
are synthesized – this is the photosynthetic
tissues (leaves)
The sink is where the compounds are
delivered to for use or storage – this includes
roots, fruits and seeds.
Translocation
Physiological processes in crop production-Translocation
E.Mineral Nutrition
Mineral Nutrition in Plants
Mineral nutrition in plants is a phenomenon in which
the plant’s roots uptake different essential minerals or
nutrient elements for cell growth, reproduction and
metabolism. Nearly 112 essential elements are found in
the soil, among which the plant’s roots absorb only 60
nutrient elements. Not all 60 minerals are essential for
plant growth. According to the research, there are only 16
to 20 mineral elements considered essential for plants.
Plants primarily obtain the essential minerals from
the soil, while some elements get it through the
atmosphere.
Physiological processes in crop production
Types of Essential Nutrients
Based on the quantitative requirement by the plants, the
essential elements are generally categorized into the
following two types:
Physiological processes in crop production
1.Macronutrients: These include nine elements like C, H,
O, N, P, S, K, Ca and Mg that are necessary for plant survival.
Macronutrients are also called major nutrients, required in
higher amounts (about 10 mg/g of dry matter).
2.Micronutrients: These include seven elements like Fe,
Mn, Cu, Zn, Mo, B and Cl that is also crucial for plant
growth. Micronutrients are called minor nutrients or trace
elements, required in low amount (0.1 mg/g of dry matter).
Besides macro and micronutrients, elements like Na, Co,
Va, Ni and Si are also important for some plants. We can
obtain all the mineral elements through the plant’s ash
except for C, H, O, N and S that go up in smoke.
Physiological processes in crop production
Physiological processes in crop production
Physiological processes in crop production
Physiological processes in crop production
Three Criteria of Essentiality of Elements
Essential mineral element was proposed by (Arnon and
Stout, 1939). They concluded that three criteria must be
met for an element to be considered essential.
1. A plant must be unable to complete its life cycle in the
absence of the mineral element.
2. The function of the element must not be replaceable by
another mineral element.
3. The element must be directly involved in plant metabolism.
Physiological processes in crop production
Physiological processes in crop production- Mineral Nutrition
F. Growth and development
Plant growth could be defined as the increasing of plant
volume and/or mass with or without formation of new
structures such as organs, tissues, cells or cell organelles.
Growth is usually associated with development (cell and tissue
specialization) and reproduction (production of new
individuals).
In the scientific literature there are several different criteria
for the determination of plant growth rates, which are
sometimes contradictory to each other:
▪ plant height or width,
▪ mass (wet or dry),
▪ cell number,
▪ protein or other essential substances content.
Plant embryogenesis
▪ the first stage of the development of a new organism from its
first cell named zygote,
▪ which appears as a result of the sexual fertilization, i.e. fusion of
the egg cell and the sperm cell.
▪ In flowering plants embryo development normally occurs after a
process ;
▪ known as double fertilization during which one haploid sperm
cell nucleus fuses with the haploid egg cell nucleus to produce a
diploid zygote that initiates the development of the embryo,
▪ while the other fuses with a di-haploid central cell nucleus,
initiating the development of endosperm, providing
nourishment for the developing embryo.
▪ After fertilization the zygote enters a period of quiescence-
resulting in a mature embryo.
Physiological processes in crop production
Six moments in embryogenesis
I. Two cell stage
II. Eight cell stage
III. Globular stage
IV. Heart stage
V. Torpedo stage
VI. Maturation
1.endosperm
2.single celled zygote
3.embryo
4.suspensor
5.cotyledons
6.shoot apical meristem (SAM)
7.root apical meristem (RAM)
8.radicle
9.hypocotyl
10.epicotyl
11.seed Coat
Physiological processes in crop production-Plant embryonic development
Physiological processes in crop production
G. Plant movements
• Plant movements can be defined as the changes
in the spatial orientation or conformation of an
organ or its parts.
• Parts of the plants, their roots, their leaves, their
stems all are capable of movements and in fact
move continuously.
• Plant movements include movements toward
light, opening and closing of flowers, growth of
developing roots in search of water and nutrients.
• The movement in plants is mostly seen as
bending, turning, twisting or as elongation of plant
parts.
Physiological processes in crop production
Classical examples of visible plant movements include the
response of sensitive plants like “touch-me-not” (Mimosa pudica)
and the carnivorous Venus flytrap (Dionaea muscipula)
Seismonasty movement
Mimosa pudica Dionaea muscipula
Physiological processes in crop production
Physiological processes in crop production-Plant Movement
Physiological processes in crop production-Plant Movement
In addition to whole organ, the movement of
single cells is also possible which includes;
For example,
The movement of guard cells, which regulates
the stomatal pore size, as well as growth of the
pollen tube through the style.
Such movements are caused by
-Motor cells
-Pressure
Physiological processes in crop production
Most of movements exhibited by plant can be
classified as –
A) MOVEMENT OF LOCOMOTION
B) MOVEMENT OF CURVATURE
A)MOVEMENT OF LOCOMOTION
Plant moves physically from one place to another. It
involves movements of the whole plant body, of an organ
or of material within the plant cell.
Examples:
•cyclosis (streaming of protoplasm)
•oscillatory movements of Oscillatoria
•Motility of zoospores
MOVEMENT OF LOCOMOTION
Physiological processes in crop production- Cyclosis
Physiological processes in crop production-Oscillatory
Physiological processes in crop production-Transpiration
B) MOVEMENT OF CURVATURE
In these cases, plants are fixed, thus they fail to move
from one place to another and somehow, movement is
noticed in the form of bend or curvature on any part of
the plant. By means of curvatures these organs may
change their positions according to their requirement in
order to carry on their functions more effectively.
These are of the following two types:-
A) Nutation : The side of the supporting organ that is in
contact of the support grows at a slower rate than the
opposite side. This brings about a curvature which helps the
supporting organ in spiralling or twinning around the
support.
B) Nastic : These movements occur due to differences in the
rate of growth on the two opposite surfaces of a plant organ.
When the movement occurs due to faster growth on the
upper surface of the organ, it is said to be epinastic
movement and when on the lower surface of the growing
organ, it is known as hyponastic movement.
•Examples: Opening of floral buds and circinately coiled
leaves are good examples of nastic movements.
Nutation
MOVEMENT OF CURVATURE
MOVEMENT OF CURVATURE-Nutation
Nastic
MOVEMENT OF CURVATURE
Plants Movements
H. Crop adaptation
Adaptation was described by Wilsie (1962)
thus: ‘an adaptation may be defined as any
feature of an organism which has survival
value under the existing conditions of its
habitat. Such a feature or features may allow
the plant to make fuller use of the nutrients,
water, temperature or light, available, or may
give protection against adverse factors such
as temperature extremes, water stress,
disease or insect pressures’.
Adaptation of crop plants depends on many
factors, and is best considered in relation to a set of
conditions (environmental, edaphic (soil) and biotic)
rather than to a single factor alone.
• In many situations, one factor (e.g. water
availability) may dominate the prevailing
conditions, and the nature of the plant’s
response then largely reflects its adaptation to
the existing level of that factor.
• More typically, adaptation is expressed as a
response to a combination of factors (e.g.
temperature and daylength) and the nature of
the response then reflects the plant’s adaptation
to the factors in combination.
Physiological processes in crop production
The concepts of growth and development are
important to an understanding of plant adaptation
and are the following;
1. Acclimation
In contrast to adaptation, acclimation (or hardening) is the
non-heritable modification of plant characters caused by
exposure to new environmental conditions such as warmer or
drier weather. It results from temporary modifications to the
plant phenotype caused by the changing environment.
Generally, plants subjected to several cycles of mild water or
low temperature stress suffer less injury from subsequent
drought or very low temperature exposure than plants which
have not been previously stressed (Kramer, 1980).
Physiological processes in crop production
2. Growth
Increase in plant biomass (dry matter) over time. About
95% of biomass is the net result of photosynthetic gains and
respiratory losses, with the remaining 5% derived from
nutrient uptake. Growth is affected by the supply and level of
availability of all factors that are essential to normal plant
metabolism and function.
The major factors are:
• water
• nutrient elements
• light (the visible component of incoming solar radiation – it
includes the red and blue wavelengths which provide energy
for photosynthesis)
• gases, particularly carbon dioxide (CO2) for photosynthesis
and oxygen (O2) for respiration.
Physiological processes in crop production
3. DEVELOPMENT
The progression of a plant through the successive stages of its normal life
cycle. The life cycle is best considered in two main phases, Vegetative and
Reproductive, each of which includes one or more stages:
Vegetative
• Establishment – seed germination, emergence and, ultimately,
independence of seed reserves.
• Vegetative growth – initiation, development and expansion of leaves,
stems and roots.
Reproductive
• Floral initiation – the transition of stem apices (growing points) from
vegetative (producing leaf and stem primordia [buds]) to reproductive
(producing inflorescence structures and floral primordia).
• Flowering and pollination (anthesis), resulting in fertilized ovules
which will develop into seeds (grains).
• Seed growth (grain filling) to a maximum wet weight at physiological
maturity.
• Seed (grain) maturation – grain dries naturally to a moisture content
suitable for harvesting and storage.
• Harvest ripeness – dry (12-14% moisture) grain ready for harvest.
4. Daylength
• The physiological response of plants to the relative lengths
of the diurnal cycles of light (daylength) and dark periods
is called Photoperiodism.
• The most fundamental aspect of this response is the
transition from vegetative to reproductive phase in
photoperiod sensitive plants, which includes most modern
day crop species.
• Depending on their adaptation, photoperiod sensitive
species are induced to progress from vegetative to
reproductive phase when subjected to certain critical
daylengths.
Most species of tropical or subtropical adaptation
are classed as
• Short Day (SD) plants – they grow vegetatively
through the long days of late-spring/summer/early-
autumn, and undergo floral initiation when autumn
daylength declines to a certain critical value.
• In contrast, most species of temperate adaptation are
described as Long Day (LD) plants. Their vegetative
phase occurs during the short-day late-
autumn/winter/early-spring period, floral initiation
occurring when spring daylength increases to a
certain critical value.
5. Competition
The concept of competition is fundamental to an
understanding of adaptation, particularly with crop plants that are
grown in moderate to high density monocultures.
Factors for which plants compete
The main factors are:
• water
• nutrients
• light (solar radiation)
• gases (carbon dioxide [CO2] and oxygen [O2] )
6. Temperature
Thermo-periodism-Some temperate crop species, particularly the
cereals (wheat, oats, barley, rye and triticale) and brassicas
(canola, rape) have both ‘winter’ and ‘spring’ types. Winter types
require a period of exposure to very low temperatures (0-2 oC)
before they can respond to increasing spring daylength.
Vernalisation-It can also be met by subjecting pre-soaked,
germinating seeds to an intense cold period (e.g. 21 days at 1oC).
Heat units-The lengths of the vegetative and reproductive phases
in DN species are temperature dependent, being shorter when
conditions are warm to hot and longer when it is cold.
7. Crop Selection
For any situation, the selection of appropriate crop species for
commercial production depends on economic factors as well as
on the likely performance of the selected crops in the production
environment.
The major factors to be considered in crop selection include the
following:
1.Prevailing farm conditions; biotic factors and topographic
features.
2.Crop or varietal adaptability.
3. Marketability and profitability.
4. Resistance to pests and diseases.
5. Available technology
6. Farming system
7. Security.
8.Planting time
Optimum planting time is determined by a combination of
factors, the most critical being:
(i) Cultivar adaptation. For a given location and a cultivar with
limited photoperiod requirement, the expected timing of
crop development can be approximated using a
combination of heat unit summations based on average
temperature data for the location, and phenological data for
the cultivar.
(ii)Soil water status. For all crops, adequate starting soil water
for germination and emergence is essential for successful
establishment and ultimately growth and yield.
CHAPTER 3
Factors affecting Crop production
Thinning Supplying Mulching
Fertilizer Application Weeding
Harvesting
Control of Pest Prossesing
Storing
Marketing
Sustainable crop production(Group Reporting)
GROUP 1-REPORTING
A. Man and Crops in an Ecosystem
GROUP 2-REPORTING
B. Production systems and crop management
GROUP 3-REPORTING
C. Features of sustainable crop production
GROUP 4-REPORTING
D. Biotechnology and other advances in crop production system
GROUP 5-REPORTING
E. WTO and Conservation Crop Diversity
GROUP 6-REPORTING
F. Patents and farmers right Government program in Agriculture
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and-crop-domestication/
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