Sources : wikipedia.org; H.
Schlicting; Lee and Huang (1988),
www.worldscibooks.com/etextbook/6248/chapter 01.pdf ;
http://www.bakker.org/dartmouth06/engs150/11-bl.pdf
3.1 Fundamentals of Wake Formation
Definition : A wake is the region of low pressure, recirculating flow
immediately behind a moving or stationary solid body, caused by the flow of
surrounding fluid around the body.
In incompressible fluids (liquids) such as water, a bow wake is created when a
watercraft moves through the medium; as the medium cannot be compressed,
it must be displaced instead, resulting in a wave.
Wake or low pressure vortex forms due to boundary layer separation .
Mixing of the free stream potential fluid with the shear fluid from the
boundary layer produces the secondary vortical flow region known as a wake.
Laminar wakes formed due to separation of laminar boundary layer tend to be
larger in size but lower in strength
Turbulent wakes form much farther behind the obstacle due to a more resilient
boundary layer.
Turbulent wakes are more intense but smaller in size and occur much farther
behind a bluff body.
Wakes spread until the energy is dissipated by friction or
dispersion.
For blunt bodies in subsonic flow, the wake behind the object can
be massive.
Flow in such regions is usually reversed and towards the object.
Extensive modeling and experimentation deployed to understand
turbulent wakes.
Wakes also induce drag, pressure oscillations and pressure drag.
Low pressures in wakes are due to vortex shedding from the
trailing edge, which increases the local velocity and lowers the
local pressure.
Wakes tend to be highly transient, lowering the lift and increasing
the drag, while producing noise and vibrations.
Figure 3.2 : Examples for Turbulent Wake
Wake behind a heaving airfoil
Wake behind a golf ball
Figure 3.3 : Influence of Reynolds # on Wake
Formation
Figure 3.4 : Wake and Boundary Layer behind a Cylinder
Figure 3.5 : Influence of Re # on Flow Behind a Cylinder
Mechanism of Vortex Shedding :
The vortex pair (A &B) created in the shear layer is unstable for
Re > 40.
Even small disturbances can rupture the vortex pattern.
Hence, one vortex pattern will grow larger than the other for Re
> 40.
The larger vortex A in Fig. 3.9 becomes strong enough to draw
the opposing vortex B across the wake.
Vorticity in “A” is in the clockwise direction, while that in “B” is
counter-clockwise.
The approach of the negative vortex cuts off further supply of
vorticity to “A” from the boundary layer.
Figure 3.9 Vortex Shedding
This leads to the shedding of vortex “A”.
Since it’s a free vortex, “A” is convected downstream by the flow.
Following the shedding of “A”, a new vortex “C” is formed on the same
side of the cylinder.
Vortex “B” now does the same as “A”, by dragging vortex “C” across the
wake.
The repeat of the process by “B” leads to its shedding.
Hence, vortices are shed alternately on both sides of the cylinder.
Vortex shedding only occurs when two shear layers collide with each
other.
However, at high Re ≥ 5 x 106 , boundary layer is fully turbulent on
only one side, and periodic/alternating vortex shedding is replaced by
irregular vortex shedding.
For Re > 4 x 106, transition to turbulence is complete on both sides of
the cylinder, and periodic vortex shedding resumes.
In the super-critical regime, the boundary layer on both sides
of the cylinder is turbulent at the separation points.
This delays the separation of the boundary layer as the
separation points move downstream.
Consequently, the vortices which are much closer, interact
faster.
This vigorous interaction yields a higher St #.
At Re = 7.2 x 105, vortex shedding is still orderly (sharp spike
in the narrow band, power spectrum).
However, since the magnitude of the spectrum is low, the
shed vortices are not as strong as in the sub-critical regime.
Hence, induced lift is also weak in the super-critical regime.
Vortex shedding frequency also indicates the quadrupole type
wind noise produced due to interaction of the shear layers.
Pressure distribution and hence aerodynamic drag are also
affected by vortex shedding.
In the transition regime, Re = 1.5 x 106, transition to turbulence
in one of the boundary layers is complete.
Asymmetry (non symmetric) results as one side of the B.L is
fully turbulent, while the other is laminar-turbulent.
Lack of symmetry in vortex formation leads to lessened
interaction, thereby disorderly vortex shedding.
Regular vortex shedding is re-established for Re > 4.5 x 106, for
which St = 0.25-0.3.
3.2.5 Impact of Wake on Drag on a Cylinder
1 2
Drag : D = C D ( u A ) (3.3)
2
Total drag = viscous drag + profile drag
At Re < 1, inertial forces are negligible.
Viscous and pressure forces dominate.
For 1 < Re < 103, vortex shedding occurs in a periodic manner.
When 103 < Re < 105, laminar boundary layer separation occurs.
Due to adverse pressure gradient, laminar b.l grows in thickness.
At higher Re #s, transition to turbulence occurs.
Due to delayed b.l separation in turbulent flow, drag drops.
3.3 Case Study II : Wake Behind Ahmed
Body and Drag
3.3.1 Ahmed Body : Simplified Geometry
The “Ahmed Body” is a simplified geometry that allows parametric
studies.
Ahmed investigated the effect of the rear slant angle on wake
formation and drag.
30° is believed to be the critical rear end slant angle.
Beyond that, the rear wake vortex pattern ruptures (for a fastback).
The aspect ratio (width to height) also influences the rear wake
size and overall drag.
A critical AR (aspect ratio) was also proposed for the Ahmed body,
for determining variations in wake and drag.
Figure 3.12 Ahmed Body and CD vs Slant
Angle
Ahmed Body CD vs φ
3.3.2 Drag vs Slant Angle(Fastback)
Influence of rear end slant angle (φ) on wake size and
drag is shown in Fig. 3.12.
The wake intensifies and drag rises upto φ = 30°.
Beyond that the vortex pattern ruptures and becomes
unstable.
Breakdown of the vortex pattern drops drag suddenly.
However, the decrease in drag isn’t dramatic.
At φ = 40°, CD for a fast back is ~0.275, which is 20% more
than drag at φ = 18°(0.23).
Hence, it is advisable to completely avoid the new flow regime.
3.4 : Summary
Wake is a low pressure area of re-circulation (vorticity) due to boundary layer
separation.
The vorticity drawn from the separated boundary layer into the free shear layer
forms the wake zone.
Low pressure wakes increase aerodynamic drag.
The stability of the wake depends on the flow Re.
Vortex shedding in the wake can be observed for Re > 40, as the wake becomes
highly unstable.
The frequency of vortex shedding coincides the wind noise, and flow induced
vibrations.
Vortex shedding also influences the local lift forces.
Rear end slant angle in vehicles determines the rear wake intensity and overall
drag.
Increasing slant angle beyond 30° decreases the drag suddenly due to vortex
rupture.
However, for a fast back, the reduced drag for φ > 30°, is still 20% higher than the
lowest drag at smaller slant angles .
Hence, the new flow regime for φ > 30°, should be avoided in design.
