Transfer of Heat Energy

I. Learning Outcomes:

At the end of the course the students are expected to have:

1. Discuss the transfer of heat energy.

2. Determine and compare the three processes of heat transfer.

3. Solve problems on transfer of heat.

II. Theory:

Energy can be transferred by conduction, convection and radiation. Remember that

heat energy is transferred from a system to a higher temperature to a system to a lower
temperature (with which it is in contact) via collision of their constituent particles. Heat
transfer from hot to cold objects (shown in figure below).

Higher temperature Lower temperature

Length

Heat transfer along a bar

Basic Processes of Heat Transfer:

1. Conduction - Is a heat transfer process which occurs when there is body’s

temperature gradient across the body. Occurs only when body’s temperature is not
uniform (temperature difference between two points). Metals are good conductor.
Heat flows from hot to cold
Formula:

𝚫𝐐 𝐓𝟐 −𝐓𝟏 𝚫𝐓
= 𝐤𝐀 ( ) → 𝐇=𝐤𝐀 (𝐋 )
𝚫𝐭 𝐋

Where:

∆Q - change in heat

∆t - change in time
 𝚫𝐐
H - heat current ( W or J/s or cal/s or BTU/hr ) or
𝚫𝐭

k - thermal conductivity (W/m°C )

T2 − T1
( ) - temperature gradient in °C/m
L

A - cross sectional area in m2

L - thickness in m

Table 1 : Thermal Conductivities

The Thermal Resistance is a convenient way to describe the insulating properties of

building insulation materials. R value of a slab s defined by the heat – flow equation
in the form

Formula:

𝚫𝐐 𝐀𝚫𝐓 𝐋
= → R=
𝚫𝐭 𝐤 𝐤

Where:

R value - thermal resistance (m2 . K/W or ft 2 . h. ℉/Btu)

where; 1 Btu = .176 m2 . K/W

 L - thickness in m

k - thermal conductivity (W/m°C )

For several slabs of the same surface area in series, the combined R value is

𝐑 = 𝐑𝟏 + 𝐑𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝐑𝐍

Where:

R value - thermal resistance (m2 . K/W or ft 2 . h. ℉/Btu)

where; 1 Btu = .176 m2 . K/W

𝑹𝟏 ,… - are the R values of the individual slabs

2. Convection - Heat transfer occurs as the result of the motion of material, such as
mixing a hot and cold fluids. Convection is used in convectional hot-air and hot -water
heating systems.

Formula :

𝐇 = 𝐡𝐀∆𝐓

Where :

H - heat current

A - cross sectional area

h - convection coefficient

ΔT - temperature difference

3. Radiation - Result of the continuous emission of electromagnetic radiation by all

bodies. Emission of energy of a hot body increases with temperature. Emissivity is
 usually larger for dark, rough surfaces than or light, smooth ones. All objects whose
temperature is above absolute zero radiate energy.

A blackbody is an idealized object which absorbs and emits all frequencies. It is

hypothetical object which is a perfect absorber and a perfect emitter of the radiation
over all wavelengths. Emissivity of a blackbody is 1

Formula :

𝐇 = 𝐀𝐞𝛔𝐓 𝟒

Where :
A - cross sectional area
e - emissivity dimensionless
σ - Stefan – Boltzmann constant (5.67 x 10−8 W/mK)
H - Heat current
T - Temprature

Table 2 : Comparison Chart

BASIS FOR
CONDUCTION CONVECTION RADIATION
COMPARISON

Meaning Conduction is a Convection refers to Radiation alludes to

process in which the form of heat the mechanism in
transfer of heat takes transfer in which which heat is
place between energy transition transmitted without
objects by direct occurs within the any physical contact
contact. fluid. between objects.

Represent How heat travels How heat passes How heat flows
between objects in through fluids. through empty
direct contact. spaces.
 Cause Due to temperature Due to density Occurs from all
difference. difference. objects, at
temperature greater
than 0 K.

Occurrence Occurs in solids, Occurs in fluids, by Occurs at a distance

through molecular actual flow of matter. and does not heats
collisions. the intervening
substance.

Transfer of heat Uses heated solid Uses intermediate Uses electromagnetic

substance. substance. waves.

Speed Slow Slow Fast

III. Solved Problems in Heat Transfer:

A.) Sample Problems:

1. A water flow through a cast steel pipe k = 50 W / m K with an outer diameter of 104
mm and 2 mm wall thickness. a). Calculate the heat loss by convection and conduction
per metre length of uninsulated pipe when the water temperature is 15˚C, the outside
air temperature is -10˚C, the water side heat transfer coefficient is 30 kW/m2 K. b.)
Calculate the corresponding heat loss when the pipe is lagged with insulation having an
outer diameter of 300 mm, and the thermal conductivity of k = .05 W / mK.
Solution:
In plain pipe :
 Q
Q = 2πr1 Lhi (Ti − T1 ) → Ti − T1 =
2πr1 Lhi

2πrLk(T1 −T2 ) Q
Q= r → T2 − T1 = r
ln( 2 ) 2πLk( 2 )
r1 r1

Q
Q = 2πr2 Lh0 (T2 − T0 ) → T2 − T0 =
2πr2 Lh0

Adding three equations on the right column which eliminates the wall temperatures

gives:

2πL(Ti − T0 ) Q 2π(15 − (−10))

Q= r → =
ln ( 2 ) L . 052
l r1 l l ln ( ) l
+ + + 50 +
hi r1 k ho r2 30000 x .05 50 20 x .052

= 163.3W/m

In Insulated pipe:

Q 2π(15 − (−10))
= r2 r3
L ln ( ) ln (
l r1 r2 ) l
+ + +
hi r1 k 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑠 ho r3

Q 2π(15 − (−10))
= = 7.3
L . 052 . 15
1 ln ( ) ln ( ) l
+ 50 + . 052 +
30000 x .05 50 . 05𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑠 20 x .15

Comments:

For the plain pipe, heat loss is governed by the connective heat transfer coefficient on
the outside, which provides the highest thermal resistance. For he insulated pipe, the
insulation provides the higher thermal resistance and this layer govern overall heat
loss.
2. The inner and outer surface temperatures of a glass window 5 mm thick are 15 and
5˚C respectively what is the heat loss through a window that is 1 m by 3 m on a side.
The thermal conductivity of a glass is 1.4 W/m K.(Figure 1a)

SOLUTION:

Given: Inner and outer surface temperatures of a glass window of prescribed

dimensions.

Find: Heat loss through window

(Figure )

Assumptions: (1) One-dimensional conduction in the

x-direction,(2) Steady-state conditions, (3) Constant
properties

Analysis: Subject to the forgoing conditions the heat

flux may be computed from Fourier’s law,
(Equation1);

T2 − T1
H= kA ( )
L

W (15 − 5)˚C
H = 1.4 ( )
m. K . 005m

W
H = 2800
m2

Since the heat flux is uniform over the surface, heat loss (rate) is

heat loss = h ∗ A

W
heat loss = 2800 ∗ 3m3
m2

heat loss = 8400 W

Comments: A linear temperature distribution exists in a glass for the prescribed

condition
3. The convection heat transfer coefficient between a surface at 40˚C and ambient air at
20˚C is 20 W/𝑚2 K. Calculate the heat flux leaving the surface by convection.

Solution:

Given : convection process between surface at 𝑇𝑠 and fluid at 𝑇∞ having convection

heat transfer coefficient h.
Find: The heat flux , leaving the surface

(Figure )
Analysis: The appropriate rate equation for
this situation is given by Newton’s law of
cooling.

H = hA∆T
H = 20 W/m2 K(40 − 20) ˚C
H = 400W/m2

Comment: The direction of heat flow is out of the surface since 𝑇𝑠 > 𝑇∞ .

4. A spherical body of 2 cm diameter is maintained at 600˚C. Assuming that it radiates as

if it were a blackbody, at what rates (in watts) is energy radiated from the sphere.

Solution:

A = surface area = 4πr 2 = 4π(.01m)2 = 1.26 x 10−3 m2

H = AeσT 4
H = (1.26 x 10−3 m2 ) (5.6 x 10−8 W/m2 K 4 ) (873 K 4 )
H = 41 W
5. Calculate the rate of heat loss through the vertical walls of a boiler furnace of size 4 m
by 3 m by 3 m high. The walls are constructed from an inner fire brick wall 25 cm thick
of thermal conductivity 0.4 W/mK, a layer of ceramic blanket insulation of thermal
conductivity 0.2 W/mK and 8 cm thick, and a steel protective layer of thermal
conductivity 55 W/mK and 2 mm thick. The inside temperature of the fire brick layer
was measured at 600 ˚C and the temperature of the outside of the insulation 600˚C.
Also find the interface temperature of layers.

Solution:
Composite Wall
l= 4m b= 3m h= 3m
Area of rectangular wall lb = 4x3 = 12m2
Fire brick
𝐋𝟏 = 25 cm
𝐤 𝟏 = 0.4 W/mK
Steel
𝐋𝟐 =0.002m
𝐤 𝟐 = 54 W/mK
Insulation
𝐋𝟑 = 0.08 m
𝐤 𝟏 = 0.2 W/mK
𝑻𝟏 = 600˚C
𝑻𝟐 = 60˚C
Find :
(a) Q
(b) (T3 –T4)

We know that
(Δ𝑇)𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙
𝑄=
Σ𝑅𝑡ℎ

Here ;
(a) (Δ𝑇)𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 = T1 − T4
 𝐓𝟏 −𝐓𝟒
And 𝛴𝑅𝑡ℎ = 𝑅𝑡ℎ + 𝑅𝑡ℎ2 + 𝑅𝑡ℎ3 Q=
Rth + Rth2 + Rth3

L .25 𝟔𝟎𝟎−𝟔𝟎
R th1 = k 1A = .4 x 12 = .0521 K/W Q=
1 .0521+ .0000031+ .0333
L .08
R th2 = k 2A = .2 x 12 = .0333 K/W Q = 6320.96 W
2

L .002
R th3 = k 3A = 54 x 12 = .00000311 K/W
3

(b) To find the temperature drop across the steel layer (𝐓𝟐 − 𝐓𝟑 )
𝑇2 − 𝑇3
𝑄 =
𝑅𝑡ℎ3
T3 − T4 = Q x R th2
= 𝟔𝟑𝟐𝟎. 𝟗𝟔 𝐱 . 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟏 = . 𝟎𝟏𝟗𝟔 𝐊

B.) Assignments:

1.) A steel pipe (K = 45.0 W/m‧K) having a 0.05m O.D is covered with a 0.042 m thick
layer of magnesia (K = 0.07W/m‧K) which in turn covered with a 0.024 m layer of
fiberglass insulation (K = 0.048 W/m‧K). The pipe wall outside temperature is 370 K
and the outer surface temperature of the fiberglass is 305K. What is the interfacial
temperature between the magnesia and fiberglass? Also calculate the steady state heat
transfer.
Answer: Q = 19.959 W / m and T2 = 325.76 K

2.) A mild steel tank of wall thickness 10 mm contains water at 90° C. The thermal
conductivity of mild steel is 50 W/m°C , and the heat transfer coefficient for inside and
outside of the tank area are 2800 and 11 W/m2 °C, respectively. If the atmospheric

temperature is 20oC , calculate a) Q / m and b) T 2

2

Answer : Q / m = 765.29 W / m and T 2 = 89.57 °C

2 2

3.) A certain double-pane window consists of two glass sheets, each 80 cm x 80 cm x .30
cm, seperated by a .30-cm stagnat air space. The indoor surface temperature is 20°C,
 while the outdoor surface temperature is exactly 0°C. How much heat passes through
the window each second? kT = .84 W / K .m for glass and about .080 W / K . m for air.

Answer : 69 cal/s

4.) A 12 cm diameter long bar initially at a uniform temperature of 40˚C is placed in a

medium at 650˚C with a convective co efficient of 22 W/m2K calculate the time
required for the bar to reach 255˚C. Take k = 20W/mK, ρ = 580 kg/m3 and c = 1050
J/kg K.
Answer : T = 1355.4 sec

5.) A aluminium sphere mass of 5.5 kg and initially at a temperature of 290°C is suddenly
immersed in a fluid at 15 °C with heat transfer coefficient 58 W/m2 K. Estimate the
time required to cool the aluminium to 95° C for aluminium take ρ = 2700 kg/m3 , c =
900 J /kg K, k = 205 W/mK.
Answer : T = 360.8 sec

C.) Supplementary Problems:

1.) A 20 cm thick brass plate ( kT =105 W / K‧m) is sealed to a glass sheet ( kT =.80 W / K‧

m), and both have the same area. The exposed face of the brass plate is 80°C, while
the exposed face of the glass is at 20 °C. How thick is the glass-brass interface is at
65 °C?
2.) A sphere of 3 cm radius acts like a black body. It is in equilibrium with its surroundings
and absorbs 30 k‧W of power radiated to it from the surroundings. What is the
temperature of the sphere?

3.) An incandescent lamp filament has area 50 mm2 and operates at a temperature of
2127 °C. Assume that all the energy furnished to the bulb is radiated from it. If the
filament’s emissivity is 0.83, how much power must be furnished to the bulb when it is
operating?
4.) A small hole in a furnace acts like a black body. It’s area is 1 cm2 , and its temperature is
the same as that of interior of the furnace, 1727 °C. How many calories are radiated out
of the hole each second?

5.) A 120 mm diameter apple ρ = 990 kg /m3 , c p = 4170 J / kg °C, k = .58 w / m °C,

approximately spherical in shape is taken from a 25 °C environment and placed in a

h = 20 W / m2 ‧ C
h = 50 W / m2 ‧ C
T = 100 ºC T = 20 ºC

refrigerator where temperature is 6 °C and the average convective heat transfer

coefficient over the apple surface is 12.8 w / m2 °C. Determine the temperature at the
center of the apple after a period of 2 hours.

6.) A 1-m rod of pure copper 1 cm2 in cross section connects a 200 °C thermal reservoir
with a 0 °C thermal reservoir. The system has already reached steady state. What are
the rates of change of entropy of (a) the first reservoir, (b) the second reservoir, (c)
the rod, and (d) the whole universe, as a result of the process?

7.) What is the temperature at the left-hand wall shown in Fig. below Both walls are thin,
very large in extent, highly conducting, and thermally black.

8.) A steel ingot (large in size) heated uniformly to 745 °C is hardened by quenching it in an
oil path maintained at 20 °C. Determine the length of time required for the temperature
to reach 595 °C at a depth of 12mm. The ingot may be approximated as a flat plate. For
steel ingot take (thermal diffusivity) =1.2 𝑥 10−5 / 𝑠.

9.) The initial uniform temperature of a thick concrete wall (𝛼 = 1.6 𝑥 10−3 m2 /h, k = 0.9
W/m °C ) of a jet engine test cell is 25 °C. The surface temperature of the wall suddenly
rises to 340 °C when the combination of exhaust gases from the turbo jet … spray of
cooling water occurs. Determine: (a) The temperature at a point 80mm from the surface
after 8 hours.
10.) How may grams of water at 100 °C can be evaporated per hour per 𝑐m2 by the heat
transmitted through a steel plate .20 cm thick, if the temperature difference between
the plate faces is 100 °C? For steel, kT is 42 W / K‧m.

IV. Answer key (Supplementary problems):

1.) 0.46 mm
2.) 2.6 x 10−3 K
3.) 78 W
4.) 21.7 cal / s
5.) 20.25°C
6.) (a) - 0.01654 W/K, (b) 0.02864 W/K , (c) 0 W / K
7.) T = 42 C (right hand wall) and T= 91.2 C (left hand wall)
8.) 3.7 s ‧ m2
9.) 223. 45 °C
10.) 0.33 kg / h‧cm2

V. References:

https://www.brighthubengineering.com/hvac/5231-what-is-heat-transfer/

https://eclass.upatras.gr/modules/document/file.php/ENV173/heat-transfer-
exercise-book.pdf

http://www.mie.uth.gr/labs/ltte/grk/pubs/ahtt.pdf

http://www.annamalaiuniversity.ac.in/studport/download/engg/mech/oldqp/H
MT%20University%20Solved%20Problems.pdf

Serway, Raymond A. and Jerry S. Faughn. College Physics . Saunders College

Publishing ,USA (1992).
Young, H. and Mark w. Zemansky. (1898) University Physics (7th ed). Addison-
Wesley Publishing Company.