Geotechnical

Engineering - II

UNIT – IV

GROUND IMPROVEMENT
(Method of soil stabilization use of admixtures (lime, cement, fly ash) in stabilization. Basic
concepts of reinforced earth use of geosynthetic materials Salient features, function and applications
of various geosynthetic materials. Vibroflotation, sand drain installation, pre-loading.)

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INTRODUCTION
Improve or modify the properties of the soil either by excavating the poor quality soil and replacing
it with soil having better engineering properties, or by in situ treatment without excavation – these
processes are known as ground improvement. Ground improvement refer to the improvement in or
modification to the engineering properties of a soil that are carried out at a site where the soil in its
natural state does not possess properties that are acceptable to us for the proposed Civil Engineering
activity.
What is to be improved?
Engineers often ask for the following improvements in soil behaviour:-
1) An increase in the bearing capacity.
2) A reduction in the amount of settlement and in the time, in which it occurs,
3) An increase in the capacity to retard seepage,
4) An acceleration in the rate at which drainage occurs,
5) Elimination of the possibility of liquefaction,
6) An increase in the stability of a slope or of a vertical cut or of an underground opening.
To achieve the desired soil behaviour, we have to alter soil properties, e.g. increase the shear
strength, reduce the compressibility and increase or decrease the permeability.

METHOD OF SOIL STABILISATION

Stabilisation in a broad sense incorporates the various methods employed for modifying the
properties of a soil to improve its engineering performance. Stabilisation is used for a variety of
engineering works, the most common application being in the construction of road and air – field
pavements. Methods of stabilization may be grouped in two main types :-
1) Modification or improvement of a soil property of the existing soil without any admixture for e.g.
Compaction and drainage, and,
2) Modification of the properties with the help of admixtures for e.g. mechanical stabilization.

USE OF ADMIXTURES (LIME, CEMENT, FLYASH) IN STABILISATION

The physical properties of soils can often economically be improved by the use of admixtures. Some
of the more widely used admixtures include lime, portland cement and asphalt. The process of soil
stabilization first involves mixing with the soil a suitable additive which changes its property and
then compacting the admixture suitably. This method is applicable only for soils in shallow
foundations or the base courses of roads, airfield pavements, etc.
1) Lime stabilization :-
The type of limes commonly used to stabilize fine – grained soils are hydrated high calcium lime
[Ca (OH)2], calcium quicklime (CaO), monohydrated dolomitic lime [Ca(OH)2.MgO], and
dolomitic quicklime. Lime stabilization in the field can be done in three ways:-
1) The in – situ material can be mixed with the proper amount of lime at the site and then
compacted after the addition of moisture.
2) The soil can be mixed with the proper amount of lime and water at a plant and then hauled
back to the site for compaction.
3) Lime slurry can be pressure injection into the soil to a depth of 4 to 5m.
The amount of lime required may be used on the unconfined compressive strength or
the CBR test criteria. Normally 2 or 8% of lime may be required for coarse grained soils, and 5 to
10% for plastic soils. Lime stabilization has been extensively used to decrease swelling potential and
swelling

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pressures in clays. Ordinarily the strength of wet clay is improved when a proper amount of lime is
added. The improvement in strength is partly due to the decrease in plastic properties of the clay and
partly to the pozzolanic reaction of lime with soil, which produces a cemented material that increases
in strength with time. Lime-treated soils, in general, have greater strength and a higher modulus of
elasticity than untreated soils.

2) Cement stabilization :-
Soil-cement is the reaction product of an intimate mixture of pulverized soil and measured
amounts of portland cement and water, compacted to high density. As the cement hydrates, the
mixture becomes a hard, durable structural material. Hardened soil-cement has the capacity to bridge
over local weak points in a subgrade. When properly made, it does not soften when exposed to
wetting and drying, or freezing and thawing cycles. Portland cement and soil mixed at the proper
moisture content has been used increasingly in recent years to stabilize soils in special situations.
Probably the main use has been to build stabilized bases under concrete pavements for highways and
airfields. Soil cement mixtures are also used to provide wave protection on earth dams. There are
three categories of soil-cement they are:
1. Normal soil-cement usually contains 5 to 14 percent cement by weight and is used generally for
stabilizing low plasticity soils and sandy soils.
2. Plastic soil-cement has enough water to produce a wet consistency similar to mortar. This material
is suitable for use as water proof canal linings and for erosion protection on steep slopes where road
building equipment may not be used.
3. Cement-modified soil is a mix that generally contains less than 5 percent cement by volume. This
forms a less rigid system than either of the other types, but improves the engineering properties of
the soil and reduces the ability of the soil to expand by drawing in water.
The cement requirement depends on the gradation of the soil. A well graded soil containing
gravel, coarse sand and fine sand with or without small amounts of silt or clay will require 5 percent
or less cement by weight. Poorly graded sands with minimal amount of silt will require about 9
percent by weight. The remaining sandy soils will generally require 7 percent. Non-plastic or
moderately plastic silty soils generally require about 10 percent, and plastic clay soils require 13
percent or more.

3) Cement stabilization :-
Fly ash by itself has little cementatious value but in the presence of moisture it reacts
chemically and forms cementatious compounds and attributes to the improvement of strength and
compressibility characteristics of soils. It has a long history of use as an engineering material and has
been successfully employed in geotechnical applications.

BASIC CONCEPT OF REIFORCED EARTH

Reinforced earth consists of a compacted soil mass within reinforcing elements or
membranes, usually in the form of horizontal strips of metal (such as galvanized steel, stainless steel
or aluminium alloys), rods of metals, wire grids, fibre glass strips/rods, bamboos or geotextiles, are
embedded.
The main application of the reinforced earth technique is the reinforced wall. A reinforced earth wall
consists of three components :-
i) Wall facing elements:- The wall facing elements are provided at the free boundary of a
reinforced earth structure, to provide some form of barrier so that the soil mass is contained.

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These elements may either be flexible, or stiff, it should be strong enough to hold back the soil
and should allow fastening to attach reinforcing elements. These are made from steel, aluminium,
plastic, fibre, or reinforced concrete.
ii) Reinforcing elements/membranes:- The reinforcing elements consists of any or the following:-
(i) Galvanised steel strips
(ii) Rods of galvanized steel
(iii) Strips or rods of other metal such as stainless steel, aluminium
(iv) Galvanised iron grids,
(v) Fibre glass strips
(vi) Glass-Fibre reinforced plastic (GRP),
(vii) Geosynthetic reinforcements such as geotextiles, geomembranes, geogrids, geostrips,
geocomposits, etc.
(viii) Bamboos.
iii) Compacted backfill:- The soil for the backfill should be predominantly coarse-grained
and it has been proposed that not more than 10% of the particles should pass the
63micron sieve. The first layer of reinforcement strips is placed at the level ground
surface and backingfilling is done with granular soil, compacting it in the processes of
laying.

ADVANTAGED OF REINFORCED EARTH STRUCTURES

The following are advantages of reinforced earth structures:-
(i) Reinforced earth structures are quite flexible. Hence these can withstand foundation
deformations/settlements.
(ii) Reinforced earth structure being flexible, can withstand earth-quake forces more efficiently
than conventional rigid structures.
(iii) Reinforced earth structures are much more economical in comparison to the
conventional structures of masonry or concrete.
(iv)Reinforced structural elements can be transported easily. Hence these can be constructed
speedily.
(v) Reinforced earth structures can also be constructed in stages.
(vi)The reinforcing elements used for such structures are easily available in various sizes and
shapes. They can be easily stored, handled and placed during construction.
H/3

Fig.1 Reinforced Earth Wall.

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USE OF GEOSYNTHETIC MATERIALS, SALIENT FEATURES, FUNCTIONS AND
APPLICATIONS OF VARIOUS GEOSYNTHETIC MATERIALS

Geotextiles are permeable or porous fabrics, made from synthetic materials that are used with
geotechnical material (such as soil or rock) as an integral part of a man made product, structure or
system. As per ASTM, geotextiles are permeable sheets of synthetic fibres like polyester,
polypropylene, polamide (nylon), viscose etc. where geomembranes are imperbeable sheets or films
made from a polymer and which may be reinforced with textile.

Salient Features of geo-synthetics:-

i) Geotextiles and geostrips:- These include wovwn and non-woven geotextiles used for
drainage, stabilization and reinforcement function. Geostrips are in the form of cut fabric or
long strips of geotextiles. They are produced from polypropylene and high density
polyethylene. They can be connected with anchors at the ends.
ii) Geogrids:- These include extruded, woven, flexible and stiff types of geogrids used for
stabilization and reinforcement.
iii) Geomembranes:- These include HDPE, PVC, CSPE, PP liners etc, and are basically
impervious.
iv) Geonets:- These include LDPE ans HDPE nets and have functions similar to geogrids.
v) Geocells or Geoweb members:- These include multicoloured HDPE cells of varying
heights, used for stabilization applications. They are made from prefabricated polymetric
systems.
vi) Geofoam :- These include polystyrene sheets of varying dimensions used for light weight
fills and other applications.
vii) Geosynthetic clay liners:- These include geotextile/clay/geotextile composites.

Applications of Geotextiles:-
1) Geotextiles are made either from the natural fibres or from synthetic materials. The bio-
degradable nature of natural fibres have restricted their use to some specific applications
whereas synthetic materials have made their way for wide applications.
2) Another advantage of using these fibres for geotextiles is related to their ability to be
engineered chemically, physically to suit particular geotechnical engineering applications.
3) Ease and speed of construction.
4) Ability ti withstand differential settlement.
5) Suitability for phased construction at restricted sites.
6) Ability to provide viable solution to exceptionally difficult, otherwise, intractable
construction problems.

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Fig.2 Some applications of soil reinforcement.

Functions of various geosynthetic materials:-

1) Fluid transmission and drainage function:- A geotextile provides fluid transmission when
it collects a liquid or gas and conveys it within its own plane, towards an outlet.Drainage is
related to the role of filtration and is a function of the permeability of a geotextile and its pore
opening size or porometry. The permeability involved in the fluid transmission function is the
permeability in the plane of the geotextile.
2) Filtration function:- A geotextile acts as a filter when it allows liquid to pass normal to its
own plane while preventing most soil particles from being carried away by liquid current.
Two cases can be considered :- (i) Ageotextile, placed across a flow pf liquid carrying fine
particles, stops most of the particles (where they accumulate on the filter) while allowing
water to pass through, and (ii) a geotextile, placed in contact with a soil, allows water seeping
from the soil to pass through, while preventing any movement of soil particles. The two
important properties required in a geotextile to work as a filter are () permeability across its
own plane and (ii) porometry.
3) Separation function:- A geotextile acts as a separator when placed between a fine soil and a
coarse material such as gravel or stone ballast. It prevents the fine soil and the coarse material
from inter-mixing under the action of reapeated applied loads. The key factors for a
geotextile to satisfy this function are (i)porometry, (ii)toughness and(iii)strength.

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4) Protection function:- A geotextile protects a material when it distributes stresses and strains
transmitted to the protected material. Two cases can be considered:-
(a) Surface protection:- A geotextile, placed on the soil, prevents one of being damaged by such
action as weather, light traffic, surface water flow. Etc.
(b) Interface protection:- A geotextile, placed between two materials prevents one of the
materials from being damaged by concentrated stresses applied by (or strains imposed by) the
other material.
5) Reinforcement function:- Reinforced earth:- Since the tensile strength of soil is practically
nil, geotextiles which are good in tensile strength, can contribute to the load carrying capacity
of soil.A geotextile can work as reinforcement in two ways:-
(a) As tensile member:- A geotextile acts as a tensile member when it provides tensile modulus
and tensile strength to a soil with which it is interacting through interface shear strength, i.e.
friction, cohesion-adhesion and/or interlocking between geotextile and soil.
(b) As tensioned membrane:- A geotextile function as a tensioned membrane when it is placed
between two materials two materials having different pressures, and its tension balances the
pressure difference between two materials, thus strengthening the structure.

1) Fluid transmission and drainage function: A geotextile provides fluid transmission when it
collects a liquid or gas and conveys it within its own plane, towards an outlet. Water may be
conveyed vertically or horizontally. Drainage is related to the role of filtration and is a
function of the permeability of a geotextile and its pore opening size or porometry. The
permeability involved in the fluid transmission function is the permeability is the
permeability in the plane of the geotextile.

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Fig.3. Typical examples of fluid transmission or drainage function.

2) Fluid transmission and drainage function: A geotextile acts as a filter when it allows liquid
to pass normal to its own plane while preventing most soil particles from being carried away
by liquid current. Two cases can be considered: (i) where they accumulate on the filter.)
while allowing water to pass through, and (ii) a geotextile, placed in contact with a soil,
allows water seeping from the soil to pass through, while preventing any movement of soil
particles. The two important properties required in a geotextile to work as a filter are (i)
permeability across its own plane, (ii) porometry.

Fig.4. Typical examples of Fluid transmission and drainage function.

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3) Separation function: A geotextile acts as a separator when placed between a fine soil and a
coarse material such as gravel or stone ballast. It prevents the fine soil and the coarse material
from inter-mixing under the action of repeated applied loads. The key factors for a geotextile
to satisfy this function are (i) porometry, (ii) toughness and (iii) strength. A typical example
is in the construction of a highway in which a clayey subgrade is kept to separate from a
granular base course.

Fig.5. Typical examples of Separation function.

4) Protection function: Reinforced earth: Since the tensile strength of soil is practically nil,
geotextiles which are good in tensile strength, can contribute to the load carrying capacity of
soil.

Fig6. Typical examples of Protection function.

VIBROFLOTATION

Vibro-compaction, sometimes referred to as Vibrofloation, is the rearrangement of soil

particles into a denser configuration by the use of powerful depth vibration. Vibrocompaction is a
ground improvement process for densifying loose sands to create stable foundation soils. The
principle behind vibrocompaction is simple. The combined action of vibration and water saturation
by jetting rearranges loose sand grains into a more compact state.  Vibrocompaction is performed
with specially-designed vibrating probes. Both horizontal and vertical modes of vibration have been
used in the past. The vibrators used by TerraSystems consist of torpedo-shaped probes 12 to 16
inches in diameter which vibrates at frequencies typically in the range of 30 to 50 Hz. The probe is
first inserted into the ground by both jetting and vibration. After the probe reaches the required depth
of compaction, granular material, usually sand, is added from the ground surface to fill the void
space created by the vibrator. A compacted radial zone of granular material is created

APPLICATIONS:

 Reduction of foundation settlements.

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 Reduction of risk of liquefaction due to seismic activity.

 Permit construction on granular fills.

Fig.7. Compaction by vibrofloation process.

SAND DRAIN INSTALLATION

The main application of the radial consolidation is in

the design of sand drains used to increase the rate of
drainage in the embankment. Sand drains are constructed
by driving a casing (or a hollow mandrel) into the
embankment and making vertical bore holes. The holes are
backfilled with a suitably graded sand. The casing is
withdrawn after the sand has been filled. The drains are
generally laid either in a square pattern or a triangular
pattern. The spacing (S) of the drains is kept smaller than
the thickness of the embankment (2H) in order to reduce
the length of the radial drainage path. The zone influence of
each drain in a triangular pattern is hexagonal in plan,
which can be approximated by an equivalent circle of
radius R, where R = 0.525 S. In case of square pattern, the
radius of circle of influence R is equal to 0.554 S. The
radius of the sand drain is represented by rw.

The fig.8 shows the sand drains installed in position. A

sand blanket is placed over the top of the sand drains to
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connect all the sand drains. To accelerate the drainage, a surcharge load is placed on the sand
blanket. The surcharge is generally in the form of dumped soil. Due to surcharge load, the pore water
pressure increases in the embankment. The drainage occurs in the vertical and horizontal directions.
The horizontal drainage occurs because of sand drains. The sand drains accelerate the process of
dissipation of excess pore water created by the surcharge.

Fig.8. Sand drains installation.

Fig.8. Patterns of sand drains.

PRE – LOADING

Preloading is a technique that can successfully be used to densify soft to very soft
cohesive soils. Large-scale construction sites composed of weak silts and clays or organic materials
(particularly marine deposits), sanitary landfills

, and other compressible soils may often be stabilized effectively and economically by preloading.
Preloading compresses the soil. Compression takes place when the water in the pores of the soil is
removed which amounts to artificial consolidation of soil in the field. In order to remove the water
squeezed out of the pores and hasten the period of consolidation, horizontal and vertical drains are
required to be provided in the mass. The preload is generally in the form of an imposed earth fill
which must be left in place long enough to induce consolidation. The process of consolidation can be
checked by providing suitable settlement plates and piezometers. The greater the surcharge load,
shorter the time for consolidation. This is a case of three-dimension consolidation.
Two types of vertical drains considered are
1. Cylindrical sand drains

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2. Wick (prefabricated vertical) drains.

Fig.9. Consolidation of soil using sand drains

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