THE LIVING WORLD

Living organisms

 The living creatures of all kinds are known as living organisms.

 For example, all plants, animals, and microorganisms are living organisms.

Characteristics of Living Organisms

 Living organisms are made up of cells – The organisms made up of a single

cell are called unicellular (for example amoeba, bacteria) and those made up of
many cells are called multicellular (for example humans, dogs).
 All living organisms require food.
 All living organisms show growth.
 All living organisms respire.
 All living things respond to stimuli.
 All living things excrete.
 All living things reproduce.

Differences between Living things and Non Living things.

Living things Non Living things

They are made up of cells. They are not made up of cells.
They show movement, but the energy for movement They show movement by taking
comes from within the organism. external force or energy.
They need food. They do not need food.
Growth is irreversible. Growth is reversible.
Respiration occurs in which food is oxidized to release
They do not need respiration.
energy.
Reproduction occurs in living things. Nonliving things do not reproduce.

Differences between Plants and Animals

Plants Animals
They can make their own food by the process of They cannot make their own food.
photosynthesis. They are known as autotrophs. They are heterotrophs.
They show movement but cannot show locomotion   i.e.
They show movement as well as
they cannot change their position from one place to
locomotion.
another.
They also show a response to stimuli
They show a response to stimuli but lack sense organs.
and have well-developed sense organs.
 They stop growing once they reach
They grow throughout their life.
their adult form.

 Nomenclature
o The process to standardize the naming of a living organism is known as
nomenclature.
o The process of assigning a pre-existing taxon name to an individual
organism is identification.
o The system of providing a name with two components (Generic name
and specific epithet) is known as Binomial nomenclature.

 Binomial nomenclature was given by Carolus Linnaeus.

o The biological names are generally in Latin and written in italics

(underlined when written by hand). Example: The biological name of
mango is Mangifera indica.
o The first word in a biological name (e.g. Mangifera) represents generic
name, which always starts with capital letter while the second
component (e.g. indica) represents the specific epithet that starts with a
small letter.

 IUBN – International Code for Botanical Nomenclature and IUZN –

International Code of Zoological Nomenclature are responsible for approving a
scientific name and ensuring that this name has not been given to any other
plant or animal.
 Taxonomical Aids
 
 Taxonomy is the branch of biology that deals with identification, naming, and 
classification of organisms.

 Taxonomical
aids are the procedures and techniques used to store and preserve information a
s well as specimens of various plants and animals.

 These help in identification, naming, and classification of the organisms.

 Herbarium

 It is the storehouse of collected plant specimens.
 Collected plant specimens are dried, pressed, and preserved on sheets and then 
arranged systematically according to the universally accepted system of classifi
cation.
 Herbarium sheet contains label regarding the
date, place of the collection, scientific name, family, collector’s name, etc. of th
e specimen.

 Botanical gardens

 It has the collection of living plant species that are grown for identification and 
reference.
 Each plant contains labels indicating their scientific name and family.
 Some famous botanical gardens are Indian Botanical Garden, Calcutta (largest i
n India), Royal Botanical Garden, Kew (largest in world till date), and National 
Botanical Research Institute.

 Museum

 It is the repository that has a collection of various plant and animal specimens t
hat are preserved for study and reference.
 The organisms are preserved either in preservative solution or in the form of dr
y specimens.
 It often has a collection of skeletons of animals also.

 Zoological parks

 Wild animals are kept in protected environments.
 Provides opportunity for studying the behavior and food habits of the animals

 Key

 Keys are used for identification of plants and animals based on similarities and 
dissimilarities.
 Manuals, monographs, and catalogs are other means of recording descriptions.
 Manuals help in the identification of names of various species of organisms in a 
given area.
 The monograph is a detailed and well-
documented work on any particular taxon.
 BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
Classification

 The process of grouping living organisms into convenient categories based on

simple characters is known as classification.

1. Two kingdom classification

 Carolus Linnaeus divided all living things into two kingdoms- Plantae and
Animalia.

2. Five kingdom classification

 R.H. Whittaker divided all living things into five kingdoms- Monera, Protista,
Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia.
 The main criteria for classification included
o cell structure
o thallus organization
o mode of nutrition
o reproduction
o phylogenetic relationship (evolutionary relationship)

 Kingdom Monera 

 It includes all prokaryotes. Bacteria are the sole members of this kingdom.
 They have autotrophic (photosynthetic or chemosynthetic) or heterotrophic
mode of nutrition.
 Bacteria can be classified into four categories based on their shapes.
o Spirillum – spiral-shaped
o Coccus – spherical-shaped
o Bacillus – rod-shaped 
o Vibrium – comma-shaped

1. Archaebacteria

 It includes halophiles, which are found in extreme salty areas;

thermoacidophiles, which are found in hot springs; and methanogens, which are
found in marshy areas.
 Methanogens are found in the gut of ruminants and are used for the production
of biogas from cow dung.
2. Eubacteria (also known as true bacteria)

 It includes blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) such as Nostoc, Anabaena, etc.

 Photosynthetic bacteria contain chlorophyll a. Chemosynthetic bacteria oxidize
various inorganic compounds and use the released energy for their ATP
production.
 They have a rigid cell wall and flagellum (if motile) for locomotion.
 They have specialized cells known as heterocysts, which are involved in
nitrogen fixation.
 Bacteria reproduce mainly by binary fission. Spore formation and primitive
type of DNA transfer techniques from one bacterium to another are also seen
for reproduction.
 Mycoplasma is the smallest cell that can survive in the absence of oxygen and
completely lacks a cell wall. Many of them are pathogenic to plants and
animals.

Viruses

 Viruses are living only when found in living organisms.

 Viruses are non-cellular organisms having either DNA or RNA as the genetic
material and a protein coat.
 W.M. Stanley showed that virus can be crystallized. 
 Viruses that infect bacteria are called bacteriophages.
 A bacteriophage consists of head, tail, sheath, and tail fibers.

Viroids and lichens

 Viroids are infectious agents, smaller than viruses having free RNA. These lack
protein coat.
 Discovered by T.O. Diener
 Lichens are symbiotic associations of algae and fungi.
o The algal component in a lichen is referred to as phycobiont while the
fungal component is referred to as mycobiont.
o Lichens are good pollution indicators.

 Kingdom Protista

 It includes all unicellular eukaryotes.

 They have an autotrophic or heterotrophic mode of nutrition.
 Have well-defined nucleus and membrane-bound organelles
  Reproduce asexually and sexually by a process of cell fusion and zygote
formation
 Classes of kingdom Protista-

1. Chrysophytes

 This group includes diatoms and desmids (golden algae).

 The deposition of cell walls of diatoms in their habitat is known as
diatomaceous earth.
 The soil of diatomaceous earth is gritty. Therefore, it is used in polishing,
filtrations of oils and syrups.
 Diatoms from the chief producers in the oceans.

2. Dinoflagellates

 This group includes red dinoflagellates such as Gonyaulax.

 These are mostly marine and photosynthetic.
 They make the sea appear red, forming red tides. The toxins released by them
are harmful to marine animals.

3. Euglenoids

 It includes freshwater organisms such as Euglena.

 These organisms have both autotrophic (in presence of sunlight) and
heterotrophic (in absence of sunlight) mode of nutrition.
 The outer layers of these organisms are made up of pellicle, which makes the
body more flexible.
 These possess two flagella for locomotion and engulfing food.
 Euglena is called the connecting link between plants and animals as it
possesses characteristics of both plants and animals.

4. Slime molds

 This group includes saprophytic protists. They feed upon decaying parts of
plants.
 Under favorable conditions, slime molds form plasmodium.
 During unfavorable conditions, Plasmodium gets differentiated and forms
fruiting bodies bearing spores at their tips.

5. Protozoans

 They have a heterotrophic mode of nutrition.

  They include four major groups of protozoans:

 Amoeboid protozoans - Examples include Amoeba, Entamoeba.

 Flagellated protozoans - Example includes Trypanosoma.
 Ciliated protozoans - Example includes Paramoecium.
 Sporozoans - Example includes Plasmodium (malaria parasite).

Kingdom Fungi

 It includes eukaryotes with cell wall (made of chitin), which have a

heterotrophic mode of nutrition. 
 They may be saprophytic, parasitic, or symbiotic.
 Their body consists of long slender thread-like structures called hyphae. The
network of hyphae is called mycelium. 
 The symbiotic association of fungi and algae is known as lichens. 
 The fungi living in symbiotic association with roots of higher plants are known
as mycorrhiza.
 Fungi reproduce asexually through spores called conidia, sporangiospores, or
zoospores.
 Fungi reproduce sexually through oospores, ascospores, and basidiospores.
 The sexual cycle involves three steps: 

Plasmogamy (fusion of protoplasm) →Karyogamy (Fusion of nuclei) →Meiosis in

zygote, which leads to production of haploid spores

 Four classes of kingdom fungi:

 1. Phycomycetes

 Mycelium is aseptate and coenocytic.

 Asexual reproduction through zoospores or aplanospores
 Sexual reproduction - isogamous, anisogamous, or monogamous
 Examples include Rhizopus, Mucor, and Albugo.

2. Ascomycetes (sac fungi)

 They are saprophytic, decomposers, parasitic, or coprophilous.

 Mycelium is branched and septate.
 Asexual reproduction through Conidia
 Sexual reproduction through asci
  Examples include Aspergillus, Claviceps, and Neurospora.

3. Basidiomycetes (club fungi)

 Mycelium is branched and septate.

 Asexual reproduction is normally absent, but it reproduces vegetatively through
fragmentation.
 Sexual reproduction is through basidia.
 Examples include Agaricus, Puccinia, and Ustilago.

4. Deuteromycetes (known as imperfect fungi)

 Mycelium is branched and septate.

 Asexual reproduction through conidia
 Sexual reproduction absent
 Examples include Alternaria, Colletotrichum, and Trichoderma.

Kingdom Plantae

 It includes all eukaryotic chlorophyll-containing organisms known as plants.

 They have an autotrophic mode of reproduction.
 The cell wall is made up of cellulose.
 It exhibits the phenomenon of alternation of generation. The diploid
sporophytic phase alternates with haploid gametophytic phase.
 Few members such as Venus flytrap and Cuscuta are heterotrophic.
 

Kingdom Animalia

 It includes eukaryotic multicellular organisms without cell wall and having a

heterotrophic mode of nutrition.
 They directly or indirectly depend on plants for food.
 PLANT KINGDOM
Classification

 Artificial systems of classification are mainly based on vegetative characters or

on the androecium structure.
 Natural systems of classification are mainly based on natural affinities among
living organisms.
 Natural system of classification for flowering plants was given by Bentham and
Hooker.
 Numerical taxonomy is the classification based on quantifiable characters.
 Cytotaxonomy is the classification based on cytological characters such as
number, structure, and behaviour of chromosomes.
 Chemotaxonomy is the classification of organisms according to demonstrable
differences and similarities in their biochemical compositions.
 The kingdom Plantae is divided into many divisions - Thallophyta (algae),
Bryophyta, Pteridophyta, Gymnospermae, and Angiospermae.

Algae

 Algae are chlorophyll-bearing, thalloid organisms that are mainly aquatic.

 The commonly found spores for asexual reproduction are zoospores.
 Sexual reproduction is via fusion of gametes, which can be isogamous
(example, Chlamydomonas and Spirogyra) or anisogamous (example,
some Chlamydomonas species) or oogamous (example, Volvox).
 This group includes three classes named as Chlorophyceae, Phaeophyceae, and
Rhodophyceae.
 Many members have haplontic life cycle.

1. Chlorophyceae (Green algae)

 Dominant pigments include chlorophyll a and b.

 Cell wall is made of cellulose and pectose.
 Stored food is in the form of starch stored in pyrenoids found in chloroplast.
Pyrenoids also store proteins.
 Vegetative reproduction is through fragmentation; asexual reproduction is
through zoospores; and sexual reproduction may be isogamous, anisogamous,
or oogamous.
 Examples- Chlamydomonas, Volvox, Spirogyra
2. Phaeophyceae (Brown algae)

 Dominant pigments include chlorophyll a, c and fucoxanthin.

 Cell wall is made of cellulose and algin.
 Stored food is in the form of mannitol and laminarin.
 The plant body mainly consists of holdfast (for attachment), stipe (stem-like
structure), and frond (for photosynthesis).
 Vegetative reproduction is through fragmentation; asexual reproduction is
through biflagellate zoospores; and sexual reproduction may be isogamous,
anisogamous, or oogamous.
 Examples - Ectocarpus, Laminaria, Sargassum

3. Rhodophyceae (Red algae)

 Dominant pigments include chlorophyll a, d and phycoerythrin.

 Cell wall is made of cellulose.
 Stored food is in the form of floridean starch.
 Vegetative reproduction is through fragmentation; asexual reproduction is
through non-motile spores; and sexual reproduction is oogamous.
 Examples - Polysiphonia, Gracilaria, Gelidium

 Pteridophyta

o Pteridophytes are plants with vascular tissues that reproduce through

spores.
o  Require cool, damp, and shady place to grow.
o This group includes horsetails and ferns.
o  Life cycle is haplo-diplontic type.
o Male reproductive organ is antheridium and female sex organ is
archegonium.
o The main plant body is a sporophyte that bears sporangia in leaf-like
appendages called sporophylls.
o Though pteridophytes are homosporous, but genera such
as Selaginella and Salvinia show heterospory.
o Heterospory is the development of spores of two different sizes
(microspores and megaspores) by the sporophyte.

 Pteridophyta can be further divided into four classes.

o Psilopsida: includes Psilotum
 o Lycopsida: includes Selaginella
o Sphenopsida: includes Equisetum
o Pteropsida: includes Dryopteris

Life cycle patterns

Haplontic life cycle: 

 It takes place in Spirogyra, some species of Chlamydomonas, and Volvox.

 In haplontic life cycle, haploid individuals form haploid gametes by mitosis
during gametogenesis. Then, these gametes (n) fuse and form zygote that is
diploid. This zygote undergoes meiosis to form haploid adult. Hence, adult is
haploid and exhibits zygotic meiosis.

Diplontic life cycle:

 It takes place in all seed-bearing plants such as gymnosperms and angiosperms.

 In diplontic life cycle, diploid individuals form haploid gametes by meiosis
during gametogenesis. Then, these gametes (n) fuse and form zygote that is
diploid, which by mitosis forms diploid adult. Hence, adult is diploid and
exhibits gametic meiosis.

Haplo-diplontic cycle:

 It takes place in bryophytes and pteridophytes. In this, both haplontic and

diplontic type of life cycle alternate with each other.
 ANIMAL KINGDOM
Fundamental basis of classification

 Levels of organisation - It includes cellular level, tissue level, organ level and
organ system level of organisation.
 Symmetry - Body of animals can be asymmetrical, radially symmetrical, and
bilaterally symmetrical.
 Organisation - Animals are classified on the basis of diploblastic or
triploblastic organisation.
 Coelom - Animals can be classified as acoelomate, pseudocoelomate, or
coelomate.
 Segmentation - It involves the phenomenon of metamerism.
 Presence or absence of notochord

Phylum - Porifera

 Multicellular organisms with cellular level of organisation

 Water or canal system is present.
 Water enters through ostia and goes out through osculum.
 Skeleton is made of spongin fibres or spicules.
 Choanocytes (collar cells) line the spongocoel and the canal.
 Hermaphrodite
 Fertilization is internal and development is indirect (larval stage is present).
 Examples: Sycon, Spongilla, and Euspongia
 

Phylum - Coelenterata (Cnidaria)

 Multicellular organisms with tissue level of organisation

 They are diploblastic and radially symmetrical.
 Digestion is intracellular and extracellular.
 Corals have calcium carbonate skeleton.
 Cnidarians exhibit two basic body forms – polyp and medusa.
 Metagenesis is the alternation of generation between polyp and medusa forms.
 Examples: Hydra, Adamsia, and Pennatula
 

Phylum - Ctenophora

 Multicellular organisms with tissue level of organisation

  They are diploblastic and radially symmetrical.
 They show the property of bioluminescence.
 Eight external rows of ciliated comb plates are present. 
 Examples: Ctenoplana and Pleurobrachia

Phylum - Platyhelminthes

 Bilaterally symmetrical organisms with dorso-ventrally flattened body

 They are triploblastic and acoelomate with organ level of organisation
 They are usually parasitic on other animals.
 Fertilization is internal.
 Hermaphrodite
 Flame cells perform the function of osmoregulation and excretion.
 Examples: Fasciola (liver fluke) and Taenia (Tapeworm)

Phylum - Aschelminthes

 Multicellular organisms with organ system level of organisation

 They are triploblastic and bilaterally symmetrical.
 They are pseudocoelomate.
 Sexes are separate.
 Fertilization is internal.
 Examples: Ascaris (round worm), Ancylostoma, and Wuchereria

Phylum - Annelida

 Multicellular organisms with organ system level of organisation

 They are triploblastic and bilaterally symmetrical.
 They are coelomate.
 They are metamerically segmented.
 Nereis possesses parapodia, which help in swimming.
 They have nephridia as excretory and osmoregulatory organs.
 Earthworm and leech are monoecious and Neries is dioecious.
 Examples: Pheretima (earthworm), Neries, and Hirudinaria

Phylum - Arthropoda

 Largest phylum of kingdom Animalia

 They are triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical, segmented, and coelomate
animals.
 The body is covered by chitinous exoskeleton.
  They have jointed appendages.
 Circulatory system is open.
 Respiration through book lungs, gills, book gills, or tracheal system
 They have malpighian tubules as excretory organ.
 Mostly dioecious and oviparous
 Examples: Anopheles, Aedes, and Locusta 
 Limulus (King crab) is a living fossil.

Phylum - Mollusca

 Second largest phylum of kingdom Animalia

 They are triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical, and coelomate animals.
 Possess organ system level of organisation
 Body possesses calcareous shell and is unsegmented having distinct head,
muscular foot, and visceral hump.
 Usually dioecious and oviparous
 They have radula (a file-like rasping organ for feeding).
 Examples: Pila, Pinctada, and Octopus

Phylum - Echinodermata

 They are triploblastic and coelomate animals with adult echinoderms having
radial symmetry and larvae having bilateral symmetry.
 Endoskeleton is of calcareous ossicles.
 They have well-developed water vascular system, which is used for
locomotion, capture, and transport of food and respiration.
 Examples: Asterias (Star fish), Echinus (Sea urchin), and Antedon (Sea lily)

Phylum - Hemichordata

 They are triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical, and coelomate animals.

 Body is composed of proboscis, collar and trunk.
 Respiration through gills; sexes – separate; fertilization – external;
development – indirect
 Proboscis gland is excretory organ.
 Example: Balanoglossus

Phylum - Chordata

 They are triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical, and coelomate animals with

organ system level of organisation.
 These animals are characterized by the presence of a notochord.
  They have single, dorsal, and hollow nerve cord.
 Their pharynx is perforated by gill slits.
 The heart is located in ventral part.
 They have post anal tail.
 Phylum Chordata is divided into three sub-phyla: 
o Urochordata - Notochord is present only in larval stages.
Example: Ascidia and Doliolum
o Cephalochordata- Notochord is persistent throughout life.
Example: Branchiostoma
o Vertebrata

Sub-phylum Vertebrata

 All vertebrates are chordates, but all chordates are not vertebrates.
 Notochord is replaced by vertebral column in adult.
 Sub-phylum vertebrata is divided into two divisions called Agnatha (which
lacks jaws) and Gnathostomata (which bears jaw).
 The division Agnatha contains a single class called Cyclostomata.

Class- Cyclostomata

 They are ectoparasites on fishes.

 Jaws are absent.
 Example: Petromyzon

 The division Gnathostomata is divided into two super classes called Pisces

(which bear fins) and class tetrapoda (that bear limbs).
 The super class Pisces contains two classes
– Chondrichthyes and Osteichthyes.

Class- Chondrichthyes

 Skeleton is cartilaginous.
 Operculum is absent.
 Notochord is persistent.
 Air bladder is absent.
 Heart is two-chambered.
 Poikilothermous i.e., cold blooded animals
 Skin is covered by placoid scales.
 Fertilization is internal.
 Mostly viviparous
 Example: Scoliodon
Class- Osteichthyes

 Skeleton is bony.
 Operculum is present.
 Air bladder is present.
 Skin is covered by ctenoid/cycloid scales.
 Heart is two-chambered.
 Poikilothermous i.e., cold-blooded animals
 Fertilization is external.
 Mostly oviparous
 Example: Hippocampus, Exocoetus

 The super class tetrapoda contains four classes called Amphibia, reptilia,

aves, and mammals.

Class- Amphibia

 Cold-blooded animals with two pairs of limbs

 Heart is three-chambered.
 Respiration is through gills, lungs, and skin.
 Fertilization is external; sexes are separate; oviparous
 Examples: Frog, toad, and salamander

   Class- Reptilia

 Cold-blooded animals with two pairs of limbs

 They have dry and cornified skin.
 Mostly, heart is three-chambered, but it is four-chambered in crocodiles.
 Respiration is through lungs.
 Fertilization is internal; sexes are separate; oviparous
 Examples: Snake, lizard, and crocodile

        Class- Aves

 Homoeothermic i.e., warm-blooded animals with forelimbs modified into

wings
 Heart is four-chambered.
 Respiration is through lungs.
 Bones are hollow with pneumatic cavity.
 Fertilization is internal; sexes are separate; oviparous
  Examples: Crow, Pigeon, and Parrot

      Class- Mammalia

 Warm-blooded animals having mammary glands

 Two unique features of mammals are the presence of mammary gland and hairs
on skins.
 Heart is four-chambered.
 Respiration is through lungs.
 Fertilization is internal; sexes are separate; viviparous with some exceptions
such as Platypus
 Examples: Rat, elephant, and kangaroo
 MORPHOLOGY IN FLOWERING PLANTS
Morphology

o It is the branch of biology which deals with the study of external

structures of plants and animals.
o A plant consists of a root system (underground part) and a shoot system
(above the ground parts).
o Roots are the parts of the root system; and stem, leaves, flowers, and
fruits are parts of the shoot system.
 Roots
o It helps in anchoring plant and absorbing water and minerals.
o Developed from the radicle part of a cotyledon
o It consists of a region of meristematic activity covered by a root cap, a
region of elongation, and a region of maturation having root hairs.
 Types of roots system:
1. Tap root system
o It consists of a primary root that grows deep inside the soil.
o It also bears lateral roots referred to as secondary and tertiary roots.
o Example- Dicotyledons (mustard)
 2.Fibrous root system
o Primary root is short-lived and is replaced by a large number of
secondary roots.
o Example- Monocotyledons (wheat)
 3. Adventitious roots
o Roots arise from parts other than the radicle.
o Example- Banyan tree

 Root modifications
o Prop roots – Example: banyan tree
o Stilt roots – Example: maize and sugarcane
o Pneumatophores (that helps in respiration) – Example: Rhizophora
 Characteristics of Root for Absorbing Water
o Enormous surface area
o Root hairs containing cell sap at higher concentration
o Thin walled root hairs

Stem

 Bears branches, leaves, flowers, and fruits

 Conducts water and minerals to all parts of the plant body
  Bears nodes and internodes

Stem modifications

 For storage – Example: Potato, ginger, turmeric.

 For support – Tendrils in cucumber, pumpkins, watermelon.
 For protection – Thorns in Citrus, Bougainvillea.
 For vegetative propagation – Tubers and rhizomes in potato and ginger
respectively.

 Leaf

 Performs the function of photosynthesis

 Consists of leaf base, petiole, and lamina
 Veins help in the transport of water to all leaf parts.
 Arrangement of veins is known as venation.
 Parallel venation is found in monocots. Example: Banana
 Reticulate venation is found in dicots. Example: Mango
 Leaves may be simple or compound.
 Pattern of arrangement of leaves on the stem is known as phyllotaxy. It may be
alternate as in china rose, opposite as in Calotropis or whorled as in Alstonia.

Leaf modifications

 Tendrils- Example: Peas

 Spines- Example: Cactus
 Fleshy leaves for storage- Example: Onion and garlic

 Inflorescence

 Arrangement of flowers on the floral axis is termed as inflorescence.

 Racemose- In this, main axis continues to grow and flowers are borne laterally.
 Cymose- In this, main axis terminates in a flower.

Flower

 Flower is the reproductive unit in angiosperms.

 Bisexual flower has both androecium and gynoecium.
 Unisexual flower has either androecium or gynoecium.
 Actinomorphic flower has radial symmetry. Example: Datura and mustard
 Zygomorphic flower has bilateral symmetry. Example: Pea and bean
  Asymmetric flower cannot be divided into similar halves by any vertical plane.
Example: Canna

Parts of flower

 Calyx is outermost whorl of a flower composed of sepals. It may be

gamosepalous (united sepals) or polysepalous (free sepals).
 Corolla is composed of petals. Petals are brightly coloured to attract pollinators.
It may be gamopetalous (united petals) or polypetalous (free petals).
 Androecium is the male reproductive part of a flower, composed of stamens.
 Based on attachment of anther with floral parts, it can be epiphyllous (attached
with perianth) or epipetalous (attached with petals).
 Stamens can be monoadelphous (united in one bundle), diadelphous (united in
two bundles), and polyadelphous (united in many bundles). 
 A sterile stamen is called a staminode.
 Gynoecium is the female reproductive part of a flower, composed of pistil.
 Based on position of ovary, a flower can be hypogynous (ovary is superior),
perigynous or epigynous (ovary is inferior).

Whorls of a Flower

When carpels are fused, ovary is syncarpous; when carpels are free, ovary is
apocarpous.

 Aestivation is the arrangement of sepals and petals in a flower bud. It may be

o valvate – Example: Calotropis
o twisted – Example: China rose
o imbricate – Example: Cassia
o vexillary – Example: Pea
 Placentation is arrangement of ovules within the ovary. It can be
o marginal – Example: Pea
o axile – Example: Tomato
o parietal – Example: Mustard
o free central – Example: Dianthus
o basal – Example: Sunflower

Seed Germination

 It is the process of the seed develops into an individual plant utilizing the
reserve nutrients present in the cotyledons.
 Conditions necessary for germination
 1. Water

2. Oxygen

3. Favourable temperature

 Process of germination

1. The seed takes up water and swells.

2. The embryonic radicle and plumule start growing and force the seed coat to
rupture.

3. The radicle comes out first and forms the root followed by the plumule
which develops into the shoot.

 Types of germination

1. Epigeal germination: in this method the cotyledons are lifted above the ground
and they act as the first leaves as a result of the rapid elongation of the hypocotyl. It
takes place in seeds like Castor, cotton, sunflower etc.

2. Hypogeal germination: in this germination the cotyledons remain inside the soil
and the epicotyls elongates and pushes the plumule above. It takes place in seeds like
pea, maize, mango etc.

3. Viviparous germination: A special mode of germination in which seed starts

germinating inside the fruit while it is still attached to the parent plant. Once
germinated, the seedling is dropped into the soil where it fixes itself by developing
roots. It takes place in mangrove plants, like Rhizophora and Sonneratia.

  Floral Formulae

Floral formulae are represented by symbols. Some of them are-

Br Bracteate
K Calyx
C Corolla
P Perianth
A Androecium
 G Gynoecium
G Superior ovary
Inferior ovary
Male
Female

Bisexual
Actinomorphi
⊕
c
% Zygomorphic
Enclosing figure within brackets Fusion
Line drawn over symbols of floral
Adhesion
parts

Family Solanaceae

 Floral characters include :

 Inflorescence : Solitary, axillary or cymose

 Flower           : Bisexual and actinomorphic
 Calyx             : Five sepals, gamosepalous, valvate aestivation
 Corolla          : Five petals, gamopetalous, valvate aestivation
 Androecium   : Five stamens, epipetalous
 Gynoecium    : Bicarpellary, syncarpous, superior ovary, bilocular, many
ovules
 Fruit               : Berry or capsule

 Floral formula  : 
 
  Family Fabaceae
 
Floral characters include :

 Inflorescence  : Racemose

  Flower             : Bisexual and zygomorphic

 Calyx               : Five sepals, gamosepalous, imbricate aestivation
 Corolla            : Five petals, polypetalous, posterior standard, 2 lateral wings,
anterior keels (2),Vexillary aestivation.
 Androecium    : Ten, diadelphous, anther dithecous
  Gynoecium      : Ovary superior, monocarpellary, unilocular ovary, single style
 Fruit                 : Legume, one to many seeds, non-endospermous

 Floral formula  :   

 Family Liliaceae
 Floral characters include :
 
 Inflorescence  : Solitary, cymose

  Flower             : Bisexual, actinomorphic
 Calyx               : Six tepals (3 + 3), united into tube, valvate aestivation
 Androecium     : Six stamens (3 + 3)  
 Gynoecium      : Tricarpellary, syncarpous, superior ovary, trilocular with many
ovules, axile placentation .
 Fruit               : Capsule, rarely berry, endospermous

 Floral formula  :       

 
 
 
   
ANATOMY IN FLOWERING PLANTS
Tissue 

 It is a group of cells that are similar in structure and are organised together to
perform a specific function.
 It is of two types: Meristematic tissues and Permanent tissues
 Meristematic tissue

 It consists of actively dividing cells that are found in those regions of the plant
body that show growth.
 The examples include root tip, shoot tip, and base of the leaves.
 It is classified into three types:

i. Apical meristem: They are present in the growing tips of stems and roots.
Function – helps in increasing the length of the stem and root
ii. Intercalary meristem: They lie at the base of leaves or internodes.

Function – helps in the longitudinal growth of plants

iii. Lateral meristem: They lie on the lateral sides of the stem and root.

Function – helps in increasing the thickness of stem and root

 Apical meristem and intercalary meristem help in the formation of the primary
plant body. Therefore, they are called primary meristems.

Lateral meristem is formed in the mature regions of roots and shoots of plants. Hence,
they are known as secondary meristem.

 Complex tissues: They are made up of more than one type of cells. All these
cells work in coordinated manner to perform one common function.

 Xylem:It conducts water and minerals from roots to different parts of the plant.
 Tracheids and vessels are long tube-like structures with thick walls and
tapering ends. Presence of vessels is the characteristic feature of angiosperms.

 Function: to transport water and minerals vertically

  Xylem fibre is made up of dead cells.

Function: support to the cell

 Xylem parenchyma is made up of living cells.

Function: Storage of food and helps in radial conduction of water

 Phloem:
 It transports food material from leaves to different parts of the plant.
 Sieve tubes are tubular cells with perforated walls.

Function: to transport food material

 Companion cells are specialised parenchymatous cells, closely associated with

sieve tube elements. These are characteristic features of angiosperms.

Function: to maintain the pressure gradient in sieve tubes

 Phloem parenchyma is composed of living cells that help in storage of food.

 Phloem fibres, also called bast fibres, provide mechanical support to the cells.

 Tissue System

 Epidermal tissue system: 

 It comprises of epidermal cells, stomata, trichomes, and hairs.

 Epidermis is protective in function. Cuticle is the waxy layer present outside
the epidermis.
 Cuticle prevents the loss of water. It is absent in roots.
 Stomata help in gaseous exchange and transpiration.
 Root hair helps in absorption of water and mineral from soil.
 Trichome prevents water loss due to transpiration.
 

Ground tissue system

 It comprises of all tissues except epidermis and vascular bundles.

 Vascular tissue system
 It comprises of complex permanent tissues - xylem and phloem. Cambium may
or may not be present.
  Open vascular bundle: It contains cambium between xylem and phloem.
Cambium has the ability to form secondary tissues. It is the characteristic
feature of dicotyledonous stem.
 Closed vascular bundle: It lacks cambium between xylem and phloem. Since
cambium is absent, it lacks the ability to form secondary tissues. Closed
vascular bundle is the characteristic feature of monocotyledonous stems.
 Radial vascular bundle: Xylem and phloem are arranged alternately on
different radii. Such types of vascular bundles are present in roots.
 Conjoint vascular bundle: Xylem and phloem are arranged at the same radius
of vascular bundle. Such types of vascular bundles are found in stems and
leaves.

Dicotyledonous roots
 The outermost layer is epidermis whose cells protrude in the form of root hairs.
 The layer next to epidermis is cortex.
 It is composed of several layers of parenchymatous cells.
 Endodermis is innermost layer of cortex, which bears the deposition of water
impermeable waxy material called suberin. These are known as casparian
strips.
 In the cells of pericycle, initiation of lateral roots and vascular cambium takes
place during secondary growth.
 Pith is small.
 They possess 2-4 patches of xylem and phloem.
 Vascular bundles along with pith and pericycle constitute stele.
 Dicot roots undergo secondary growth.

Monocotyledonous roots
 It has epidermis, cortex, endodermis, pericycle, xylem, phloem, and pith.
 Pith is large and well-developed.
 It does not undergo secondary growth.
 Xylem bundles are more than six i.e., polyarch.

 Dicotyledonous Stem

 Epidermis is covered with cuticle; may bear trichomes and stomata.

 Cortex is differentiated as outer hypodermis (having collenchymatous cells),
middle cortical layer, and inner endodermis.
  Endodermal cells are rich in starch grains. Hence, the layer is also known as
starch sheath.
 Vascular bundles are many and arranged in a ring form.
 Vascular bundle is conjoint, open, and with endarch protoxylem.
 Pith is well-developed.

 Monocotyledonous Stem

 Vascular bundles are scattered.

 Vascular bundles are surrounded by sclerenchymatous bundle sheath.
 It is conjoint and closed.

Dicotyledonous leaf

 It is also known as dorsiventral leaf.

 The abaxial (lower) epidermis bears more stomata than adaxial (upper)
epidermis.
 Mesophyll is the tissue between upper and lower epidermis. It carries out
photosynthesis.
 Mesophyll has two types of cells:
 Palisade parenchyma
 Spongy parenchyma
 The vascular bundles are present in the veins and midrib region of leaves.

               
Monocotyledonous leaf

 It is also known as isobilateral leaf.

 Some adaxial epidermal cells in grasses are modified to form bulliform cells.
 Both the surfaces of epidermis bear stomata.
  Mesophyll cannot be differentiated into spongy and palisade parenchyma.

       

Secondary Growth

 Secondary growth is absent in monocotyledons, but present in dicots.

 Tissues involved are - Vascular cambium and Cork cambium

Together, vascular cambium and cork cambium are known as lateral meristem.

Vascular cambium 

 Intrafascicular cambium- The cells of cambium present between primary xylem

and primary phloem. 

 The cells of medullary rays, adjoining these intrafascicular cambium become

meristematic and form the interfascicular cambium.
 Cambial ring then cut off new cells to form secondary xylem (towards pith) and
secondary phloem (towards periphery).

 Spring wood (Early wood): During spring season, cambium is active and forms a
wood with many xylary elements that have wider vessels.

Autumn wood (late wood): Cambium is less active and forms less number of xylary
elements with narrow vessels.

 The alternate concentric rings of spring (lighter in colour) and autumn (darker
in colour) form an annual ring. These rings are used to estimate the age of tree.

Heart wood contains dead elements, which gives mechanical support to stem.

Sapwood helps in conduction of water and minerals from root to leaves.

 Cork cambium (Phellogen)

 Phellogen is a meristematic tissue that cuts off the cell into cork or phellem
(outer side) and secondary cortex or phelloderm (inner side).
 Phellogen, phellem, and phelloderm are collectively known as periderm.
 Bark – It includes periderm and secondary phloem.
 Lenticels – help in exchange of gases

 
 STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION IN ANIMALS
 Animal tissues
 Based on the function they perform, animal tissues are classified into four
types.

 Epithelial tissue
 It forms the outer covering of the external surfaces, internal cavities, and organs
of the animal body.
 There are two types of epithelial tissues: simple epithelium and compound
epithelium.
 Simple epithelium – It is composed of single layer of cells.
o Squamous epithelium – found in the inner lining of mouth, oesophagus,
blood vessels, lung alveoli
o Cuboidal epithelium – found in the lining of kidney tubules and ducts
of salivary gland
o Columnar epithelium – found in the inner lining of intestine and
stomach
o Ciliated epithelium – found in the inner lining of bronchioles and
fallopian tubes

 Some columnar or cuboidal epithelium gets specialised for secretion and are
called glandular epithelium.
 They may be unicellular as in goblet cells or multicellular as in salivary glands.
 Glands are of two types – exocrine with duct and endocrine without duct.
 Compound epithelium – It is composed of several layers of cells. It provides
protection against chemical and mechanical injuries.

 Morphology  of Earthworm

 Earthworm (Pheretima posthuma)

 Animal is cylindrical in shape with more than hundred short segments.
 The first body segment is called peristomium, which contains mouth.
 Oesophagus runs from 5-7 segments and muscular gizzard runs from 8-9
segments.
  The 5th – 9th segments contain four pairs of spermathecal apertures. 
 Segments 14th, 15th, and 16th are thick and glandular. This region is known as
clitellum.
 S–shaped setae are embedded in each body segment except for 1 st, last, and
clitellar segments. It helps in locomotion.
 Typhlosole is located between 26-35 segments and is a characteristic feature of
intestine. It increases the absorption area in intestine.
 A pair of male genital pores is located on 18th segment while a single female
genital pore is on 14th segment.
 Earthworms are hermaphrodite (bisexual). Earthworm is protandrous i.e., male
organs develop earlier than female organs. 

 Circulatory system is closed containing blood vessels, capillaries, and heart.

 Excretory organs are called nephridia and these are of three types- 

 Septal nephridia – present from segment 15 to last segment

 Integumentary nephridia - present from segment 3 to last segment
 Pharyngeal nephridia - present in segment 4, 5, and 6

 Earthworms are used in the process of vermicomposting.

Cockroach (Periplaneta americana)

 Body is covered by chitinous exoskeleton.

 Body is divided into head, thorax (contains three segments), and abdomen
(contains 10 segments).
 Cockroach has biting and chewing type of mouth parts. It consists of 
 labrum, which forms upper lip
 a pair of mandibles
 a pair of maxillae
 labium, which forms lower lip
 The digestive system of cockroach includes hepatic caeca, which is located at
the junction of foregut and midgut, that secretes digestive juices.

 Malpighian tubules are located at the junction of midgut and hindgut. They act
as excretory organs.
 Respiration occurs by tracheae, which open towards exterior through spiracles.
 Circulatory system is open.
 Cockroach is uricotelic. They excrete nitrogenous waste in the form of uric
acid.
 Cockroach has mosaic type of vision with less resolution and more sensitivity.
  Cockroaches are dioecious. A pair of testes lies in 4th, 5th, and 6th segments
while a pair of large ovaries is extended from 2nd – 6th abdominal segments.

 Digestive, circulatory, respiratory, nervous, excretory, and reproductive

systems are well-developed.
 Frog respires on land by lungs. It is known as pulmonary respiration. It respires
in water through skin. It is known as cutaneous respiration.
 The main excretory organ is kidney.
 Frog is ureotelic animal. It excretes nitrogenous waste in the form of urea.
 Frog shows sexual dimorphism. The male reproductive organ is a pair of testes
and female reproductive organ is a pair of ovaries.
 The fertilization is external and development is indirect in frog.
 They undergo the phenomenon of metamorphosis.

Egg Tadpole Adult frog 

CELL THE UNIT LIFE

 Cell:It is the basic structural and functional unit of life.
 
Discoveries

 Anton Von Leeuwenhoek saw and described a live cell.
 Robert Brown discovered nucleus.
 The name chromatin was given by Fleming.
 Schleiden and Schwann formulated the cell theory.
 Rudolf Virchow gave the concept Omnis cellula-e cellula i.e., all cells arise fr
om pre-existing cells.
 According to present day cell theory:
 All living organisms are made up of cells.
 All cells arise from pre-existing cells.

 Prokaryotic cell

 It includes bacteria, blue-green algae, mycoplasma, and PPLO.
 Nuclear region is poorly defined. Nuclear material is naked.
 They lack membrane-bound cell organelles such as plastids, mitochondrion, en
doplasmic reticulum, etc.
 Along with genomic DNA, they also have smaller
circular DNA called plasmids.
  Mesosome, a specialised membranous structure formed by infolding of cell me
mbrane, is characteristic feature of prokaryotic cell. It helps in cell wall formati
on, increasing the surface area of the plasma membrane, DNA replication, respi
ration, secretion, etc.
 Based on the differences in the staining procedure of cell membrane, bacteria is 
divided into two types:

 Gram positive which take up gram stain
 Gram negative which do not take up gram strain

 The outermost covering of bacterial cell is known as cell envelope. It is compos
ed of three layers – outer glycocalyx, middle cell wall, and innermost cell mem
brane.
 Prokaryotic cell contains non-membrane bound organelle called ribosome.
 Ribosome in prokaryotes is 70S, which is made up of two subunits – 50S and 3
0S.

 Eukaryotic cells

 It includes all protists, plants, animals, and fungi.
 In all eukaryotic cells, nuclear region is well-defined and is surrounded by nucl
ear membrane.
 They have membrane-bound cell organelles such as mitochondrion, plastids, en
doplasmic reticulum, etc.

 Cell membrane

 Cell membrane is made up of protein and lipid bilayer.
 Fluid mosaic model of cell membrane was proposed by Singer and Nicolson.
 According to this model, the fluid nature of lipid bilayer enables the lateral mo
vement of proteins.
 Plasma membrane is selectively permeable that regulates entry and exit of subst
ances in and out of cell.
 Movement of molecules across membrane without requirement of energy is pa
ssive transport.
 Movement of water molecules from a region of higher concentration to lower c
oncentration through a selectively permeable membrane is known as osmosis.
 Movement of ions or molecules from lower to higher concentration across a se
mi-permeable membrane with an expenditure of energy is known as active tra
nsport.

 Cell wall
  It is the outermost rigid structure present in the plant cell.
 The cell wall of algae is made up of cellulose, galactans, mannans and minerals
like calcium
carbonate while the cell wall of plant is made up cellulose, hemicellulose, pecti
ns, and proteins.
 Middle lamella is made of calcium pectate and serves the function of holding di
fferent cells.
 Plasmodesmata are perforations in the middle lamella and cell wall which conn
ect the cytoplasm of neighbouring cells.
 Endomembrane System
 The functions of certain organelles are interconnected. Such interconnected or
ganelles together are known as endomembrane system. For example, the funct
ion of endoplasmic reticulum, golgi complex, lysosome, and vacuoles are interc
onnected.
 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
             They are of two types:

 Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) is important for synthesis and packagin
g of proteins.
 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) acts as storage organelle. It also helps 
in lipid (fat) synthesis.

 Golgi apparatus

 It is made up of parallel arranged membrane-bound vesicles called cisternae.
 It helps in storage, modification, and packaging of products in vesicles.
 It helps in formation of glycoproteins and glycolipids.

 Lysosomes

 It is a membrane-bound structure that holds variety of enzymes.
 It is rich in all types of hydrolytic enzymes, which are active at acidic pH
 It is involved in digestion of carbohydrate, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.

  Vacuoles

 These are the storage sacs found in both plant and animal cells.
 The outermost layer of vacuole is known as tonoplast.
 Tonoplast helps in transport of substances into the
vacuole against concentration gradient.
 
 

  Ribosomes

 First observed by George Palade
 These are non-membranous organelles found in both plant and animal cells.
 These are composed of RNA and proteins.
 Ribosomes in eukaryotes are 80S whose two subunits are 60S and 40S.

 Mitochondria

 It is a double membrane-bound structure.
 The inner membrane of mitochondria is deeply folded to form cristae.
 Cristae increase the surface area in the organelle.
 It is the site of cellular respiration and hence known as ‘power house of cell’.
 They have their own single circular DNA.
 They divide by fission.

 Plastids
            It is the organelle present only in plant cell and euglenoids.
            On the basis of pigments, plastids are divided into three types.

 Chloroplasts – contain chlorophyll
 Chromoplasts – contain carotenoid pigments such as carotene, xanthophylls
etc.
 Leucoplasts – colourless plastids

    
They store nutrients and are called amyloplasts (when storing carbohydrate), elaioplas
ts (when storing oils and fats), and aleuroplasts (when storing proteins).
 
Chloroplasts

 It is a double membrane-bound structure.
 It is divided into stroma (site of dark reaction of photosynthesis) and grana (sit
e of light reaction of photosynthesis).
 The individual flattened membranous sacs of grana are called thylakoids.

  Cytoskeleton

 They are filamentous proteinaceous structures.
  They give mechanical support and shape to cell.

 Cilia and flagella

 These are the outgrowths of the cell membrane.
 These emerge from basal body.
 They help in cell movement.
 Axonemal microtubules have 9+2 arrangement i.e., nine pairs of doublets of ra
dially arranged peripheral microtubules and a pair of centrally located microtub
ules.

 Centrosome and Centrioles

 Fibrils of these organelles are made up of protein tubulin.
 It helps in the formation of spindle apparatus in animal cells.
 It forms the basal body of cilia and flagella.

 Microbodies

 Microbodies are membrane bound minute vesicles. They are present in both
animal and plant cells. They contain various enzymes. 

Nucleus

o It controls all the cellular activities of cell.

o It consists of the following.
a. Nuclear membrane – It has perforations called nuclear pores.
b. Nucleoplasm
c. Nucleolus
o Nucleolus is the site of ribosomal RNA formation.
o Network of nucleoprotein fibres are called the chromatin.
o Chromatin contains DNA, histones (basic proteins), non-histone
proteins, and RNA.
o Chromatin threads condense and organize to form chromosome.
o The primary constriction in the chromosome is called centromere.

 Based on the position of centromere, chromosomes are of four types:

o Metacentric: Centromere is located at the middle of chromosome.
o Sub-metacentric: Centromere is slightly away from the middle of
chromosome.
o Acrocentric: Centromere is situated close to the end of chromosome.
o Telocentric: Centromere is located at the terminal end.
 A small chromosomal segment separated from the main body of the
chromosome by a secondary constriction is called satellite.
 Structure of DNA
o It has a double-helix structure, similar to ladder.
o It is made up of nucleotides.
o Nuclotides are made of sugar, phosphate groups and nitrogen bases
 Components of DNA
o Sugar
o Phosphate groups
o Nitrogen bases
 Genes
o It is a unit of DNA.
o Located on Chromosomes.
o Controls the development of one or more traits.
o It is the basis of Inheritrance.
o It can acquire mutation leading to variation.
 Bio-micromolecules
Chemical Composition

 All living organisms, from microbes to mammals, are composed of chemical

substances.
 These chemical substances can be organic or inorganic. Chemical analysis is
performed to find out chemical composition of a living cell.
 Water is the most abundant chemical compound in a living body.
 Most of the organic compounds are found in acid-soluble fraction.
 Inorganic compounds such as sulphate, phosphate, etc. are also found in acid-
soluble fraction.

 Organic compounds

 All carbon compounds obtained from living tissues are known as organic
biomolecules.
 These are of two types:

(a) Micromolecules (bio-micromolecules)

      (b) Macromolecules (bio-macromolecules)
 Micromolecules (Bio-micromolecules)

 These are the organic compounds with molecular weights less than one
thousand dalton.
 Classified as amino acids, sugars, nucleotide bases, etc.
 These are also known as primary metabolites.
 Secondary metabolites on the other hand are compounds other than primary
metabolites. These are commonly found in plants, fungi, and microbes. For
example- Alkaloids, flavonoids, and essential oils etc. are secondary
metabolites.

 Amino acids

 These are organic compounds containing an amino group, carboxyl group,

hydrogen, and a variable functional group (R).
 Common structure of an amino acid is

 
  Based on the nature of R group, there are many amino acids, but only 20 types
of amino acids constitute proteins.
 Simplest amino acid is glycine, which contains hydrogen as the R group.
 Structure of glycine is
 Amino acids can be acidic (when carboxylic group is more, e.g. glutamic acid),
basic (when amino group is more, e.g. lysine) or neutral (when both carboxylic
and amino group are same in number, e.g. valine).
 Fatty acids

 Organic compounds containing a carboxyl group attached to an R group

 R group is variable and contains 1 to 19 carbons.
 Fatty acids can be saturated (without C=C double bond) or unsaturated (with
one or more C=C double bonds).
 These are water insoluble compounds.
 Structure of fatty acid (palmitic acid)
 Fatty acids are esterified with glycerol to form monoglycerides, diglycerides,
and triglycerides.

 Structure of triglyceride is

  Nitrogenous bases

 These are organic compounds containing heterocyclic rings.

 Adenine, guanine, cytosine, uracil, and thymine are nitrogenous bases.
 Structure of adenine is

  When attached to sugar, these are known as nucleosides.

 When a phosphate group is also attached along with sugar, these are known as
nucleotides.

Bio-macromolecules

 Organic compounds with molecular weight in the range of ten thousand daltons
and more are known as bio-macromolecules. Lipids are an exception.
 These molecules are found in acid insoluble fraction.
 These are classified as proteins, polysaccharides, nucleic acids, etc.

 
1. Proteins

1. Proteins are linear chains of amino acids linked by peptide bonds, hence also
known as polypeptides.
2. A peptide bond is formed between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and
the amino group of next amino acid.
3. Essential amino acids (obtained through diet or food) are part of dietary
proteins.
4. Functions of proteins:
1. To transport nutrients
2. Fighting infections
3. Act as hormones and enzymes
5. Collagen is the most abundant protein in the animals whereas RuBisCO
(Ribulose bisphosphate Carboxylase – Oxygenase) is the most abundant protein
universally.
6. Structures of proteins-
1. Primary structure is the linear chain of amino acids.
2. Secondary structure is the helical folded structure.
3. Tertiary structure is the three-dimensional view of protein.
4. Quaternary structure is the assembly of more than one polypeptide.

 2. Polysaccharides

1. Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharides.

2. In a polysaccharide, the individual monosaccharides are joined by glycosidic
bonds.
3. Structure of glycosidic bond is

1. Cellulose is a polysaccharide consisting of only one type of monosaccharide –

glucose. Therefore, cellulose is a homopolymer or simple polysaccharide.
2. Similarly, inulin is a polymer of fructose.
 3. Complex polysaccharides have building blocks, amino-sugars and chemically
modified sugars such as glucosamine, N-acetyl galactosamines, etc. Hence,
they are heteropolymers.
4. Chitin is an example of complex polysaccharide. It forms the exoskeleton of
arthropods and cell wall of fungi.

 3. Nucleic acids

1. Nucleic acids are polynucleotides.

2. A nucleic acid containing deoxyribose sugar is DNA and that with ribose sugar
is RNA.
3. Bond formed between phosphate of one nucleotide and hydroxyl group of
sugar present in other nucleotide is known as phosphodiester bond.

 Nature of Bonds Linking Monomers in a Polymer

Peptide Bond

o It links amino acids in a polypeptide chain.

o This bond is formed when the carboxyl group of one amino acid reacts
with the amino group of the next amino acid, with the elimination of
water moiety (dehydration).

 Glycosidic Bond

o It links two carbon atoms of adjacent monosaccharide’s to form

polysaccharides.
o This also involves dehydration.

 Phosphodiester Bond

o It links two nucleotides to form nucleic acids.

o This bond is formed between the phosphate and hydroxyl groups of
sugar.
 All chemical reactions occurring in a living organism are together known as
metabolism.

 Biosynthetic pathways where simple structures form complex structures are

known as anabolic pathways.
 Degradation pathways where complex structures break to form simple
structures are known as catabolic pathways.
  Anabolic pathways consume energy whereas catabolic pathways lead to the
release of energy.
 Energy is liberated in the form of ATP (Adenosine triphosphate).
 The rate of metabolic conversions (anabolism or catabolism) is affected by
catalysts called enzymes.

Primary and Secondary metabolites-

 Primary metabolites- Intermediates or products of metabolism directly involved

in growth, development, and reproduction
Example − fatty acids, amino acids, etc.
 Secondary Metabolites − Intermediates or products of metabolism not involved
directly in growth, development, and reproduction
Example − Pigments such as carotenoids, toxins, drugs, and essential oils.

 Enzymes

 General Features

 Almost all enzymes are proteins. Those RNA which can catalyze their own bio
chemical reactions are called ribozymes.
 The site of an enzyme at which a substrate fits is called its active site.
 These can catalyze reactions at a high rate.

Example:

 Activation energy is the energy required to achieve the transition state.
 Enzymes are divided into 6 classes based on the type of reaction they catalyze 
– oxido-reductases, hydrolases, transferases, lyases, isomerases, and ligases.

 Cofactors

 The protein part of an enzyme is called apoenzyme.
 Cofactors are non-protein constituents bound to the enzyme. These make the en
zyme catalytically active.
 Cofactors can be classified in three categories.

 Prosthetic groups – These are organic compounds which tightly bind to the apo
enzyme. Example: Haem.
 Coenzymes – These are organic molecules which unite with the apoenzyme onl
y during the course of reaction. Example: NAD.
 Metal ions – Example: Zinc acts as cofactor for carboxypeptidase.
 Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity
 
 Enzymes do not start a reaction, but help in accelerating it.

 Enzymes affect the rate, but not the direction of a biochemical reaction.
 Most of the enzymes have high turnover number. Turnover number of an enzy
me is the number of molecules of a substance that is acted upon by an enzyme 
per minute. High turnover number of enzymes increases the efficiency of reacti
on.
 Enzymes are specific in action.
 The temperature and pH at which an enzyme shows the maximum activity is ca
lled the optimum temperature and optimum pH respectively.
 The activity of an enzyme declines both above and below the optimum value.
 Enzymes show maximum activity at an optimum pH of 6 – 8.
 The velocity of enzymaticreaction increases with increase in substrate concentr
-ation and then ultimately reaches a maximum velocity.
 A chemical which shuts off the enzyme activity is called inhibitor.
 When an inhibitor binds to the active site and competes with the substrate for bi
nding, it is called competitive inhibitor.

 Nature of an enzyme action

 The enzyme (E) first unites with the substrate (S) and forms an intermediate en
zyme substrate complex (ES).
 Then it undergoes an intermediate formation of enzyme product complex (EP)
and finally it dissociates into its product (P) and enzyme regains its original
form.

CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION

 Cell cycle
 o It is defined as a series of events that takes place in a cell, leading to the
formation of two daughter cells.
o The average duration of a cell cycle for a human cell is about 24 hours
and for yeast cell, it is about 90 minutes
o Cell cycle is divided into two basic phases: Interphase and M phase

 Interphase
o Interphase involves a series of changes that prepares the cell for division.
It involves the period of cell growth and DNA replication in an orderly
manner.

 It is divided into three phases:

 G1 phase – It involves growth of cell and preparation of DNA replication.
 S phase – It involves DNA replication. The amount of DNA doubles, but the
chromosome number remains the same.
 G2 phase – It involves protein synthesis and further growth of cell, which
prepares it for division.
 G0 phase or quiescent phase – It is the stage when metabolically active cell
remains quiescent for long period of time.
 Significance of Cell Division
o It is the mean of asexual reproduction in unicellular organisms.
o It is essential for the growth of a single celled zygote into a whole new
multicellular organism.
o It helps in the repair of injuries and worn out tissues.
o It replaces dead cells of the body and thus is essential for growth
of organism.
o In sexual reproduction, meiosis occurs. This type of cell division not
only results in production of gametes, but also brings new combinations
of genes, thus resulting in variations among a population. This also leads
to evolution of a species.

 Mitosis
o It is a process of cell division where chromosomes replicate and get
equally distributed into two daughter cells. Hence, it is also called
equational division.
o The process of mitosis keeps the chromosome number equal in daughter
as well as parental cell.
o Mitosis usually takes place in somatic cells.
 Mitosis involves four stages:
 Prophase
o It involves initiation and condensation of chromosomes.
 o Nucleolus and nuclear membrane disappear.
 Metaphase
o Chromosomal material condenses to form compact chromosomes that
get aligned in the middle of nucleus at equatorial plate.
  Anaphase
o Centromere splits and chromosomes move apart towards two opposite
poles due to shortening of spindle fibres
 Telophase
o Chromosomes finally reach their respective poles.
o Nuclear envelope assembles around each chromosome cluster.
o Nucleolus and other organelles reform.

 Karyokinesis and Cytokinesis

o Karyokinesis is the division of nucleus during mitosis or meiosis that is

followed by cytokinesis.
o Cytokinesis involves the division of cytoplasm of a cell.
o Cytokinesis is achieved in animal cell by cleavage that deepens and
divides the cell into two.
o It is achieved in plant cell by cell plate formation.
o When karyokinesis is not followed by cytokinesis, a multinucleate
condition arises. This is called syncytium.

 Significance of mitosis
o It results in the formation of diploid daughter cells with identical genetic
material.
o Mitosis plays a significant role in cell repair, growth, and healing.

 Meiosis
o It is the process which involves the reduction in the amount of genetic
material.
o It mainly occurs in germ cells.
o At the end of meiosis II, four haploid cells are formed.
o It is comprised of two successive nuclear and cell division with a single
cycle of DNA replication.
 The phases of meiosis are as shown below-
 Meiosis I
1. Prophase I – It comprises of 5 stages:
o i. Leptotene
o Chromosomes start condensing.
o ii. Zygotene
 o Pairing of chromosomes called synapsis occurs.
o A pair of synapsed homologous chromosomes is called bivalent or
tetrad.
o iii. Pachytene
o Exchange of genetic material (crossing over) between non-sister
chromatids occurs.
o Chiasmata formation
o iv. Diplotene
o Bivalents formed during pachytene separate from each other (except at
chiasmata) due to dissolution of synaptonemal complex
o v. Diakinesis
o Terminalisation of chiasmata can be observed.
o By the end of this stage, the nucleolus disappears and the nuclear
envelope breaks.
 2. Metaphase I
o Bivalents (tetrad) get aligned along metaphase plate through spindle
fibres.
 3. Anaphase I
o  Homologous chromosomes separate while chromatids remain attached
at their centromere.
 Telophase I
o Nucleolus and nuclear membrane reappear around chromosome cluster
at each pole.
 Interkinesis – It is the stage between two meiotic divisions.

 Meiosis II

 1. Prophase II
o Chromosomes become compact.
o Nuclear membrane disappears.
 2. Metaphase II
o Chromosomes align at the equator.
o Kinetochores of sister chromatids attach to spindle fibres at each pole.
 3. Anaphase II
o Chromatids separate by splitting of centromere.
o As a result, chromatids move towards their respective poles in the cell.
 4. Telophase II
o Nuclear envelope reforms around the chromosome clusters.
o After meiosis II, the process of cytokinesis results in the formation of
four haploid cells
(tetrad of cells).
 Significance of meiosis:
It brings about variation.
It maintains the chromosome number constant from generation to generation.