Module 1

Principles of Electronic Communication Systems

Communication: An Essential Part of Our Lives
 Communication in our daily lives takes many forms and occurs in many environments.
We have different expectations depending on whether we are chatting through the
Internet or participating in a job interview. Each situation has its corresponding
expected behaviors and styles.
 These expectations are the rules of communication, and some of the elements are
universal. Taking a closer look at the way humans communicate will introduce many
of the necessary elements of network communication as well.
Significance of Human Communication
 Communication is the activity of conveying information through the exchange of ideas,
feelings, intentions, attitudes, expectations, behavior and possibly by other means such
as electromagnetic, chemical or physical phenomena and smell.
 Communication is the process whereby information transferred from one point in space
and time, called the source, to another point, the destination or user.
 Main barriers are language and distance.
 Contemporary society’s emphasis is now the accumulation, packaging, and exchange
of information.
Methods of Communication:
1. Face to face
2. Signals
3. Written word (letters)
4. Electrical innovations:
 Telegraph
 Telephone
 Radio
 Television
 Internet (computer)
Communication Systems
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 Transmitter
 The transmitter is a collection of electronic components and circuits that converts the
electrical signal into a signal suitable for transmission over a given medium.
 Transmitters are made up of oscillators, amplifiers, tuned circuits and filters,
modulators, frequency mixers, frequency synthesizers, and other circuits.
Communication Channel
 The communication channel is the medium by which the electronic signal is sent
from one place to another.
 Types of media include
 Electrical conductors
 Optical media
 Free space
 System-specific media (e.g., water is the medium for sonar).
Receivers
 A receiver is a collection of electronic components and circuits that accepts the
transmitted message from the channel and converts it back into a form
understandable by humans.
 Receivers contain amplifiers, oscillators, mixers, tuned circuits and filters, and a
demodulator or detector that recovers the original intelligence signal from the
modulated carrier.
Transceivers
 A transceiver is an electronic unit that incorporates circuits that both send and
receive signals.
 Examples are:
• Telephones
• Fax machines
• Handheld CB radios
• Cell phones
• Computer modems
Attenuation
 Signal attenuation, or degradation, exists in all media of wireless transmission.
It is proportional to the square of the distance between the transmitter and receiver.
Noise
 Noise is random, undesirable electronic energy that enters the communication
system via the communicating medium and interferes with the transmitted
message.
Types of Electronic Communication
 Electronic communications are classified according to whether they are
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1. One-way (simplex) or two-way (full duplex or half duplex) transmissions

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2. Analog or digital signals.

 Simplex
 The simplest method of electronic communication is referred to as simplex.
 This type of communication is one-way. Examples are:
 Radio
 TV broadcasting
 Beeper (personal receiver)
Half Duplex
 The form of two-way communication in which only one party transmits at a time
is known as half duplex. Examples are:
 Police, military, etc. radio transmissions
 Citizen band (CB)
 Family radio
 Amateur radio
Full Duplex
 Most electronic communication is two-way and is referred to as duplex.
 When people can talk and listen simultaneously, it is called full duplex. The
telephone is an example of this type of communication.

Types of Electronic Signals

Analog Signals
 An analog signal is a smoothly and continuously varying voltage or current.
Examples are:
 Sine wave
 Voice
 Video (TV)

Figure 1-1: Analog signals (a) Sine wave “tone.” (b) Voice. (c) Video (TV) signal.
Digital Signals
 Digital signals change in steps or in discrete increments.
 Most digital signals use binary or two-state codes. Examples are:
 Telegraph (Morse code)
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 Continuous wave (CW) code

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 Serial binary code (used in computers)

 Figure 1-2: Digital signals (a) Telegraph (Morse code). (b) Continuous-wave (CW) code. (c) Serial binary code.

Digital Signals
 Many transmissions are of signals that originate in digital form but must be converted
to analog form to match the transmission medium.
 Digital data over the telephone network.
Analog signals
 They are first digitized with an analog-to-digital (A/D) converter.
 The data can then be transmitted and processed by computers and other digital circuits.

Modulation and Multiplexing

 Modulation and multiplexing are electronic techniques for transmitting information
efficiently from one place to another.
 Modulation makes the information signal more compatible with the medium.
 Multiplexing allows more than one signal to be transmitted concurrently over a single
medium.
Modulation
 The process of altering a characteristic of the carrier signal in accordance with the
instantaneous value of the modulating signal to make it suitable for transmission over
a given channel.
 The process of impressing the low frequency intelligence signal onto a high frequency
carrier signal.
Carrier characteristics to be varied
1. Amplitude ( AM )
2. Frequency ( FM )
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3. Phase ( PM )
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 Figure 1-7: Modulation at the transmitter

Figure 1-8: Types of modulation. (a) Amplitude modulation. (b) Frequency modulation.
Multiplexing
 Multiplexing is the process of allowing two or more signals to share the same medium
or channel.
The three basic types of multiplexing are:
1. Frequency division
2. Time division
3. Code division
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Figure 1-11: Multiplexing at the transmitter

 Baseband and Broadband Transmission
Baseband Transmission
 Baseband Transmission is type of transmission that is using current to send signal
over the wire as digital wave. It can transmit only one signal at a time, due to
requirement of the exclusive use of the wire. This type of transmission is allowing only
on device to transmit in the network at one time, while other devices need to wait for
the end of transmission.
 While in some cases baseband supports full-duplexing, in most cases the half-duplexing
is used for sending signals upstream and downstream.
 In telephone or intercom systems, the voice is placed on the wires and transmitted.
 In some computer networks, the digital signals are applied directly to coaxial or
twisted-pair cables for transmission.
Broadband Transmission
 Broadband is using analog signal that is modulated. It is used to transmit cable TV to
premises. Broadband is using different frequencies which increases amount of data it
can carry at one time.
 The amount of data is higher 25 times compared to the baseband.
 A carrier is a high frequency signal that is modulated by audio, video, or data.
 A radio-frequency (RF) wave is an electromagnetic signal that is able to travel
long distances through space.

 Frequency-shift keying (FSK) takes place when data is converted to frequency-

varying tones.
 Devices called modems (modulator-demodulator) translate the data from digital
to analog and back again.
 Demodulation or detection takes place in the receiver when the original baseband
(e.g. audio) signal is extracted.
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 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
 The range of electromagnetic signals encompassing all frequencies is referred to as the
electromagnetic spectrum.

Frequency and Wavelength:

Frequency
 A signal is located on the frequency spectrum according to its frequency and
wavelength.
 Frequency is the number of cycles of a repetitive wave that occur in a given period of
time.
 A cycle consists of two voltage polarity reversals, current reversals, or electromagnetic
field oscillations.
 Frequency is measured in cycles per second (cps).
 The unit of frequency is the hertz (Hz).
Wavelength
 Wavelength is the distance occupied by one cycle of a wave and is usually expressed
in meters.
 Wavelength is also the distance traveled by an electromagnetic wave during the time
of one cycle.
 The wavelength of a signal is represented by the Greek letter lambda (λ).
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 Wavelength (λ) = speed of light ÷ frequency
Speed of light = 3 × 108 meters/second
Therefore:
λ = 3 × 108 / f
Example:
What is the wavelength if the frequency is 4MHz?
λ = 3 × 108 / 4 MHz
= 75 meters
Frequency Ranges from 30 Hz to 300 GHz
 The electromagnetic spectrum is divided into segments:
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 Optical Spectrum
 The optical spectrum exists directly above the millimeter wave region.
 Three types of light waves are:
 Infrared
 Visible spectrum
 Ultraviolet
Optical Spectrum: Infrared
 Infrared radiation is produced by any physical equipment that generates heat, including
our bodies.
 Infrared is used:
 In astronomy, to detect stars and other physical bodies in the universe,
 For guidance in weapons systems, where the heat radiated from airplanes or
missiles can be detected and used to guide missiles to targets.
 In most new TV remote-control units, where special coded signals are transmitted
by an infrared LED to the TV receiver to change channels, set the volume, and
perform other functions.
 In some of the newer wireless LANs and all fiber-optic communication.
Optical Spectrum: The Visible Spectrum
 Just above the infrared region is the visible spectrum we refer to as light.
 Red is low-frequency or long-wavelength light
 Violet is high-frequency or short-wavelength light.
 Light waves’ very high frequency enables them to handle a tremendous amount of
information (the bandwidth of the baseband signals can be very wide).
Optical Spectrum: Ultraviolet
 Ultraviolet is not used for communication
 Its primary use is medical.

Bandwidth
 Bandwidth (BW) is that portion of the electromagnetic spectrum occupied by a signal.
 Channel bandwidth refers to the range of frequencies required to transmit the desired
information.
More Room at the Top
 Today, virtually the entire frequency spectrum between approximately 30 kHz and 300
MHz has been spoken for.
 There is tremendous competition for these frequencies, between companies,
individuals, and government services in individual carriers and between the different
nations of the world.
 The electromagnetic spectrum is one of our most precious natural resources.
 Communication engineering is devoted to making the best use of that finite spectrum.
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 Great effort goes into developing communication techniques that minimize the
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bandwidth required to transmit given information and thus conserve spectrum space.
  This provides more room for additional communication channels and gives other
services or users an opportunity to take advantage of it.
Spectrum Management and Standards
 Spectrum management is provided by agencies set up by the United States and other
countries to control spectrum use.
 The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) and the National
Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA) are two agencies that deal
in spectrum management.
 Standards are specifications and guidelines necessary to ensure compatibility between
transmitting and receiving equipment.
A Survey of Communications Applications
 Simplex
 AM and FM broadcasting
 Digital radio
 TV broadcasting
 Digital television (DTV)
 Cable television
 Facsimile
 Wireless remote control
 Paging services
 Navigation and direction-finding services
 Telemetry
 Radio astronomy
 Surveillance
 Music services
 Internet radio and video
 Duplex
 Telephones
 Two-way radio
 Radar
 Sonar
 Amateur radio
 Citizens radio
 Family Radio service
 The Internet
 Wide-area networks (WANs)
 Metropolitan-area networks (MANs)
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 Local area networks (LANs)

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 Classification of Electronic Communications
 Analog Communications

 Digital Communications

 Data Communications

 Digital and Data Communications

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 Data Communications and Networking
Communication and Protocol
 People have many ways of communicating with each other. Whether the
communication is verbal or nonverbal, face-to-face or over the telephone, or in a
handwritten letter or in a chat room, successful communication requires common rules.
 The rules of communication are also known as protocols.
 Some of the protocols required for communication to occur include the presence of
 An identified sender and receiver
 An agreed-upon method of communicating (face-to-face, telephone, letter,
photograph, and so on)
 Common language and grammar
 An agreed-upon speed and timing of delivery (for example, “Please slow
down so that I can understand you.”)
 Confirmation or acknowledgment requirements (for example, “Is that clear?”
“Yes, thank you.”)
 The external factors stem from the complexity of the network and the number of devices
handling the message en route to the destination. Examples of external factors include
the following:
 The quality of the pathway between the sender and the recipient
 The number of times the message has to change form
 The number of times the message has to be redirected or readdressed
 The number of other messages being transmitted simultaneously on the
communication network
 The amount of time allotted for successful communication
 Internal factors include the following:
 The size of the message
 The complexity of the message
 The importance of the message

Data Communications
 The term telecommunication means communication at a distance. The word data
refers to information presented in whatever form is agreed upon by the parties creating
and using the data.
 Computer Network or data network is a telecommunications network that allows
computers to exchange data. In computer networks, networked computing devices pass
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data to each other along data connections.

 Data communications are the exchange of digital data between two or more devices
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(computers) via some form of transmission medium such as a wire cable.

  For data communications to occur, the communicating devices must be part of a
communication system made up of a combination of hardware (physical equipment)
and software (programs).
 The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four fundamental
characteristics.
 Delivery
 Accuracy
 Timeliness
 Jitter

Delivery
The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received by the
intended device or user and only by that device or user.
Accuracy
The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in transmission
and left uncorrected are unusable.
Timeliness
The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are useless. In the
case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivery data as they are produced, in the same
order that they are produced, and without significant delay. This kind of delivery is called real-
time transmission.
Jitter
Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the unseen delay in the
delivery of audio or video packets. For Example, let us assume that video packets are sent every
3D ms. If some of the packets arrive with 3D-ms delay and others with 4D-ms delay, an uneven
quality in the video is the result.

Data signals
 Most signals are two-state digital signals.
 T1 carrier systems use alternating +3 V and -3 V signals to represent a 1, and use
0 V to represent a 0
 The PC belongs to a category of equipment called data terminal equipment (DTE).
 The equipment used to connect a DTE to the PSTN (Public Switched Telephone
Network) is called data communication equipment (DCE).
 The most common connection used to connect DTE to DCE is an EIA-232 (Electronic
Industries Association) interface.
 The EIA-232 interface cable comes in a 25-conductor and a 9-conductor cable.
 The transmit lead and receive lead in the cable get their designation from the DTE end
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of the cable.
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 EIA-232 Interface

 A communication circuit will not work if the transmitter is talking to another

transmitter.
 The two computers must be connected using modems or a null-modem.
 The word modem is an acronym for modulator/demodulator.
 When data from a computer is fed into a modem, it modulates (changes) the analog
signal being sent to the other modem.
RS-232 Null-Modem Cable
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 Data Transmission
 Data transmission is the transfer of data from point to point often represented as an
electromagnetic signal over a physical point-to-point or point-to-multipoint
communication channel.
Parallel and Serial Data
 Data may be transmitted between two points in two different ways. Let’s consider
sending 8 bits of digital data (1 byte)
Parallel transmission
 Each bit uses a separate wire
 To transfer data on a parallel link, a separate line is used as a clock signal. This
serves to inform the receiver when data is available. In addition, another line may
be used by the receiver to inform the sender that the data has been used, and it’s
ready for the next data.

Serial Transmission
 Each bit is sent over a single wire, one after the other
 Usually no signal lines are used to convey clock (timing information)
 There are two types of serial transmission, essentially having to do with how the
clock is embedded into the serial data
 Asynchronous serial transmission
 Synchronous serial transmission
 If no clock information was sent, the receiver would misinterpret the arriving data
(due to bits being lost, going too slow).
 Parallel transmission is obviously faster, in that all bits are sent at the same time,
whereas serial transmission is slower, because only one bit can be sent at a time.
Parallel transmission is very costly for anything except short links.
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 Asynchronous Serial Transmission (Example: RS232)
 Because no signal lines are used to convey clock (timing) information, this method
groups data together into a sequence of bits (five to eight), then prefixes them with a
start bit and a stop bit. This is the method most widely used for PC or simple terminal
serial communications.
 In asynchronous serial communication, the electrical interface is held in the mark
position between characters. The start of transmission of a character is signaled by a
drop in signal level to the space level. At this point, the receiver starts its clock. After
one bit time (the start bit) come 8 bits of true data followed by one or more stop bits at
the mark level.
 The receiver tries to sample the signal in the middle of each bit time. The byte will be
read correctly if the line is still in the intended state when the last stop bit is read.
 Thus the transmitter and receiver only have to have approximately the same clock
rate. A little arithmetic will show that for a 10 bit sequence, the last bit will be
interpreted correctly even if the sender and receiver clocks differ by as much as 5%.
 It is relatively simple, and therefore inexpensive. However, it has a high overhead,
in that each byte carries at least two extra bits: a 20% loss of line bandwidth.

Synchronous Serial Transmission (Example: PS2)

 The PS/2 mouse and keyboard implement a bidirectional synchronous serial protocol.
 The bus is "idle" when both lines are high (open-collector). This is the only state where
the keyboard/mouse is allowed begin transmitting data. The host has ultimate control
over the bus and may inhibit communication at any time by pulling the Clock line low.
 The device (slave) always generates the clock signal. If the host wants to send data, it
must first inhibit communication from the device by pulling Clock low. The host then
pulls Data low and releases Clock. This is the "Request-to-Send" state and signals the
device to start generating clock pulses.
 Summary: Bus States
Data = high, Clock = high: Idle state.
Data = high, Clock = low: Communication Inhibited.
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Data = low, Clock = high: Host Request-to-Send

 Data is transmitted 1 byte at a time:
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• 1 start bit. This is always 0.

 • 8 data bits, least significant bit first.
• 1 parity bit (odd parity - The number of 1's in the data bits plus the parity bit always
add up to an odd number. This is used for error detection.).
• 1 stop bit. This is always 1.
• 1 acknowledge bit (host-to-device communication only)

Synchronous Serial Transmission

 In fast speed synchronous communications, data is not sent in individual bytes, but as
frames of large data blocks. Frame sizes vary from a few bytes through 1500 bytes for
Ethernet.
 The clock is embedded in the data stream encoding, or provided on separate clock lines
such that the sender and receiver are always in synchronization during a frame
transmission. Most modern WAN framing is built on the High-Level Data Link Control
(HDLC) frame structure. An HDLC frame has the following general structure
 The flag is a sequence 01111110 which delimits the start of the frame. A technique
known as bit stuffing is used to insert additional zeros into the data so that a flag
sequence never appears anywhere but at the start and end of a frame. These extra bits
are "unstuffed" again by the receiver.

 The address field is usually one byte, but may be more. It is used to indicate the sender
or intended receiver of the frame. It is possible to have multiple stations connected to a
single wire, and to design the system so that each receiver only "sees" frames with its
own address. By this means multiple stations can communicate with each other using
just one line (for instance on a Local Area Network).
 The control field is one or more bytes. It contains information on the type of frame (for
instance, whether this is a frame containing user data or a supervisory frame which
performs some sort of link control function). It also often contains a rotating sequence
number that allows the receiver to check that no frame has been lost.
 The "payload" of the frame is the data field. The data in this field is completely
transparent. In fact, it does not even have to be organized in 8 bit bytes, it is a purely
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arbitrary collection of bits.

 Following the data field are two bytes comprising the Cyclic Redundancy
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Check(CRC). The value of these bytes is the result of an arithmetic calculation based
 on every bit of data between the flags. When the frame is received, the calculation is
repeated and compared with the received CRC bytes. If the answers match then we are
sure to a very high degree of certainty that the frame has been received exactly as
transmitted. If there is a CRC error the received frame is usually discarded.
 Finally, the frame is terminated by another flag character.
 Synchronous communication is usually much more efficient in use of bandwidth than
Asynch. The data field is usually large in comparison to the flag, control, address, and
CRC fields, so there is very little overhead.

Serial Communication

Data Communication Terminology

 Baud Rate
 Baud rate is the same as symbol rate and is a measure of the number of line
changes which occur every second. Each symbol can represent or convey one
(binary encoded signal) or several bits of data. For a binary signal of 20Hz,
this is equivalent to 20 baud (there are 20 changes per second).
 Bits Per Second
 This is an expression of the number of data bits per second. Where a binary
signal is being used, this is the same as the baud rate. When the signal is
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changed to another form, it will not be equal to the baud rate, as each line
change can represent more than one bit (either two or four bits).
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 Coding Scheme
 Data communication is the transmission of data from one location to another.
 The data transmitted can be numeric or alphabetic.
 When data is transmitted, some code is used to represent various characters or
numbers sent over the system.
 With the use of computers, a data communication network has become essential.
ASCII Coding
 The standard binary code developed for transmission of data is the American
Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII).
 ASCII is the coding scheme used by a PC to store information.
 It uses 7 bits, each of which can be either a 1 or a 0.
Extended ASCII Coding
 It was not long before we needed to represent more than 128 different characters.
 To represent more than 128 different characters, an eight-level coding system was
developed called Extended ASCII.
 The first 128 codes are the same as for regular seven-level ASCII.
 The codes from 128 to 255 are used to represent additional characters.
ASCII
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 EXTENDED ASCII

Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART)

 PCs contain a hardware device between the data bus of the PC and the RS-232 serial
port.
 The UART will send a start bit (a 0, which is +3 V or greater).
 It will then send the least significant data bit and each higher-order data bit
until the most significant bit is sent.
 It then sends the parity bit.
 It then sends a stop bit (a 1, which is -3 V or less).
EBCDIC
 Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code
 An eight-level coding system developed by IBM.
 Used in its mainframes.
Unicode
 A computing industry standard allowing computers to consistently represent and
manipulate text expressed in most of the world's writing systems.
 Developed in tandem with the Universal Character Set
 Consists of a repertoire of more than 100,000 characters.
 The most commonly used encoding is UTF-8
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 Uses 1 byte for all ASCII characters, which have the same code values as in
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the standard ASCII encoding.

 Uses up to 4 bytes for other characters.
 Asynchronous Transmission Error Checking
 The simplest error-checking method is parity checking.
 ASCII uses 7 bits for coding allowing the 8th bit to be used for parity.
 There are five types of parity:
 Odd – total number of 1s is odd.
 Even – total number of 1s is even.
 Mark – parity bit is always a 1.
 Space – parity bit is always a 0.
 None – used for Extended ASCII
Synchronous Error Detection and Correction
 Cyclic Redundancy Checking (CRC)
 Automatic Retransmission Request (ARQ)
Cyclic Redundancy Checking
 Parity checking provides an end-to-end check (PC to PC) on each byte transmitted
between two PCs, but no error checking is performed.
 Modems use a synchronous error-detection technique called cyclic redundancy
checking (CRC).
 The sender calculates a CRC remainder (typically 16- or 32-bits).
 The receiver recalculates the CRC based on the received data and compares its CRC
with that of the sender.
Automatic Retransmission Request
 Error conditions are handled by requesting that the originating modem retransmit the
data.
 Discrete ARQ
 Continuous ARQ
Discrete ARQ
 Also called stop-and-wait ARQ because after sending a block of data, the transmitting
end will wait for a signal from the receiving end before sending another block of data.
 The signal from the receiving end will be either a positive acknowledgment (ACK)
that the data was good, or a negative acknowledgment (NAK) that it was corrupted.
 On receipt of an ACK, the next block of data is sent.
 If a NAK is received, the last block of data is retransmitted.
Continuous ARQ
 With the use of discrete ARQ, the transmitting modem spends a lot of time waiting for
the acknowledgment message.
 Continuous ARQ eliminates the need for the transmitting modem to wait for an ACK
or NAK on each block of data sent.
 The transmitting modem keeps sending data (up to a specified maximum number of
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blocks) until an ACK or NAK is received.

 If a NAK is received there are two ways the transmitter can respond.
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 Go-Back-N or Selective Repeat (Selective ARQ)

 Physical Transmission Media
 A tangible media
 Examples: Twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, Fiber-optics, etc.
 Twisted-pair cable:
 One or more twisted wires bundled together
 Made of copper
 Coax-Cable:
 Consists of single copper wire surrounded by three layers of insulating and
metal materials
 Typically used for cable TV
 Fiber-optics:
 Strands of glass or plastic used to transmit light
 Very high capacity, low noise, small size, less suitable to natural disturbances

Wireless Transmission Media

 Broadcast Radio
 Distribute signals through the air over long distance
 Uses an antenna
 Typically for stationary locations
 Can be short range
 Cellular Radio
 A form of broadcast radio used for mobile communication
 High frequency radio waves to transmit voice or data
 Utilizes frequency-reuse
 Microwaves
 Radio waves providing high speed transmission
 They are point-to-point (can’t be obstructed)
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 Used for satellite communication

 Infrared (IR)
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 Wireless transmission media that sends signals using infrared light- waves.
 Physical Transmission Media

Coaxial Cable

Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

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 UTP Implementation

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

Straight-through Cable
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 Cross-over Cable
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 Rollover Wiring Cable
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 Jobs and Careers in the Communication Industry
 The electronics industry is roughly divided into four major specializations:
1. Communications (largest in terms of people employed and the dollar value of
equipment purchased)
2. Computers (second largest).
3. Industrial controls.
4. Instrumentation.
Types of Jobs
 Engineers design communication equipment and systems.
 Technicians install, troubleshoot, repair, calibrate, and maintain equipment.
 Engineering Technicians assist in equipment design, testing, and assembly.
 Technical sales representatives determine customer needs and related specifications,
write proposals and sell equipment.
 Technical writers generate technical documentation for equipment and systems.
 Trainers develop programs, generate training and presentation materials, and conduct
classroom training.

Jobs and Careers in the Communication Industry

Major Employers
 The communication electronics industry is made up of the following
segments:
 Manufacturers
 Resellers
 Service Organizations
 End users
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