Workshop technology

Workshop technology is the type of technology which deals with different

processes by which component of a machine or equipment are made. Its purpose is
that the module unit is designed to equip the trainee with knowledge, skills, and
attitudes that enable to perform basic workshop tasks.

Basic manufacturing system

Manufacturing, a branch of industry, is the application of tools and processes for
the transformation of raw materials into finished products. ... The term
manufacturing system refers to a collection or arrangement of operations and
processes used to make a desired product or component.

Accident & Safety

ACCIDENT : It is an unplanned and uncontrolled event in which the action or

reaction of an object, substance, person or radiation results in personal injury
or probability thereof.

Causes of Workshop Accidents:

(a) Unsafe Conditions
Lack of proper safe guard on machinery, Hazardous arrangement, procedure etc.
Improper ventilation, Improper illumination, Unsafe dress.
(b) Unsafe Acts.
Using unsafe equipments or equipments unsafely
Operating or working at unsafe speed
Unsafe loading, placing and combining
Taking unsafe position or posture
Making safety devices inoperative

What is workshop safety?

Health and safety guidance on Workshop Safety. Safety in the workshops is
subject to a number of various risk assessments and safe codes of working
practices which have to be observed and adhered to by all workshop users and
enforced by the person in charge of these areas.

What is machine safety?

Machines can help improve production efficiency in the workplace. However, their
moving parts, sharp edges, and hot surfaces can also cause serious workplace
injuries such as crushed fingers or hands, amputations, burns, or blindness.
Safeguards are essential to protect workers from injury.
What are the safety precaution?
An action taken in advance to protect against possible danger, failure, or injury; a
safeguard: followed safety precautions when using heavy machinery.

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What is the purpose of general safety rules?
The purpose of this General Safety Instruction is to define the minimum Safety
requirements which prevention and protection measures must satisfy in order to
ensure the protection of persons from risks to their health and safety arising, or
likely to arise, from the effects of hazardous chemical agents that are present .
Safety Precautions
General Precautions
Your safety is your personal responsibility.
Always follow the correct procedures.
Never take shortcuts.
Take responsibility and clean up if you made a mess.
Clean and organize your workspace.
Ensure a clear and easy route to emergency exits and equipment.
Be alert and awake on the job.
Dress and Behavior
Close fitting overalls should be worn in the workshop.
Do not wear rings, watches, scarves and tie, because they can get caught up in
the moving parts of the machinery.
When operating machine tools, long shirt sleeves should be rolled up.
Long hair should be covered with a safety cap.
Safety goggles must be worn while Chipping, Milling, Turning, Grinding, Drilling,
etc.

Shoes having oil resistant thick soles should be worn.

Do not talk to, or otherwise distract anyone who is working with tools or machinery.
Fooling about in the workshop, especially near machine tools can cause
serious injury.
Keep clear of moving parts of machine and loads being hoisted.
Never stand under a load supported by lifting device.
Do not leave a machine unattended while it is running. Do not leave equipments
in dangerous positions.
Use correct gang ways and watch where you walk.
Personal Protective Equipments (PPE)
Personal protective equipment (PPE) includes laboratory/workshop coats; safety
glasses and goggles; masks and respirators; hard hats; and safety gloves and
shoes. 2
PPE is only of benefit to you if it is suitable for the task in hand. Learn how to do so
and store it carefully between uses.
Laboratory coats or gowns must always be properly worn and fastened.
They must be kept in good condition, replaced if holed or torn, and cleaned
and washed regularly. Look after other PPE and keep it clean; do not allow it to be
contaminated by, for example, leaving it on a laboratory bench.
Report defective or ill‐fitting equipment to your manager or supervisor and have it
replaced. Non‐disposable facemasks and respirators require a regime for cleaning
and maintenance, and to ensure that they are effective, must be face‐fit tested at
the Occupational Health All PPE should be taken off before leaving the laboratory
area and entering other areas, such as staff rooms or offices.

Safety with Lifting Loads

Avoid split, broken and loose handles of hammers. Heads of hammers must not be
worn and they must be securely fastened to the handle.
Take help when you cannot safely handle load to be lifted.
Lift the load properly. For picking up load from the shop floor, lift it from a crunching
position.
Always use correct type of lifting device.
Clean up the slippery parts of the floor before moving loads.
Loads from lorries etc. should be placed first on a platform at about waist
height.

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Safety with Hand Tools
Files must never be used as levers. They should always have a proper handle
fitted to them. Chisels with mushroom head are dangerous. When chipping
always make sure that ships do not hit somebody standing nearby.
Always hold the work firmly in a vice or other holding device. If the work shifts
during operation a nasty injury may result. Always use correct size of spanner
and avoid the use of packing or extension handles. Always use a screw
driver which fits correctly in the screw head. Do not hold the work in hand
while tightening or loosening a screw. The screw driver may slip and cause
injury in hand.
SAFETY WITH THE MACHINE:
Do not try to operate any machine before you fully understand its
mechanism.
Be sure how to stop a machine before you start it. Never operate a machine
unless all safety guards are in position.
Always keep the shop floor free from oil, grease, tools and other cuttings.
Job must be clamped properly.
Cutter must be held properly.
Only recommended speeds and feeds should be used.
Use cleaning brush to clear off swarf from the machine.
Do not attempt to measure the job when it is in moving position.
Do not try to change gears when machine is running position.
Do not try to stop rotating tool job by hand.
Only recommended lubricants and coolants should be used.
Grinding wheel should be checked for crack before fitting it.
Switch off power while mounting or dismounting a chuck and removing job from
the machine. Chuck key must be removed before starting the machine.
A wooden plank should be used on bed ways of milling while mounting and
dismounting the chuck. Get first aid immediately for any injury.

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PREVENTIVE MEASURES:

Safety Guards. By providing proper safeguards to the machines, accidents can

be prevented. Some guards are built into a permanent casing, while some are attached
afterwards.
Fencing: Machines or their parts should be fenced when it is not possible to
provide safeguards.
Hoists: cranes and lifts etc. must be of sound constructions. They must be tested
periodically.
Physical conditions: Sufficient illumination and ventilation should be provided.
Floor should be free from oiliness. Floor should be kept clean.
Safety measures include special clothing for the protection of body, such
as gloves, apron, goggles etc. Lose clothing may be a source of danger.
Repair work on machines should not be done when it is running.
All the tools should be kept at their proper places.
Chips should not be removed by hand.

First Aid
Providing immediate and effective first aid to workers or others who have been injured
or become ill at work may reduce the severity of the injury or illness and promote
recovery.
All accidents, cuts and abrasions must be reported before leaving the workshop. If an
accident does happen, no matter how small, it must be reported to the workshop staff
and an Accident Report Form filled out. Filling out this form is imperative for any future
complications resulting from an accident.

What is first aid and why is it important?

First aid helps ensure that the right methods of administering medical assistance are
provided. Knowing how to help a person is just as important in emergency situations. It
only takes six minutes for the human brain to expire due to lack of oxygen.

ASSIGNMENT:
(1) What is Safety?
(2) What is an accident?
(3) What Safety precautions to be observed while working with hand tools?
(4) What precautions to be taken to avoid fire?
(5) What do you understand by First aid?
(6) What is the purpose of general safety rules?
(7) What is workshop safety?
(8) What are the safety precaution?
(9) What is first aid and why is it important?
(10) What is Basic manufacturing system?

5
 HAND TOOLS
INTRODUCTION:

The term “Bench work” generally denotes the production of an article by hand on the
bench. “Fitting” is the assembling together of parts and removing metals to secure
the necessary fit, and may or may not be carried out at the bench.
However, all these two types of work require the use of a large number of tools and
equipments and involve a number of operations to finish the work to the desired
shape and size. The operations commonly used in bench and fitting work may be
classified as:
1. Chipping 2. Filing 3. Scrapping 4. Grinding 5. Sawing 6. Marking
7. Drilling 8. Reaming 9. Tapping 10. Dieing
VICES
The vice is the most common tool for holding work. Various types of vices are used
for various purposes. They include bench vice, leg vice, pipe vice, hand vice, pin
vice, and toolmaker’s vice.

BENCH VICE

The most commonly used vice is the Engineer’s parallel-jaw bench vice, sometimes
called fitters vice.
LEG VICE:
The leg vice is used by blacksmiths but it is also suitable for heavy hammering,
chipping, and cutting in fitter’s work. 6
PIPE VICE:

The pipe vice shown in figure is used for holding round section metal, tubes, pipes,
etc. In this case, the screw is vertical and the movable jaw works vertically. It grips
the work at four points on its surface.

HAND VICE:
The hand vice is used for gripping screws, rivets, keys, small drills and other similar
objects which are too small to be conveniently held in the bench vice.

PIN VICE:

The pin vice is used for holding round material of small diameter such as wire and pins,
during working. It also forms a very useful handle for small files. This is
illustrated in Fig. 13.4. It consists of a handle and a tapered nose covering a small
collets chuck at its end. The chuck carries the jaws which are operated by milling the
handle.
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CARE OF VICES:
Vices should be kept clean and free from dust and metal chips, using a brush.
Occasionally, the thread and the nut should be oiled. The vice should never be used as
an anvil, and a hammer or other means must not be used to move the handle. It will
only bend the handle and spoil the screw threads.

HAMMERS

Hammers are used to strike a job or a tool. They are made of forged steel of various
sizes (weights) and shapes to suit various purposes. A hammer consists of four parts
namely peen, head, eye, and face as shown in Fig. The eye is normally made oval
or elliptical in shape and it accommodates the handle or shaft.

The end of the handle which fits into eye is spread or split by forcing a metal wedge
into it to prevent the hammer head from flying off the handle during striking.
Hammers are classified, according to the shape of the peen, as ball peen, cross peen
and straight peen hammers.

BALL PEEN HAMMER:

This is the most common form of hammer and is sometimes called engineer’s
hammer, or chipping hammer. The peen has a shape of a ball which is hardened
and polished. This hammer is mainly used for chipping and riveting.

CROSS PEEN HAMMER:

This is similar to bal peen hammer in shape and size except the peen which is
across the shaft or eye. This is mainly used for bending, stretching, hammering
into shoulders, inside curves, etc

STRAIGHT PEEN HAMMER:

This hammer has a peen straight with the shaft, i.e. parallel to the axis of the shaft.
The is used for stretching or peening the metal.
SOFT HAMMER:
Where it is necessary to strike metal a blow with the minimum damage to the surface, a
soft-hammer, called mallet, is used. 8
FILE : A file consists of the following parts as shown in figure. Files are classified
and named according to three principal factors sizes, type or cut of teeth and sectional
form.
SIZE: The size of a file is its length. This is the distance from the point to the heel,
without the tang.
CUT OF TEETH: Cuts of files are divided into two groups as shown in Fig.
These groups are: (1) Single- cut, (2) double-cut.

On Single-cut files the teeth are cut parallel to other across the file at an angle of
about 600 to the centre line of the files. Such files are frequently termed as “flats”
and are chiefly used on very hard metal. Double-cut files have two sets of teeth, the
over-cut teeth being at about 600 and the up-cut at 75 to 800 to the centre line.
Single-cut and double-cut files are further divided according to the coarseness
of spacing between the rows of the teeth. In descending order of roughness they
are listed as: 9
 1. Rough (R) 2. Bastard (B) 3. Second cut (SC) 4. Smooth (S)
5. Dead smooth (DS) 6. Super smooth (SS)
SHAPES:

The shape of a file is its general outline and cross-section. Files are made in
hundred of shapes. Fig. shows the most commonly used shapes. They are:

FILING:

Filling is the most important operation that a metal worker has to learn. Filling is usually an after-
treatment and usually done after chipping. It serves to remove the burr from cuts and clean the face
of the cuts, and to finish the final shape of a workpiece.

METHODS OF FILING: Generally speaking, there are three main methods of using a
hand flat file:
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CROSS FILING
In this filing strokes run alternately from the right and from the right to the left as
shown in Fig. This is the commonest form of filing and the one used for general
shaping. In this method the possibility of rounding is minimized, and the score marks
made in the work by the file teeth are criss-crossed so that maximum amount of
metal is removed. The aim of cross-filing is always to move the whole of the file surface
across the whole of the work surface in one stroke.
STRAIGHT FILING
In this filing the file is pressed forward approximately at right angles to the length of
the work. On the back stroke, the file should be lifted clear of the work in order not to
blunt the teeth. Straight-filing is specially useful on long and narrow pieces of work
whose width is less than that of the file.

CARE OF FILES:

Files are very brittle and should be placed thoughtfully in the bench well in such a way
that they do not rub or knock against other tools, especially those of cast steel.
Similarly, the file should never be used on hardened steel, or hard surface scale such
as cast iron skin, or allowed to strike against the hardened vice jaws. When not in
use, the files are protected from rust by coating them lightly with machine oil. Before
using the file, the oil should be removed with carbon tetrachloride or caustic soda.
Make sure that the handle is firmly fixed to the file.

New files are generally first used on copper, brass, and later on wrought iron and mild
steel. Filing, especially the filing of soft metals, causes the file teeth to become clogged
with particles of metal.

The work is wiped clear of scrapings before each testing. The process is repeated until
the colour is spread evenly over the surface.

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HACKSAW:

The hacksaw is used for sawing all metals except hardened steel. A hand hacksaw
consists of a frame, handle, prongs, tightening screw and nut, and blade as shown
in Fig. The frame is made to hold the blade tightly. They are made in two types. The
solid frame in which the length cannot be changed and the adjustable frame which
has a back that can be lengthened or shortened to hold blades of different length.

Hacksaw blades are made of special steels. For hand saws either high carbon steel, low
alloy steel or high speed steel is used. The blades may bi hard throughout or of the
more flexible type, which has a soft back and a hard cutting edge (Fig.). All hard
blades made of high speed steel are used for cutting the harder metals, such as alloy
steels, while flexible blades are good for used by unskilled or semi-skilled
operators or where the work is inconveniently placed. These flexible blades are less
liable to break and are used for general work. Blades are measured by the (1)
length (2) width (3) thickness, and (4) pitch of teeth.

WRENCH:
Many types of wrenches are used, each being suited for a specific purpose. The
name of wrench is derived from its shape, its use, or its construction.
A single-end wrench is one that fits only one size of bolt, head, or nut. The
opening is generally offset at a 15° angle to permit complete rotation of
hexagonal nut in only 30° by “flopping" the wrench. A double-end wrench has a
different size opening at each end.It is used in the same manner as a single-end
wrench.

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The socket and screw wrench commonly called Allen wrench, is hexagonal and fits
into the holes in safety set screws or socket-head set screws.
Following types of care should be taken when using wrench:
*Always select a wrench, which fits the nut or bolt properly.
*It is safer to pull rather than push on a wrench.
*Be sure that the nut is fully seated in the wrench jaw.
*Use the wrench in the same plane as the nut or bolt head.
* When tightening or loosening a nut, a sharp quick jerk is more effective than a
steady pull.
SPANNERS:

A spanner is a hand tool having jaws or opening or a ring at one or both ends for
tightening, loosening bolts, nuts and screw heads.
Material: spanners are made of drop forged steel, high tensile steel or alloy steel
and heat treated.
Specification: a spanner is specified by its shape and size. Spanners are marked
with the size across the jaw opening. A 20 mm spanner can be used for tightening and
loosening nuts and bolts having 20 mm flat to flat distance of their heads.
Types: generally following types of spanners are used
1. Set Spanners: these are open ended spanners which are found from 6 to 32 mm
or ¼ " to 1 ¼ " they can be single ended or double ended.
(a). Single Ended Spanners: these are general purpose spanners having one size
opening which are mostly supplied with machine tools for a specific purpose.
(b) Double Ended Spanners: these are standard spanners having two
different size openings.
2. Ring Spanners: these spanners have hole on one or both ends and generally 12
notches are made in the hole grip the head of bolt or nut from all sides theses spanners
are used where application of set spanners is not possible.
3. Tubular Box Spanner: it is generally used where hexagonal bolt or nut is
fitted in some more depth.
4. Socket Spanner: it is generally used where hexagonal bolt or nut is fitted in
some less depth.
5. Adjustable Spanner: it is generally used for light duty work.
6. Pin Hook Spanner: it is generally used on circular nut having slot

f 49

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PLIER:
Plier is a hard tool. Generally Plier are used for holding or gripping small object at
places where the used of hand is inconvenient or unsafe. It is also often used as
spanner to hold and turn nuts and bolts but this should be avoided. Generally in our
tool room there are two Pliers.
a) Combination Plier b) Nose Plier

Combination Plier: It is used for holding and gripping small objects. It is also
used for tightening or losing the nut from the bolts.
Nose Plier: It has a tapering nose use for positioning and removing small objects
at narrow place also can bend and wire cutting.

SCREW DRIVER

Screw driver is a hand tool made of forged steel and designed to turn screw for
fastening screws or for loosing screw. Screw driver is specified according to their size,
point and also the shape & cross section.
The two main drive types associated with machine screws are slotted (flat head) and
Phillips. There are also a number of specialized drives that they can come in, these are
typically associated with tamper-resistant screws.

14
 Assignment:
1. What are different parts of a bench vice and what is the material of each part?
2. Write the short notes on Pipe vice, Hand vice, Leg vice, Drill vice & Pin vice.
3. What is the care to be taken while using different hand tools?

MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
INTRODUCTION

The increasing complexity in manufacturing and the designing fields require a common
feature called the dimensional accuracy. For which the measurement is the most
important part and the physical measurement is defined as obtaining quantitative
information about a physical quantity. Most commonly used measuring instruments are
explained below.

VERNIER CALIPER
Construction:
The vernier caliper consists of two scales; one fixed and other is movable. The
fixed scale called main scale is calibrated on L-shaped frame and carries fixed jaws.
The movable scale called vernier scale slides over the main scale and carries a
movable jaw. The movable jaws as well as the fixed jaw carried measuring tip.
When two jaws are closed the zero of vernier scale coincides with the zero of main
scale. A lock nut is provided to lock the sliding scale on the fixed main scale.

15
Part of the Vernier Caliper:

1. Vernier slide
2. Lock screw
3. Fine adjustment slide
4. Lock screw
5. Beam
6. Fine adjustment device
7. Movable jaw
8. Stationary jaw

Principle of vernier:

The principle of vernier is based on the difference between two scales or division
which are nearly, but not quite alike for obtaining small difference.
Least count of vernier instruments:
The difference between the value of main scale division and vernier scale division is
known as the least count. Thus, least count of a vernier instrument = (value of the
smallest division on the main scale)-(the value of the smallest division on the vernier
scale)
For example,
49 main scale division are divided into 50 vernier scale divisions
Value of 1VSD=49/50mm
Least count = 1MSD-1VSD =1-49/50 =1/50=0.02mm

Reading calculation procedure:

The statement for reading the measured value of vernier caliper is given as followings:

The n’th number of MSD that the zero of the vernier scale ha crossed +the n’ th
number of VSD coinciding with the MSD X (the least count of the instrument)
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 Example:- bellow figure indicate the zero of vernier crossed 34 division in main
scales so main scale reading is 34 and 31 no line is coincide with main scale that’s
why vernier scale reading is, 31X0.02=0.62. so total reading is 34.62mm.

Uses: Vernier caliper is employed for depth, internal and external measurements. It is
generally used by closing the jaws on to the work surface.
Ranges: 0-125mm, 0-200mm, 0-250mm, 0-300mm etc…
Material: Stain less steel/ invar steel & the measuring faces are harden to 650HV
Mechanism: Sliding mechanism Measuring Techniques:
a) Placing vernier caliper on test part b) Locking vernier slide in position
Precautions:
Ensure the line of measurement coincide with the line of scale. Ensure the vernier is held
straight and view it perpendicularly.

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 MICROMETER
Principle of Micrometer:
Micrometer works on the principle of screw and nut. We know that one rotation of screw
corresponds to a linier movement of a distances equal to pitch of the thread. If the
circumference of the screw is divided into number of equal parts say n, its rotation
through one division will cause the screw to advance through (pitch/ n), length. Thus,
the maximum length that can be measured by such arrangement will be (pitch /n).
Least count of Micrometer: Least count is the minimum distance which can be
measured accurately by the instrument. The micrometer has a screw of 0.5 m pitch.
With a thimble graduated in 50 divisions to provided a direct reading of
(pitch/n) = 0.50 / 50 = 0.01 mm. Thus, least count of micrometer= pitch of the spindle
screw / no. of division on the spindle.
It is used to measure the outside diameter and length of small parts to an accuracy
of 0.01 mm. The outside micrometer has, U, shaped or C shaped frame. It holds the
micrometer parts together. The frame is generally made of steel, malleable Cast
iron or light alloy. The gap of the frame permits the maximum diameter of the job to
be measured.
Different part of Out Side Micrometer
1. Thimble, 2. Anvil, 3. Spindle, 4. Lock, 5. Barrel, 6. Ratchet stop,
7. Setting standards, 8. Frame

The micrometer has a fixed anvil protruding 3mm from the left hand anvil is provided on
the front of the spindle. These are also available with tungsten carbide faces. The
spindle engages with the nut. It should run freely and smoothly. These should be no
backlash between the spindle screw and nut.
A lock nut is provided on the micrometer spindle to lock it when the micrometer is at its
correct reading.
The sleeve is accurately divided and clearly marked in 0.5 mm division along its length
which serves as a main scale. It is chrome plated and adjustable for zero setting.
The thimble can be moved over the barrel. It has 50 equal divisions
around its circumference. Each division having a value of 0.01 mm.

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Reading Calculation Procedure:

Barrel scale division + (thimble scale division× least count)

Here main scale division=7.5
Thimble scale division=22
So reading=7.5+ (22×0.01) =7.72mm
HOLDING PROCEDURE

Precaution:
1. Ensure the spindle engages with nut and moves freely
2. The backlash should be removed between the spindle screw and nut

Assignment
1. Define the least count of vernier instrument. How is it determined? Explain.
2. State the principle of a micrometer. Sketch an outside micrometer and name
its various parts.
3. State the precautions to be taken while using a micrometer.
4. Describe the relative merits and demerits of micrometers and vernier calipers.
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 MILLING MACHINE
INTRODUCTION OF MILLING MACHINE:
A milling machine is a machine tool that removes metal as the work is fed against a
rotating multipoint cutter. The milling cutter rotates at high speed and it removes
metal at a very fast rate with the help of multiple cutting edges. One or more number of
cutters can be mounted simultaneously on the arbor of milling machine. This is the
reason that a milling machine finds wide application in production work. Milling machine
is used for machining flat surfaces, contoured surfaces, surfaces of revolution, external
and internal threads, and helical surfaces of various cross-sections. Typical
components produced by a milling are given in Fig. In many applications, due to its
higher production rate and accuracy, milling machine has even replaced shapers
and slotters.
Principle of Milling Machine:
In milling machine, the metal is cut by means of a rotating cutter having multiple cutting
edges. For cutting operation, the work piece is fed against the rotary cutter. As the work
piece moves against the cutting edges of milling cutter, metal is removed in form chips
of trochoid shape. Machined surface is formed in one or more passes of the work.
The work to be machined is held in a vice, a rotary table, a three jaw chuck, an index
head, between centers, in a special fixture or bolted to machine table. The rotator
speed of the cutting tool and the feed rate of the work piece depend upon the type of
material being machined.
Specification of Milling Machine:
For Example
• Table Overall Size : 1245 X 230 MM
• Longitudinal Movement : 560 MM
• Transverse Movement : 250 MM
• Vertical Movement : 390 MM
• Speed Range : 45 – 2000 RPM
• Feed Range : 16 – 800 MM/MIN

TYPES OF MILLING MACHINES:

Milling machine rotates the cutter mounted on the arbor of the machine and at the same
time automatically feed the work in the required direction. The milling machine may be
classified in several forms, but the choice of any particular machine is determined
primarily by the size of the work piece to be undertaken and operations to be
performed. With the above function or requirement in mind, milling machines are made
in a variety of types and sizes. According to general design, the distinctive types of
milling machines are:
1. Column and Knee Type Milling Machines
(A) Hand Milling Machine, (B) Horizontal Milling machine 20
(C) Universal Milling Machine, (D) Vertical Milling Machine
2. Planer Milling Machine
3. Fixed-Bed Type Milling Machine
(A) Simplex Milling Machine. (B) Duplex Milling Machine.
(C) Triplex Milling Machine.
4. Machining Center Machines
5. Special Types of Milling Machines
(A) Rotary Table Milling Machine. (B) Planetary Milling Machine.
(C) Profiling Machine. (D) Duplicating Machine.
(E) Pantograph Milling Machine. (F) Continuous Milling Machine.
(G) Drum Milling Machine,
(H) Profiling and Tracer Controlled Milling Machine

COLUMN AND KNEE TYPE MACHINE:

A) HORIZONTAL MILLING MACHINE:
The table of the horizontal milling machine moves horizontally both parallel and at a
right angle to the axis of spindle. This type of machine is used for machining horizontal
and vertical faces and slots.

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Identification of Main Parts:

Code Name Location Function

Forms part of column storage tank
1 Base Main body for coolant
2 Column Rare of a main body Houses drive motor
Carries machine table
3 Knee Front of column Houses various machine control
Carries suitably mounted work
4 Table Top of knee piece to the cutters
Horizontally mounted at Provides mounting point and drive
5 Spindle the top of column for arbor.
Horizontally mounted at Carries arbor supports brackets
6 Over Arm the top of column.
Arbor Supports Mounted over neat over Supports outer end of arbor
7 Brackets arm
Arbor Mounted on spindle nose Provides extension to spindle foe
8 mounting cutter
Spindle Speed Top right hand side of a Selects speed of rotation of
9 Gear Box column spindle
Table Feed Gear Right hand side of Provides selection of automatic
10 Box column feeds for table
Table Hand Feed Both end of a table Move table toward or away from
11 (detachable handle) cutter
Table Vertical Left hand front of knee Rises or lowers table
12 Travel Control (detachable handle)
Table Cross Right hand front of Moves table towards or away from
13 Travel Control knee(detachable handle) column
Table Transverse Middle front of table Selects direction of table
14 transverse
Start and Stop Right hand side of knee Switches electricity supply to
15 Lever machine on/off

B) UNIVERSAL MILLING MACHINE:

A universal milling machine has a swiveling table thus making it capable of more
complex forms of machining such as the cutting of all types of helical grooves and slots,
spur and spiral gears and the spiral fluting of drills.
The main parts are as shown for the horizontal milling machine
C) VERTICAL MILLING MACHINE:
The vertical milling machine has the spindle mounted vertically at right angles to the
table. Most work on this type of machine is done by using end & face milling cutters.
22
Fig. shows a simple column and knee type milling machine. It is the most commonly
used milling machine used for general shop work. In this type of milling machine the
table is mounted on the knee casting which in turn is mounted on the vertical slides of
the main column. The knee is vertically adjustable on the column so that the table can
be moved up and down to accommodate work of various heights. The column and knee
type milling machines are classified on the basis of various methods of supplying power
to the table, different movements of the table and different axis of rotation of the main
spindle.
DIFFERENT PARTS OF MILLING MACHINE & THEIR FUNCTIONS:
The principal parts of a column and knee type vertical milling machine are described as
under.
Base
It is a foundation member for all the other parts, which rest upon it. It carries the column
at its one end. In some machines, the base is hollow and serves as a reservoir for
cutting fluid.
Column
The column is the main supporting member mounted vertically on the base. It is box
shaped, heavily ribbed inside and houses all the driving mechanism for the spindle and
table feed. The front vertical face of the column is accurately machined and is provided
with dovetail guide way for supporting the knee.
23
Knee: The knee is a rigid grey iron casting which slides up and down on the vertical
ways of the column face. An elevating screw mounted on the base is used to adjust the
height of the knee and it also supports the knee. The knee houses the feed mechanism
of the table, and different controls to operate it.
Saddle: The saddle is placed on the top of the knee and it slides on guide ways set
exactly at 90°to the column face. The top of the saddle provides guide-ways for the
table.
Table: The table rests on ways on the saddle and travels longitudinally. A lead screw
under the table engages a nut on the saddle to move the table horizontally by hand or
power. In universal machines, the table may also be swiveled horizontally. For this
purpose the table is mounted on a circular base. The top of the table is accurately
finished and T -slots are provided for clamping the work and other fixtures on it
Spindle: It is situated in the upper part of the column and receives power from the
motor through belts, gears and clutches and transmits it to the arbor.
MILLING METHODS:
There are two distinct methods of milling classified as follows:
1. Up-Milling or Conventional Milling, 2. Down-Milling or Climb Milling
UP-Milling or Conventional Milling:
In the up-milling or conventional milling the metal is removed in form of small chips by
a cutter rotating against the direction of travel of the work piece. In this type of milling,
the chip thickness is minimum at the start of the cut and maximum at the end of cut.
As a result the cutting force also varies from zero to the maximum value per tooth
movement of the milling cutter. The major disadvantages of up-milling process are the
tendency of cutting force to lift the work from the fixtures and poor surface finish
obtained. But being a safer process, it is commonly used method of milling.

Down-Milling or Climb Milling:

Down milling is also known as climb milling. In this method, the metal is removed by a
cutter rotating in the same direction of feed of the work piece. The effect of this is that
the teeth cut downward instead of upwards. Chip thickness is maximum at the start of
the cut and minimum in the end. In this method, it is claimed that there is less friction
involved and consequently less heat is generated on the contact surface of the cutter
and work piece. Climb milling can be used advantageously on many kinds of work to
increase the number of pieces per sharpening and to produce a better finish. With climb
milling, saws cut long thin slots more satisfactorily than with standard milling. Another
advantage is that slightly lower power consumption is obtainable by climb milling, since
there is no need to drive the table against the cutter. 24
SAFETY ON MILLING MACHINE:
Before operating the centre milling, even for simple tasks, the operator must undergo
safety instruction. This will ensure that he/she understands how to remain safe when
operating the machine. Only competent and capable engineers should operate the
milling unsupervised.
Do not operate a machine such as a milling, if you have not received safety
instruction and understand how to use the machine.
1. The guard must be placed in position at all times, during the operation of the milling.
2. The material to be machined must be placed in the chuck securely. The chuck key
must not be left in the chuck. If the milling is switched on, the chuck key could ‘fly’ out,
at high speed, injuring the operator.
3. The metal being machined should extrude from the chuck, only a small distance.
The more metal extruding from the chuck, the more likely an accident will take place.
4. The operator must wear safety goggles when using the milling. Hands and fingers
must be at a safe distance from rotating metal Parts.
5. All millings should be fitted with emergency stop, foot or knee switches.
6 The machine must be set to operate at speeds and feeds recommended for the
specific metal being machined. If the metal rotates too slowly/fast or the feed is too
slow/ fast, accidents are likely to occur.
7. Appropriate coolants should be applied to the material being ‘turned’ on the milling.

MILLING CUTTER
INTRODUCTION

The milling cutters are revolving tools having one or several cutting edges of identical
form equally spaced on the circumference of the cutter. The cutting elements are cutting
teeth which intermittently engages the work pieces and remove the material by relative
movement of the work piece and cutter. Milling cutters may have teeth on the periphery
or ends only, or on both the periphery and ends. Peripheral teeth may be straight or
parallel to the cutter axis, or they may be helical, sometimes referred as spiral teeth.
ELEMENTS OF A PLAIN MILLING CUTTER
The principle parts and angles of a plain milling cutter illustrated in figure are
described below:
25
Elements of Plain Milling Cutter

26
Body of cutter: The part of the cutter left after exclusive of the teeth and the portion to
which the teeth are attached.
Cutting edge: The edge formed by the intersection of the face and the circular land or
the surface left by the provision of primary clearance.
Face: The portion of the gash adjacent to the cutting edge on which the chip impinges
as it is cut from the work.
Fillet: The curved surface at the bottom of gash which joins the face of one tooth to
the back of the tooth immediately ahead.
Gash: The chip space between the back of one tooth and the face of the next tooth.
Land: The part of the back of tooth adjacent to the cutting edge which is relieved to
avoid interference between the surface being machined and the cutter.
Lead: The axial advance of the helix of the cutting edge in one complete revolution of
the cutter.
Outside diameter: The diameter of the circle passing through the bottom of the fillet.
Root angle: The diameter of the circle passing through the bottom of the fillet.
Cutter angles: Similar to a single point cutting tool, the milling cutter teeth are
also provided with rake, clearance and other cutting angles in order to remove
metal efficiently. The following are the different cutter angles.
Relief angle: The angle in a plane perpendicular to the axis, which is the angle
between the land of a tooth and the tangent to the outside diameter of cutter at the
cutting edge of that tooth.

Primary clearance angle: The angle formed by the secondary clearance surface of
the tooth with a line drawn tangent to the periphery of the cutter at the cutting edge.
Rake angle (Radial): The angle measured in the diametral plane between the face of
the tooth and a radial line passing through the tooth cutting edge. The rake angles
which may be positive, negative or zero.
Axial rake angle (for helical teeth): The angle between the line of peripheral
cutting edge and the axis of the cutter when looking radially at the point of
insertion.
Lip angle: The included angle between the land and the face of the tooth, or
alternatively the angle between the tangent to the back at the cutting edge and the face
of the tooth.
Helix angle: The cutting edge angle which a helical cutting edge makes with a
plane containing edge makes with a plane containing the axis of a cylindrical
cutter. Figure illustrates the helix angle of a helical cutter.

TYPES OF TOOLS

1. End Mill: The end mills have cutting teeth on the end as well as on the
periphery teeth may be straight or helical and the helix may be right hand or left hand.
The end mills are used for light milling operations like cutting steps, machining
accurate holes, producing narrow flat surfaces and for profile milling operations. Various
types of end teeth on end mills are shown. The different types of end mills are
described below: 27
 Types of end mill

i. Taper Shank End Mill: The taper shank end mills have a tapered shank or
extension on one end for mounting and driving the cutters. The cutters may be double
fluted or multiple fluted. The taper shank end mills are available from 0 to 63mm in
diameter and may have forged end or tapped end for mounting on the arbor.

Taper shank end mill

ii. Straight Shank End Mill: The straight shank mills have round shanks for
mounting and driving the cutters. The cutter teeth may be straight or helical. The
diameter of the cutter ranges from 2 to 63 mm.

Straight shank end mill

2. Shell End Mill: The shell end mill are large and heavier end mills provided with a
central hole for mounting the cutter on a short arbor. This design of the cutter gives
economy in tool material as the cutter having different diameters may be interchanged
on a single shank. The cutting edges are provided at the end and around the periphery
of the cutter. The teeth’s may be straight or helical and may be left or right handed.
Face milling operations are usually performed with these cutters. The diameter of cutter
ranges from 40 to 60 mm and width from 32 to 50mm.

28
 Shell end mill

D. Diameter of cutter, d. diameter of bore, b. Width, d1,d2,d3.Diameters, b1,b2. Widths

3. Side Face Milling Cutter: The side face milling cutter have teeth on its periphery
and also on one or both of its sides. The side milling cutters are intended for removing
metals from the side of a work
This figure illustrates a side milling cutter. The side milling cutters are available from
50 to 200 mm in diameter and the width of the cutter ranges from 5 to 32 mm.

Side face milling cutter

4. Angular cutter: The angle milling cutters are made as single or double angle
cutters and are used to machine angles other than 900. The cutting edges are formed
at the conical surface around the periphery of the cutter. The different types of
angle milling cutters are described below:
i. Single Angle Milling Cutter: The single angle milling teeth on the conical or
angular face of the cutter is designated by the included angle between the
conical face and the large flat face of the cutter. The cutter having different
included angles of 300, 450, 600, 650, 700, 800 and 850 are available with diameter of
50mm and width of 12mm. There are another set of cutters having the same range of
included angles, but the diameter of the cutter is 63mm and width
28mm. There is a third set of cutters having included angles of 780,750 and 800,
all having 63mm in diameter and 28mm in width.
29
 Single angle milling cutter

ii. Double Angle Milling Cutter: The double angle milling cutter as shown have v-
shaped teeth with both conical surfaces at an angle to their end faces. The angle of
teeth may not be symmetrical with respect to a plain a right angles to the cutter axis.
The unsymmetrical double angle cutters are available in diameters of 50, 63, 80 and

Double angle milling cutter

D. Diameter of cutter, d. Diameter of bore, b. Width, C. Dimension, ∝, β. angles.

100mm and their width varies from 12 to 36mm. The cutters are available in different
included angles of 550, 600, 650, 700, 750, 800, 850, 900 and 1800. The equal angles
cutters are available in diameter from 56 to 100mm having width ranging from 10 to
28mm. The included angles of the cutter may be 450,600 or
900. The double angle milling cutters are mainly used for cutting spiral grooves
on a piece of blank.

5. Drill and Reamers: Drills are also used in MITR or boring type milling machine.
When drills holes are located at accurate positions. By taking toughing on the reference
faces table moved to the required position and drill can be done by spindle with the
help of collets or drill chucks. After drilling reamer can also be done by the machine
reamer with speed approximately double than that of drilling.

6. Carbide Cutters, Inserts and Holder: It is the cutter or holder in which bits are
inserted on the periphery of the cutter holder. So it is multiple cutting tool used for plain
milling and side milling. The simple type of carbide inserts and holder is T- max cutter.
Other type of side and face milling cutter are also inserted type.
30
7. Special Cutters: The special cutters are used for special and typical work. Form
cutter are lies in this categories. These are grinded according to shape of the job
required.
APPLICATION OF MILLING CUTTERS:
Unlike a lathe, a milling cutter does not give a continuous cut, but begins with a
sliding motion between the cutter and the work. Then follows a crushing movement,
and then a cutting operation by which the chip is removed. Many different kinds of
operations can be performed on a milling machine but a few of the more common
operations will now be explained. These are:
Plain Milling or Slab Milling
Fig. illustrates the plain and slab milling operation. It is a method of producing a plain,
flat, horizontal surface parallel to the axis of rotation of the cutter.
Face Milling
Fig. illustrates the face milling operation. It is a method of producing a flat surface at
right angles to the axis of the cutter.
Side Milling
Fig. illustrates the side milling operation. It is the operation of production of a flat
vertical surface on the side of a work-piece by using a side milling cutter.
Angular Milling
Fig. illustrates angular milling operation. It is a method of producing a flat surface making
an angle to the axis of the cutter.
Gang Milling: Fig. illustrates the gang milling operation. It is a method of milling by
means of two or more cutters simultaneously having same or different diameters
mounted on the arbor of the milling machine. 31
Form Milling: Fig. illustrates the form milling operation. It is, a method of producing a
surface having an irregular outline.
End Milling: Fig. illustrates end milling operation. It is a method of milling slots, flat
surfaces, and profiles by end mills.
Profile Milling: Fig. illustrates profile milling operation. It is the operation of reproduction
of an outline of a template or complex shape of a master die on a work piece.
Saw Milling: Fig. illustrates saw milling operation. It is a method of producing deep slots
and cutting materials into the required length by slitting saws.
T-Slot Milling: Fig. illustrates T-slot milling operation.
Keyway Milling: Fig. illustrates keyway milling operation.
Gear Cutting Milling: Fig. illustrates gear cutting milling operation.
Helical Milling: Fig. illustrates helical milling operation.
Flute Milling: It is a method of grooving or cutting of flutes on drills, reamers, taps, etc.
32
 WORK HOLDING & TOOL HOLDING DEVICES

INTRODUCTION
It is necessary that the work should be properly and securely held on the milling
machine table for effective machining operations. The following are the usual
methods of holding the work on the table.
TYPES WORK HOLDING DEVICES:
Vices: Vices are the most common devices for holding work directly on machine
table due to quick loading and unloading arrangement. There are mainly three type
of vices commonly used:
Plain vice: The plain vice bolted directly on the milling machine table is most common
type of machine vice used for plain milling operations. The vice may be fastened to the
table with the jaws set either parallel or at right angle to the T-slots of the table.

Plain vice
Swivel vice: The swivel vice is sued to mill an angular surface in relation to a straight
surface without removing the work from the vice. In construction, it may be
considered as a plain vice which is mounted on a circular base graduated in degrees.
The box is clamped on the table by means of T-slots

Swivel vice

1. Circular base, 2. Fixed jaw, 3,4. Jaw plates,

5. Moveable jaw, 6. Screw, 7. Square shank, 8. Guides, 9. Gib

33
Tool maker universal vice: The universal vice can be swiveled in a horizontal
plane similar to a swivel vice and cam also be titled in any vertical position for
angular cuts. The vice not being rigid in construction is used mainly in tool room
work

Universal vice
1. Base, 2. Fixed jaw, 3,4. Jaw plates, 5. Moveable jaw, 6. Screw, 7. Square shank, 8.
Guides, 9. Gib, 10. Handle

Parallel bars: When the height of the job is less than the height of jaws of the vice,
parallel bars are used to raise and seat the workpiece above the vice jaws and parallel
with the vice bottom. These are square or rectangular in shape and available in various
sizes.
Angle plate: When work surface one to milled at right angles to another surface,
angle plates are used for supporting the work. The angle plate is bolted on the table
and workpiece is supported on its face by bolts and clamps. A tilting type plate in
which one face can be adjusted relative to the angle then for milling at arequired
angle is also some times used.

Titling type angle plate

1. Degree graduation, 2. Clamping bolt 34
V-block: The V-block are used for holding shafts on milling machine table in which
keyways, sluts and flats are to be milled. The block are clamped on the machine
table by strokes and bats. V-blocks are provided with a torque at its base which fits into
the t-slot of the table and prevents the block from any sideways movements.
Clamps: Bulky workpieces of irregular shapes are directly clamped on milling machine
table by using T-bolts and clamps. Different designs of clamps are used for different
pattern of work.

TOOL HOLDING DEVICES

INTRODUCTION

There are several methods of supporting and rotating milling cutters with the
machine spindle depending on the different designs of cutters. The following are the
different designs of cutters. The following are the different devices for holding and
rotating cutters:

Collets: A milling collet is a form of sleeve bushing for reducing the size of the taper
hole at the nose at the nose of the milling machine spindle s that an arbor or a milling
cutter having a smaller shank than the spindle taper can be fitted into it.

Milling machine collet

Arbor: The cutters having a bore at the center are mounted and keyed on a short shaft
called arbor which is connected with the milling machine spindle by a draw bolts and
driving keys. The complete assembly of an arbor with the holding and rotating
arrangement has been shown in figure.

Arbor assembly

1. Draw bolt, 2. Lockout, 3. Spindle, 4. Key block, 5. Arbor, 6. Setscrew, 7. Spacing

collars,8. Cutter, 9. Beating bush.

35
Adapter: An adapter is a form of collet used on milling machine having
standardized spindle end. Cutters having shanks are usually mounted on adapters. An
adapter can be connected with the spindle by a draw bolt or it may be directly bolted to
it.

Milling machine adapter

Mounting Cutters: Engaging Taper Shank Cutter in Machine Spindle:

Selectarbors as follows:
• Use the shortest arbor possible.
• Internal taper the same size as cutter taper.
• If necessary to use taper sleeves keep number used to minimum.
To engage cutter in arbor:
• Clean taper in arbor and cutter shank and remove any burrs.
• Align cutter tang to slot in taper and engage tapers with a sharp thrust.
• Tap cutter in with soft hammer.

Engage Arbor in Machine Spindle as Follows:

• Clan both tapers.
• Engage drive dogs in arbor slots.
• Hold cutter in position applying upward pressure.
• Screw draw bar firmly into arbor.
• Switch on machine.
• Rotate spindle at a moderate speed, to visually check cutter runs true.
Note: when using more taper cutters with a tapped tap shank, an open-ended
adapter should be used to allow the draw bar to screw direct into the cutter tang.
When removing this type of cutter from the arbor, screw a bolt of the same thread
size into the tapped end of the shank and tap head of the bolt with a copper hammer
to shock cutter free.
36
Engaging Straight Shank Cutters in Automatic Locking Chucks:

Engage collate arbor in machine spindle. To engage cutter in collate:

• Select collate the same size as cutter shank.
• Insert chamfered end of collet into sleeve and slide collet in.
• Slip cutter into collet and screw into just engaged threads.

To engage cutter in arbor:

• Push sleeve and collet into arbor.
• Rotate collet and feel drive dogs engage in holes at bottom of arbor bore.
• Screw nut on arbor until a slight resistance is met.
• Screw in cutter until solid resistance is felt, to engage arbor centre in centre hole
of cutter.
• Hands tighten a cutter as tight as possible.
• Hand tighten nut as tight as possible or lightly tighten with special spanner
supplied.
Note: Cleanliness is essential. Ensure all parts of chuck are thoroughly clean before
assembly.
37
 The completed assembly is illustrated above.

Disengaging Cutters from Automatic Centering Chucks:

To disengage cutter:

• Engage low gear on machine spindle.

• Loosen locking nut with special spanner provided and remove nut from arbor (see
A previous page).
• Pull cutter out to remove sleeve and collate from arbor (see B previous page).
• Unscrew cutter and slide from collet (see C previous page).
• Clean all parts of chuck before storing away.

38
If changing cutter for one with same size shank:
• Loosen locking nut approximately half a turn.
• Unscrew cutter and slide a collet.
• Engage new cutter in collet and screw up to centre.
• Hand tighten locking nut.
Mounting Cutters in Collet Chuck:
Engage collet arbor in machine spindle. To engage collet in arbor:
• Select collet the same size as cutter shank.
• Clean bore, or arbor and bore, and outside of collet. Position collet in arbor.
• Screw nut on arbor until light contact is felt of nut on face of collet (see A below)

Engage cutter in arbor as follows:

• Insert cutter shank in to collet (see B above).
• Slide shank in to collet until end of shank is felt at rear of arbor.
• Hold cutter in position and tighten nut as tight as possible using special spanner
(see C above).
Engaging Arbor Mounted Cutters-Vertical Machine:
Engaging face mill on arbor:

39
Engage arbor in machine spindle. To engage cutter on arbor:
• Unscrew locking screw from arbor.
• Clean mating parts of cutter and arbor.
• Slide bore of cutter on arbor spigot, rotating cutter to align drive dogs to cutter
slots.
• Feel drive dogs engage in slots and faces flat together.

Tighten cutter on arbor by holding cutter in position and screwing locking screw into
arbor finger tight. Finally tighten locking screw as follows:
• Checked that dogs of key and slots of screw head are not worn.
• Engage dogs of key in slots of screw head.
• Apply upward pressure to keep key engaged in slots and tighten screw.
Note: Shell end mills are engaged in a similar way except.
• A socket head screw is used as locking screw.
• The correct key must be used. between head of locking screw and shoulder of
cutter.
Cutting Parameters:
The factors that affect the cutting process during the operation in milling is called cutting
parameters for milling. The basic Cutting Parameters in milling operation are as follows.
1. Cutting Speed, 2. Feed, 3. Depth of Cut

Cutting Speed:
The cutting speed for metal removal operation is the speed at which the cutting edge or
tooth passes over the work piece and is usually expressed in,
• Meters per minutes (m/min) metric
• Feet per minutes ( ft/min) imperial
Conversion of cutting speed to revolution of milling cutter
• Metric:
Revolution of milling cutter (RPM) = 1000S/πD
Where, S = cutting speed (m/min)
D = diameter of cutter (mm)

40
 • Imperial:

Revolutions of milling cutter (RPM) = 12Xcutting speed in feet per min /

circumference of cutter in inches

The speed of milling cutter is peripherical linear speed resulting from

rotation. It is expressed in meters per minute.
The cutting speed can be derived from the formula:

V = πdn / 1000 meter per min.

Where V = Cutting speed in m per min.
d = Diameter of the cutter
n= Cutter Speed. (RPM)
Factors Govern the Cutting Speed:
For a given material there will be an optimum cutting speed for a certain set of
machining conditions, and from this speed the spindle speed (RPM) can be calculated.
Factors Affecting the Calculation of Cutting Speed:
1. The material being machined (steel, brass, tool steel, plastic, wood) (see table
below)The material the cutter is made from (Carbon steel, high speed steel (HSS),
carbide, ceramics)
2. The economical life of the cutter (the cost to regrind or purchase new,
compared to the quantity of parts produced)
3.Cutting speeds are calculated on the assumption that optimum cutting
conditions exist, these include:
•Metal removal rate (finishing cuts that remove a small amount of material
may be run at increased speeds)
• Full and constant flow of cutting fluid (adequate cooling and chip flushing)
• Rigidity of the machine and tooling setup (reduction in vibration or chatter)
• Continuity of cut (as compared to an interrupted cut, such as machining square
section material)
• Condition of material (mill scale, hard spots due to white cast iron)

41
The cutting speed is given as a set of constants that are available from the material
manufacturer or supplier, the most common materials are available in reference
books, or charts but will always be subject to adjustment depending on the cutting
conditions. The following table gives the cutting speeds for a selection of common
materials under one set of conditions. The conditions are a tool life of 1 hour, dry
cutting (no coolant) and at medium feeds so they may appear to be incorrect
depending on circumstances. These cutting speeds may change if, for instance,
adequate coolant is available or an improved grade of HSS is used (such as one that
includes cobalt).
Cutting Speeds for Various Materials Using a Plain HSS Cutter:
Material type Meters per min Surface feet
(MPM) per min
Mild steel 15-18 (SFM)
50-60
Steel (tough) 30-38 100-125
Cast iron (medium) 18-24 60-80
Alloy steels (1320–9262) 20-37 65-120
Carbon steels (C1008-C1095) 21-40 70-130
Free cutting steels (B1111-B1113 & C1108- C1213) 35-69 115-225
Stainless steels (300 & 400 series) 23-40 75-130
Bronzes 24-45 80-150
Leaded steel (Leadloy 12L14) 91 300
Aluminium 75-105 25-350
Brass 90-210 300-700

FEED:
The feed in a milling machine is defined as the rate with which the work piece
advances under the cutter. The feed is expressed in a milling machine by the
following three different methods.
i. Feed Per Tooth
ii. Feed Per Cutter Revolution
iii. Feed Per Minute
Factors Affecting the Feed Rate:
Increased feed reduces cutting time but it greatly reduces the tool life. The feed
depends upon the factors such as size, shape, strength and method of holding the
component, the tool shape and its setting, the rigidity of machine, depth of cut, etc.
Coarser feeds are used for roughing and finer feeds for finishing cuts.
The feed rate used on milling depends upon several factors, such as
1. Depth of cut. 2. Tool geometry. 3. Sharpness of cutter.
4. Material of work-piece. 5. Strength and uniformity of work piece
6. Types of finish and accuracy required.
7. Power and rigidity of machine.

42
 Average Cutting Speed and Feed of Different Material
WOREEKPIECE FACE MILLING PERIPHERIAL MILLNG
Tool steel Hss Tool steel Hss
Cutting feed Cutting feed Cutting feed cutting feed
Speed mm/min speed mm/min Speed mm/min speed mm/min

Mild steel 7.2-18 150-15 24-42 300-30 7.2-18 50-10 18-36 80-15
2
37kg/mm 6-15 250-15 18-36 250-25 6-15 60-20 15-30 10-30
gray cast iron
Mild steel 7.2-15 150-15 18-36 250-25 7.2-15 40-10 15-30 70-15
2
50kg/mm 18-36 200-20 42-72 300-30 18-36 100-20 36-60 180-30
bronze or brass
Cutting speed is in m/min

DEPTH OF CUT:
The depth of cut in milling is the thickness of the material removed in one pass of
the work under the cutter. It is the perpendicular distance measured between the
original and final surface of the work piece and is expressed in mm.

SETTING MACHINE PARAMETERS:

Data Given.- Material of job: Mild Steel, Diameter of End mill Cutter 25 MM,
No of Teeth on Cutter=6 Nos. Feed- 0.1 mm/tooth.

Vc = π D N
1000
= π x 25 x N

1000
N = 343.95 rpm

Feed = 0.1 x number of teeth x N

= 0.1 X 6 X 343.95
= 206.37 mm/min
CENTRE DRILLING:
Centre drilling is an operation through which small drill holes are produced to locate the
centre of a hole on the solid flat surface by means of a cutting tool named as
combination drill or centre drill. The alignment between the headstock and tailstock of
the milling enables you to drill holes that are precisely centered in a cylindrical piece of
stock. Before you drill into the end of a work piece you should first face the end as
described in the facing operations section. The next step is to start the drill hole using a
center drill - a stiff, stubby drill with a short tip. If you try to drill a hole without first center
drilling, the drill will almost certainly wander off center, producing a hole that is oversized
and misaligned.
43
OPERATION:
Centre drill is the tool which is used to make small hole to locate the centre for the
proceeding drill holes. There are various types of centre drills as discussed below. The
material of centre drill used in the work shop is HSS. Centre and spotting drills are
traditionally used to make a conical hole for a millin centre in order to make a starting
point for a standard twist drill, designed to prevent the twist drill from walking. Drill
materials HSS, HSS-Co, TiALN coating and carbide. Centre Drills are available with:
Combined drills, reinforcing bulge, radius form, bell type, extra length, 60and 90angles.

Types of Centre Drill:

1. TYPE- A, 2. TYPE- B, 3. TYPE- C, 4. TYPE- R

TYPE- A: This type of CD has no protective chamfer and straight running surfaces.

TYPE-B: This type has conical protective chamfer and straight running surfaces.
TYPE-C: It is having perpendicular protective chamfer and straight running surfaces.

TYPE-R: It having protective chamfer and convex running surfaces.

44
Drill:
Drill bits are cutting tools used to create cylindrical holes, almost always of circular cross-
section. Bits are held in a tool called a drill, which rotates them and provides torque and
axial force to create the hole. Specialized bits are also available for non-cylindrical-
shaped holes.The shank is the part of the drill bit grasped by the chuck of a drill. The
cutting edges of the drill bit are at one end, and the shank is at the other.
Drill bit geometry:
The spiral (or rate of twist) in the drill bit controls the rate of chip removal. A fast spiral
drill bit is used in high feed rate applications under low spindle speeds, where removal of
a large volume of swarf is required. Low spiral drill bits are used in cutting applications
where high cutting speeds are traditionally used, and where the material has a
tendency to gall on the bit or otherwise clog the hole, such as aluminum or copper.
The point angle, or the angle formed at the tip of the bit, is determined by the material
the bit will be operating in. Harder materials require a larger point angle, and softer
materials require a sharper angle. The correct point angle for the hardness of the
material controls wandering, chatter, hole shape, wear rate, and other characteristics.
The lip angle determines the amount of support provided to the cutting edge. A greater
lip angle will cause the bit to cut more aggressively under the same amount of point
pressure as a bit with a smaller lip angle. Both conditions can cause binding, wear, and
eventual catastrophic failure of the tool. The proper amount of lip clearance is
determined by the point angle. A very acute point angle has more web surface area
presented to the work at any one time, requiring an aggressive lip angle, where a flat
bit is extremely sensitive to small changes in lip angle due to the small surface area
supporting the cutting edges.
The length of a bit determines how long a hole can be drilled, and also determines the
stiffness of the bit and accuracy of the resultant hole. Twist drill bits are available in
standard lengths, referred to as Stub-length or Screw-Machine-length (short), the
extremely common Jobber-length (medium), and Taper-length or Long-Series (long).
Most drill bits for consumer use have straight shanks. For heavy duty drilling in industry,
bits with tapered shanks are sometimes used.
The diameter-to-length ratio of the drill bit is usually between 1:1 and 1:10. Much
higher ratios are possible (e.g., "aircraft-length" twist bits, pressured-oil gun drill bits,
etc.), but the higher the ratio, the greater the technical challenge of producing good
work.The best geometry to use depends upon the properties of the material being drilled.
The following table lists geometries recommended for some commonly drilled materials.

45
 Work piece material Point angle Helix angle Lip relief angle
Aluminum 90 to 135 32 to 48 12 to 26
Brass 90 to 118 0 to 20 12 to 26
Cast iron 90 to 118 24 to 32 7 to 20
Mild steel 118 to 135 24 to 32 7 to 24
Stainless steel 118 to 135 24 to 32 7 to 24
Plastics 60 to 90 0 to 20 12 to 26

Grind the drill bit manually and maintain the point angle 118º as shown in the
figure.

46
TAP
A tap is a screw like tool which has threads like a bolt and three or four flutes cut
across the thread. It is used to cut threads inside a hole as in a nut. The edges of
the thread formed by the flutes are the cutting edges. The lower part of the tap is
somewhat tapered so that it can well dig into the walls of the drilled holes. The
upper part of the tap consists of a shank ending in a square for holding the tap in
the machine spindle or by a tap wrench. Taps are made from carbon steel or
high speed steel and are hardened and tempered. A tap cuts a thread on the
inside surface of a hole, creating a female surface which functions like a nut.
The three taps in the image illustrate the basic types commonly used by most
machinists.

DIE:
Dies are used to cut threads on a round bar of metal, which creates a male threaded
piece. Which functions like a bolt. It is a round or square block of hardened
steel with a hole containing threads and flutes which form cutting edges .

Types of dies:
There is following types of dies in common use.

47
1. Solid Die: A solid die is one which has fixed dimension and cannot be changed /
Adjusted for larger or smaller diameter.
2. Adjustable Die: Adjustable means that can be adjusted to cut larger or
smaller diameter. A circular adjustable split die is very common. The die is split
through one side and slight adjustment is made by means of the set screw. If
this screw is tightened up the die is opened up slightly. Whilst unscrewing will
cause the die to spring in. Another common type is two piece rectangular die.
3. Two piece die: this die is found in matching pair of two rectangular blocks
which is stronger in construction. It can be adjusted easily to increase or
decrease the depth of cut. This die requires a special die holder.
4. Die nut: it is found in square and hexagonal shape which is found for
different standards and sizes of threads. It is used for chasing or
reconditioning of damaged threads. It is used with the help of a spanner.

48
 TURNING
INTRODUCTION:
The lathe is one of the oldest machine tools and came into existence from the
early tree lathe which was then a novel device for rotating and machining a piece
of work held between two adjacent trees. A rope wound round the work with its
one end attached to a flexible branch of a tree and the other end being pulled by
a man caused the job to rotate intermittently. Hand tools were then used. With
its further development a strip of wood called "lath" was used to support the rope
and that is how the machine came to be known as “lathe”. this device
continued to develop through centuries and in the year 1797 Henry Maudslay, an
Englishman, designed the first screw cutting lathe which is the forerunner of the
present day high speed, heavy duty production lathe, a machine tool which has
practically given shape to our present day civilization by building machines and
industries.

Function Of Lathe:
The main function of a lathe is to remove metal from a piece of work to give it
the required shape and size. This is accomplished by holding the work securely
and rigidly on the machine and then turning it against cutting tool which will
remove metal from the work in the form of chips. To cut the material properly the
tool should be harder than the material of the work piece, should be rigidly held
on the machine and should be fed or progressed in a definite way related to the
work.
Specification Of Lathe:
1. Height Of Centre: The height of the centers measured over the lath bed.
2. Swing Over Bed: Swing or max diameter that can be rotated over the bed ways.
3.Swing Or Diameter Over Carriage. This is the largest diameter over carriage.
This is the largest diameter over carriage of work that will revolve over the lathe
saddle. 49
4. Distance Between Centres: Max job length in mm that may be held between
the centers (head stock & tail stock)
5. Bed Length: Bed length in meters which may include.

PARTS OF LATHE:
The following are the main parts of a lathe.

FUNCTIONS OF DIFFERENT PARTS:

Headstock:
It is a fixed unit of lathe on the left hand side.
Its main functions are to: Provide a means to assemble work‐holding devices.
Transmit the drive from the main motor to the work to make it revolve.
Accommodate shafts with fixed and sliding gears for providing a wide range of
work speeds. Have shift leavers to slide gears to bring in mesh for different speeds.
Have a means for lubricating the gears, shafts and bearings.

50
Lathe Bed:
The two functions of a lathe bed are:
1. To locate the fixed units in accurate relationship to each other
2. To provide slides upon which the operating units can be moved.
Constructional Features Of A Lathe Bed:
The bed generally consists of, in the majority of cases, a single iron casting. In
larger machines, the bed may be in two or more sections, accurately assembled
together. Web bracings are often employed to increase the rigidity. For absorbing
shock and vibration, the bed should be of considerable weight. Bed castings are
usually rough machined and then allowed to ‘age’ naturally before finish
machining to remove distortions.

A swarf or a combined swarf and a coolant tray are provided on the lathes. This
may be an integral part with the lathe bed. This increases the rigidity of the bed.
The bed generally rests on cast iron or welded sheet metal legs of box
section. This provides the necessary working height for the lathe. Very often the
electrical switch gear unit and the coolant pump assembly are housed in the box
section legs at the headstock end.
Tailstock: It is a sliding unit on the bed‐ways of the lathe bed. It is situated on the
right hand side of the lathe. It is made in two parts, namely the ‘base’ and the
‘body’. The base bottom is machined accurately and has ‘v’ grooves corresponding
to the bed‐ways. It can be slide over the bed and clamped in any position on the
bed by means of the clamping unit. The body of the tailstock is assembled to the
base and has a corresponding longitudinal movement as to that of the base, along
the bed. It has a limited transverse movement as well, with respect to the base.
Graduations are marked on the rear end of the base and azero line is marked on
the body. When both zero liens coincide the axis of the tailstock is in line with the
axis of the headstock. The body and base are made of cast iron. The parts of a
tailstock are shown in figure. 51
Purpose Of The Tailstock: To accommodate the dead centre to support a lengthy
work for carrying out lathe operations. To hold cutting tools like drills, reamers, drill
chucks which are provided with taper shank.
To turn the external taper by offsetting the body of the tailstock with
respect to the base. To perform external operation of the shaft held
between centres.
The Carriage: The carriage is the part of the lathe which slides over the
bed‐ways between the headstock and the tailstock. It provides various movements
for the cutting tool manually as well as by power feed. The carriage can be locked
on the bed at any desired position by tightening the carriage lock‐screw. The
carriage consists of the following parts.

Work & Tool holding devices

As we know the lathe is one of the oldest and highly important machine tool.
There is vast number of applications of this machine tool. So for facilitating the
easy machining of the work piece it should be held tightly and securely. For this
purpose many types of accessories are being used for facilitating easy holding
of the work piece.
Some of the works holding devices are:
1) Carriers and catch plates, 2) Face plates, 3) Chuck, 4) Mandrels, 5) Rests

LATHE CHUCK
A lathe chuck is a device which holds the jobs as well as rotates the same. So
that the stationary tool can do its work. Chucks holds work by means of adjustable
jaws. A chuck is attached to the head stock spindle of the lathe. The internal
thread in the chuck fit on the external threads on the spindle nose short,
cylindrical hollow objects or those of irregular shape are easily and rigidly held
in a chuck. There is a number of types of lathe chuck
For examples:
1. two –jaw chuck
2. Three jaw universal chuck.
3. Four jaw independent chuck.
4. Collet chuck.
Two Jaw Chuck:
It is used for holding irregular shaped jobs. But it has a disadvantage that it can
hold the job only from sides. It is unable to restrict all the degree of freedom of the
job.
Three Jaw Universal Chuck:
It is also called a scroll or self centering chuck. It is the most frequently used
work holding device. The jaws are opened or closed (with the help of chuck key)
depending upon the size of the job to be held in the chuck. The opening or
closing force is exerted through an internal scroll plate which has a
continuous thread. Thus all three jaws close uniformly and automatically
centre the round or hexagonal work piece. The size of a three jaw chuck is its
outside diameter. The chuck is made from 125 mm to 1200 mm and larger.

Advantage of Three Jaw Chuck:

1. Job can be held easily.
2. A wide range of cylindrical & hexagonal. Job can be held in the chuck.
3. Internal & external jaws are available.
4. The work piece can be bored also.
Limitations of the Three Jaw Chuck:
1. Only regular components can be held e.g. round & hexagonal.
2. Accuracy decreases as chuck becomes work
3. Run out cannot be corrected.
4. Accuracy of concentricity is limited when work is reversed in the work.
Four Jaw Independent Chuck:
In the four jaw chuck three is not only one more gripping surface i.e. the fourth
jaw) but each jaw can be independently adjusted also. Thus a four jaw chuck can
securely grip rectangular & irregular shapes. Eccentrically located holes on round
work can also be easily drilled, bored or tapped. 53
Advantages of Four Jaw Chuck:
1. Jaws can be reversed for holding externally on internally on the work piece.
2. A wide range of regular & irregular jobs can be held in the chuck.
3. Holds can be drilled concentrically or eccentrically at work.
4. The chuck possesses height gripping power therefore heavy cuts can be taken.
5. A job can be both the faced & bored n the end face.
6. Even if the chuck wear out, there is no loss of accuracy.
Limitation of Four Jaw Chuck:
1. Setting up of job on the chuck consumes more time when compared to during
so a three jaw chuck.
2. To high gripping power of the chuck. Fine work can be easily damaged during
setting.
3. Chuck is bulky & heavy to handle on to the lathe.
Collet Chuck:
It is used widely in production work because it centers accurately, holds very
tightly, & does not mark the work piece.
Collets are made in very standard bar stock size and are designed for holding,
round square or hexagon work pieces.

54
 A collets chuck is self centering chuck that retains a high degree
of concentricity.
The collets has slots cut length wise on its periphery for tightening the work
piece the collet is drawn in with the help of a key so that the slot. Width in
the split tapered end decreases to secure the work piece highly & accurately.
Advantages of Collet Chuck :
1. Work can be coated very quickly
2. Chuck has a very high accuracy of concentricity which is maintained
over long periods of use
3. Chuck has considerable gripping power
4. Collet chuck does not leave mark on the work piece.
5. Collet chuck is simple compact & reliable.
Limitations of Collet Chuck:
1. Initial cost is high as large numbers of collets have to be purchased
since separate collet is required for each size of rod / bar.
2. Only accurately turned / grooved / drawn rods can be held in the collet
chuck.
Magnetic chuck:
This chuck is used for holding a very thin work piece made of magnetic material
which cannot be held in an ordinary chuck. It is also used where any
distortion of the work piece due to the pressure of the jaws is undesirable. The
holding power of the chuck is obtained by the magnetic flux radiating either from
the electro‐magnets or from the permanent magnets introduced within the chuck. In
the ON position the flux passes through the work piece and grips it. In OFF
position the magnets are set aside bringing them in contact with high permeable
“keepers" which short circuit the flux and prevent them from passing through the
work piece. 55
Drill chuck:
A drill chuck is sometimes used in a lathe for holding straight shank drill,
reamer or tap for drilling, reaming or tapping operations. The chuck maybe
held either in headstock or tail stock spindle. It has self‐centering jaws which may
be operated by rotating a key.

SETTING OF CUTTING TOOL:

56
A tool must be properly set with reference to the line of the centres. If the
tool nose is positioned above the line of centers, the rake angle is increased and
the clearance angle is decreased. This also decreases the cutting angle. It has
a somewhat favorable effect on the cutting conditions. The chips flow over the
tool face with less friction. The chip is coiled into a spiral, hence less deformed and
thus the cutting force is reduced. But on the other hand, the friction between the
flank and the work is increased. The cutting edge has a tendency to dig into the
work, which may result in chattering, reduced accuracy. A poorer surface finish
and in some cases, even breakage of the tool.
TOOL HOLDING DEVICES:

57
The following points should be kept in mind while tool setting:
For turning operations, set the nose of the tool slightly above the centre of
the work.
Normally the cutting edge should be set a maximum of 5° above the centre. If it
is set too
high, the work will rub against the tool and the cutting action will be inefficient. If
the tool is set tool much below the centre of the work, it will be because treating
on the work surface.
The cutting tool should be set in such a manner that it does not extend too far
out of the
tool holder. Too much overhang will cause vibrations and may break the tool.
Setting Above the Centre Line:
α [clearance angle] becomes smaller & more friction is created between
clearance face of the tool and cut face of the work piece. Becomes larger, chips
separate easily and thicker chips can be removed. For roughing operation the
tool is occasionally set above the centre line (up to 2% of the work piece
diameter)

Setting Below The Centre Line:

α becomes larger and less frication is created between clearance face and cut
face β becomes smaller and chips are difficult to separate.
Setting On Centre Line:
the correct height of tool is always required. It is obtained by placing sheet metal
packing underneath. The packing must be straight and clean. 58
59
 Cutting Tools For Lathes

INTRODUCTION
In the context of machining, a cutting tool (or cutter) is any tool that is used to
remove material from the workpiece by means of shear deformation. Cutting
may be accomplished by single‐ point or multipoint tools. Single‐point tools are
used in turning, shaping, plaining and similar operations, and remove material by
means of one cutting edge. Milling and drilling tools are often multipoint tools.
Grinding tools are also multipoint tools. Each grain of abrasive functions as a
microscopic single‐point cutting edge (although of high negative rake angle), and
shears a tiny chip.
TOOL NOMENCLATURE:
For cutting tools, geometry depends mainly on the properties of the tool material
and the work material. The standard terminology is shown in the following figure.
For single point tools, the most important angles are the rake angles and the end
and side relief angles.

The back rake angle affects the ability of the tool to shear the work material and
form the chip. It can be positive or negative. Positive rake angles reduce the cutting
forces resulting in smaller deflections of the work piece, tool holder, and machine. If
the back rake angle is too large, the strength of the tool is reduced as well as its
capacity to conduct heat. In machining hard work materials, the back rake angle
must be small, even negative for carbide and diamond tools. The higher the
hardness, the smaller the back rake angle. For high‐speed steels, back rake angle is
normally chosen in the positive range. There are two basic requirements for thread
cutting. An accurately shaped and properly mounted tool is needed because
thread cutting is a form‐ cutting operation. The resulting thread profile is
determined by the shape of the tool and its position relative to the work piece. The
second by requirement is that the tool must move longitudinally in a specific
relationship to the rotation of the work piece, because this determines the lead
of the thread. This requirement is met through the use of the lead screw and the
split unit, which provide positive motion of the carriage relative to the rotation of the
spindle. 60
IDENTIFICATION OF RIGHT HAND AND LEFT HAND TOOL:
Side cutting edge tools have their cutting edges formed on the side of the cutting
tool, and are used on lathes for most of the operations. They are again classified
as right hand tools and left hand tools. A right hand tool operates from the tailstock
end towards headstock and a left hand tool operates from the headstock end
towards the tailstock. The cutting edge is formed accordingly.

Form tools
These tools reproduce on the work the form and shape of the cutting edge to which
they are ground. The form tools perform the operations on the work by a plunging
action, and are fixed on the tool post square to the axis of the work and fed by a
cross‐slide. They may have their cutting edges formed on square or rectangular
section tool blanks acting radially. The form tools may be circular form tools and
tangential form tools. They may require special holders to which they can be
fixed, and the holders are clamped on the tool posts for operation.

PLAIN TURNING:

Turning is a machining process in which a cutting tool, typically a non‐rotary tool

bit, describes a helical tool path by moving more or less linearly while the
workpiece rotates. The tool's axes of movement may be literally a straight line, or
they may be along some set of curves or angles, but they are essentially linear (in
the nonmathematical sense). Usually the term "turning" is reserved for the
generation of external surfaces by this cutting action, whereas this same essential
cutting action when applied to internal surfaces (that is, holes, of one kind or another)
is called "boring". Thus the phrase "turning and boring" categorizes the larger
family of (essentially similar) processes. The cutting of faces on the workpiece
(that is, surfaces perpendicular to its rotating axis), whether with a turning or boring
tool, is called "facing", and may be lumped into either category as a subset.
Turning can be done manually, in a traditional form of lathe, which frequently
requires continuous supervision by the operator, or by using an automated lathe
which does not. Today the most common type of such automation is computer
numerical control. better known as CNC. (CNC is also commonly used with many
other types of machining besides turning.)
When turning, a piece of relatively rigid material (such as wood, metal, plastic, or
stone) is rotated and a cutting tool is traversed along 1, 2, or 3 axes of motion
to produce precise diameters and depths. Turning can be either on the outside of
the cylinder or on the inside (also known as boring) to produce tubular components
to various geometries. Although now quite rare, early lathes could even be used to
produce complex geometric figures, even the platonic solids; although since the
advent of CNC it has become unusual to use non‐computerized tool path control for
this purpose. The turning processes are typically carried out on a lathe, considered
to be the oldest machine tools, and can be of four different types such as
straight turning, taper turning, profiling or external grooving. Those types of
turning processes can produce various shapes of materials such as straight,
conical, curved, or grooved workpiece. In general, turning uses simple single‐point
cutting tools. Each group of workpiece materials has an optimum set of tools angles
which have been developed through the years.
Plain turning is done in two stages.
• Rough turning • Finish turning
By rough turning we bring the size of the work close to the required size, leaving
sufficient metal for finishing. The tool is selected, depending upon the amount of
material to be removed. This can be a roughing tool or a knife tool.
The normal direction of feeding the tool is from the tailstock end to the
headstock end. By rough turning we can remove maximum metal in the shortest
time. Surface finish and accuracy are not of much importance during rough turning.
The tool cutting edge should be sharp and ground to the recommended rake
and clearance angles.
Depending upon the material to be turned and the tool material, the
recommended cutting speed is to be chosen from the chart available, to determine
the spindle speed for plain turning. The selection of the recommended feed rate is
also important which greatly depends upon the depth of cut and the cutting speed
Chosen.

62
It is done after rough turning, and it aims to bring the size of the work within the
specified accuracy and with better surface finish. The tool to be used in this case
will be a finish turning tool which may be a round nose finishing tool or a knife tool
with a larger nose radius than normal.

Finish turning is also carried out from the tailstock end towards the headstock end.
The depth of cut must be sufficient enough to remove the rough marks produced
by rough turning and to bring the work to size. Finishing tut as far as possible is to
be limited to one. The cutting speed chosen should be higher than that chosen for
roughing by 1 1/2 to 2 times, whereas the feed rate may, depending upon the
surface finish needed, be as low as possible.
Step Turning And Chamfering
Turning is the removal of metal from the outer diameter of a rotating cylindrical
workpiece. Turning is used to reduce the diameter of the workpiece, usually to a
specified dimension, and to produce a smooth finish on the metal. Often the
workpiece will be turned so that adjacent sections have different diameters
Wherever more than one diameter is machined on a shaft, the section joining
each diameter is called a shoulder or step.
Hence the process carried out for these steps or shoulders known as step turning or
shoulder turning Different types of shoulders are machined from those the most
commonly machined shoulders are
• Square shoulder
• Filleted shoulder
• Chamfered or beveled shoulder
• Undercut shoulder.
Square Shoulder: When two shoulder or steps are staying at an angle of 90º with
each other then it is called as a square shoulder.

63
Filleted shoulder: When two shoulder or steps are matching with each other with
a radius then it is called as a Filleted shoulder.

Chamfered or beveled shoulder: If two steps or shoulders are connected

with a bevel edge or chamfered like profile then it is called as Chamfered or
beveled shoulder.

Undercut shoulder: In between two steps if one groove or undercut like profile
is there then it is called Undercut shoulder.
Uses of shoulder:

The method of machining the shoulders differs according to the type of shoulders
and their uses also.
• Square shoulders are generally used where it is necessary for a mating part
to fit at right angles against the shoulder.
• They may also be used to position parts fitted on a shaft. They may also be
used on parts which are not subjected to excessive strain at the corner.
• Beveled or angular shoulders are used primarily to eliminate sharp corners and
edges, to make it easier to handle the parts, and to improve the appearance of the
parts. They are sometimes used to strengthen a part by eliminating the sharp
corner found on a square shoulder
• Angular shoulders are beveled at an angle ranging from 300 to 60°. The most
common bevel angle is 45°. This gives a good appearance and has better strength
than a square shoulder.
• Filleted shoulders are generally used on parts which require additional
strength at the shoulder. The rounded corner is pleasing in appearance and also
strengthens the shaft at this point without any increase in the diameter of the part.
• Undercut shoulders are commonly used on parts which are required to have
threads. It is also found on parts that require grinding. The undercut shoulder
provides clearance for the wheel face during grinding.
64
CHAMFERING:
A chamfer is a beveled edge connecting two surfaces. If the surfaces are at right
angles, the chamfer will typically be symmetrical at 45 degrees. A fillet is the
rounding off of an interior corner. A rounding of an exterior corner is called a
"round"[1] or a "radius".
"Chamfer" is a term commonly used in mechanical and manufacturing engineering.
Special tools such as chamfer mills and chamfer planes are available. In tile work,
or furniture such as counters or table tops, an edge that has been eased by
rounding instead of chamfering is called a bull nose. Where a chamfer does not go
to the end of the piece, but "lifts out" in a smooth curve, the end is called a lark's
tongue.
An example of chamfering is part of the process of hand‐crafting a parabolic glass
telescope mirror. Before the surface of the disc can be ground, the edges must first
be chamfered to prevent chipping. This can be accomplished by placing the disc
in a metal bowl containing silicon carbide and rotating the disc with a rocking
motion. The grit will thus wear off the sharp edge of the glass.
Chamfering is a lathe operation performed by a cutting tool on the edges of the
faces of external diameters and bore diameters for a restricted length forming a
beveled edge.
Purpose of chamfering:
• To remove burrs and sharp edges from the turned components to
make it safe to handle them.
• To permit for easy assembly of mating components ‐ a shaft and a hole.
• To avoid formation of feather edges on the threaded parts.
• For better appearance.
METHODS OF CHAMFERING:
Chamfering can be done in various ways among those the most commonly used
ways are
• Chamfering is done with the help of a cutting tool having its cutting edge ground
and formed to the angle of chamfer [generally 45º] and, by directly applying the
tool on to the edge of work.
• Chamfering is done with the tool fixed in the tool‐post, and by swiveling the
compound slide to the angle of chamfering and forming the beveled edge.
• Chamfering is done by using a smooth file.

65
Most of the chamfers are beveled at 45', and a tool with its cutting edge ground at
45" to the axis of the tool is used. The tool is held in the tool‐post with its axis
square to the axis of the work, and the cutting tool is fed on to the work‐surface
where the chamfering is to be done. The reading of the graduated collar of the slide
is noted when the tool‐cutting edge just touches the work edge. The feeding is done
by the hand wheel to the number of divisions determined according to the depth.
The depth may be given by either the compound slide or cross slide since the
angle is 45°. The cutting speed may be the same as that for the finish turning, and
the feed may be by hand, and it should be continuous and uniform.
Using a tool and swiveling compound slide:
A knife tool with a nose radius is used. The tool is held in the tool‐post to
centre height with a minimum overhang. The compound slide is swiveled to the
angle of chamfer. The carriage is locked and the feeding of the tool is done by the
compound slide hand wheel. Successive cuts are given, depending upon the length
to be chamfered.
This is a crude method, and by this, the accuracy of the chamfered angle, as well
as the length of the chamfer, will not be accurate. The file is held on to the edge
of work, tilted to the angle of chamfer and moved along the edge of the rotating
work. A gentle pressure is applied and the length of the chamfer is observed. The
procedure is continued till the required length is chamfered.
The dimensions for chamfering are indicated on the drawing mostly. If it is not
indicated it is left to the discretion of the operator.
Mostly the chamfering angle is 45°. But at times it may be 30° or 60° which is used
for chamfering threaded components.
Remember that the length of the chamfer does not refer to the length after
chamfering but it is the distance measured parallel to the axis.
Machine the following job from ‘Al’ piece with proper dimension with 0.05 mm
accuracy as given on the drawing.

66
Working steps:
• Hold the job in a four jaw chuck, true and face one side.
• Reverse the job, true, face and maintain length (Hold about 35mm inside the
chuck.)
• Reduce the diameter to 32.5mm up to a length of 55mm.
• By using a 1.5mm R radius tool, remove 0.5mm dia. and turn up to 60nnm length.
• By using a crank tool reduce the diameter to 0 28mm to a length of 40mm,
including 2 x 45° as per drawing.
• By using the side knife tool, maintain the diameter of 26.00mm for a length of
25mm.
• Reverse the job, by holding on 0 28mm. True the job and finish 0 35.00 mm for the
remaining length with the help of a side knife tool.
• Choose the r.p.m. depending upon the diameter.
• Set the tool properly.
• Make sure you are getting different shoulders as per drawing.
• Check the steps by using a steel rule.
• Use sufficient coolant.
• Remove burrs by filing.
KNURLING
Knurling allows hands or fingers to get a better grip on the knurled object that
would be provided by the originally smooth metal surface. Occasionally, the
knurled pattern is a series of straight ridges or a helix of "straight" ridges rather
than the more‐usual criss‐cross pattern.

Knurling may also be used as a repair method: because a rolled‐in knurled

surface has raised‐up areas surrounding the depressed areas, these raised
areas can make up for wear on the part. In the days
make up for wear on the part. In the days

67
when labor was cheap and parts expensive, this repair method was feasible on
pistons of internal combustion engines, where the skirt of a worn piston was
expanded back to the nominal size using a knurling process. As auto parts have
become less expensive, knurling has become less prevalent than it once was, and
is specifically recommended against by performance engine builders.
Knurling can also be used when a high precision component will be assembled
into a low precision component, for example a metal pin into a plastic molding.
The outer surface of the metal pin is knurled so that the raised detail 'bites'
into the plastic irrespective of whether the size of the hole in the plastic closely
matches the diameter of the pin.
Tool handles, mechanical pencils, barbell bars, and the control knobs on
electronic equipment are frequently knurled.
Knurling is also used on the grips of darts and the pegs of most bicycles.
Aside from adding functionality to an object (valve repairs and hand grips being
some of the most common), knurling also adds an attractive pattern to the
material. The knurled nut is one such application, which uses a knurled finish
instead of hexagonal or square edges which helps in tightening or loosening the nut
without the use of a tool. The knurled surfaces provide enough grips to hold the
nut between the thumb and forefinger. Hence it is also called a thumb nut. It is
mainly used on small diameter bolts. Knurled nuts are typically used in electrical
components, musical instruments and in automobiles. Brass ones are preferred
over steel ones since the chances of getting rounded are less in brass ones.

Process Of Knurling:
It is the operation of producing straight lined, diamond shaped pattern or cross lined
pattern on a cylindrical external surface by pressing a tool called knurling tool.
Knurling is not a cutting operation but it is a forming operation. Knurling is done
at a slow spindle speed (1/3 the turning speed). Soluble oil is to be used as
coolant mostly and, sometimes straight cutting oil may be used to get better finish.
More common than knurl cutting, knurl rolling is usually accomplished using
one or more very hard rollers that contain the reverse of the pattern to be
imposed. It is possible for a "straight" knurl (not criss‐crossed) to be pressed
with a single roller; however the material needs to be supported adequately to
avoid deformation. 68
Diamond Knurling:
It is a knurling of diamond shaped pattern. It is done by using a set of rollers.
One roller has got right hand helical teeth and the other has left hand helical
teeth.

Diamond Knurling Straight Knurling:

Straight Knurling:
It is a knurling of straight lined pattern. This is done by using either a single roller
or a double roller with straight teeth.

Cross Knurling:
It is a knurling having a square shaped pattern. It is done by a set of rollers, one
having straight teeth the other having teeth at right angles to the axis of knurl.

Cross Knurling Concave Knurling Convex Knurling

Concave Knurling:
This is done by a convex knurl on a concave surface. This is done only by
plunging the tool. The tool should not be moved longitudinally. The length of the
knurling is limited to the width of the roller.
Convex Knurling:
This is done by using a concave knurl on a convex surface. This is also done by
plunging the tool.

Coarse knurling is done by using coarse pitched knurls of 1.75 mm pitch. (14 TPI)
Medium knurling is done by using medium pitched knurls of 1.25 mm pitch(21 TPI)
Fine knurling is done by using fine pitched knurls of 0.75 mm pitch. (33 TPI) 69
TAPER TURNING
Taper turning by swiveling compound slide:
In this method of taper the half taper angle is calculated [The compound rest
has rotating base graduated in degrees, which can be rotated to any angle
(according to the taper angle). In this method the tool is advanced by rotating the
compound rest hand wheel so that the tool produces taper length larger than
form tool method.

Formula: Tan (α/2) = (D‐d)/2L Here D= large diameter of work piece. L= Length of
taper. d= Smaller diameter of work piece. α/2= Half taper angle

Taper turning by form tool:

The form tool has a cutting edge formed at the desired angle. The form tool is a
replica of the shape (Taper angle) to be produced on the work piece. The form
tool is fed against a rotating work piece; the shape of the tool is reproduced on the
work piece. The form tool method is restricted only for short length tapers. In this
case we can plunge or give feed to the tool at fixed position where taper is required
as shown in the figure.

Taper turning by tailstock off‐set method:

In a lathe the live center and dead center both lies on the same axis. The work is
held between the live and dead center. The dead center (tailstock) axis is shifted
(towards or away from the operator) to the required length on the lathe bed to get
taper on the work piece. In tail stock off set method small taper angle is obtained for
longer length work piece. The work piece is held between the centers and the
carriage is moved on the bed. The tool traces the lathe axis, but the work piece is
offset by an angle. Hence taper is generated on the work piece. In this method we
can cut taper up to 14º.

70
Tailstock offset , X =[(D‐d)L] / 2l, X= set over, D= Large diameter, d= Small
diameter, L= length of work piece, l= Length of taper
Taper turning by using taper turning attachment:
A taper turning attachment is fitted on the backside of the lathe bed. There is a
guide bar which guides the tool based on the taper required on the work piece.
The guide bar can be swiveled according to taper angle. The guide block is
connected to the cross slide. The guide block guides the tool. The cross slide is
made free from the lead screw by removing the binder screw. In this method we
can make taper maximum up to 20º.

Procedure to cut taper using taper attachment:

1. Clean and oil guide bar.
2. Loosen lock screws and offset end of guide bar the required amount
or, set bar to required taper in degrees.
3. Tighten lock screws.
4. With compound rest set at 90º, set up cutting tool on center
5. Set work piece in lathe and mark length of taper.
6. Tighten connecting screw on sliding block.
7. Move carriage until center of attachment opposite length to be tapered.
8. Lock anchor bracket to lathe bed.
9. Take cut 15mm long, stop lathe, check end of taper for size.
10. Set depth of roughing cut to 0.5 to 0.6 mm. oversize, and machine taper.
11. Readjust taper attachment, if necessary, take light cut, and recheck taper fit
12. Finish‐turn and fit taper to gage. 71
Advantages of Using Taper Attachment for Tapers:
1. Lathe centers remain in alignment, preventing distortion of centers on work
2. Setup is simple and permits changing from taper to parallel turning with
no time lost to align centers
3. Length of work piece does not matter, since duplicate tapers may be
turned on any length of work
4. Tapers may be produced on work held between centers, in chuck or in collet
5. Internal tapers can be produced by this method
6. Metric taper attachments are graduated in millimeters and degrees,
while inch attachments are graduated in both degrees and inches of tpf .
7. Eliminates need for lengthy calculations and setup.
8. Wider range of tapers may be produced.

THREADING
Screw Thread Terminology
The common terms and definitions below are used in screw thread work and will be
used in discussing threads and thread cutting.
External or male thread is a thread on the outside of a cylinder or cone.
Internal or female thread is a thread on the inside of a hollow cylinder or bore.
Pitch is the distance from a given point on one thread to a similar point on a thread
next to it, measured parallel to the axis of the cylinder. The pitch in inches is equal to
one divided by the number of threads per inch.
Lead is the distance a screw thread advances axially in one complete revolution. On
a single-thread screw, the lead is equal to the pitch. On a double-thread screw, the
lead is equal to twice the pitch, and on a triple-thread screw, the lead is equal to
three times the pitch
Crest(also called "flat") is the top or outer surface of the thread joining the two sides.
Root is the bottom or inner surface joining the sides of two adjacent threads.
Side is the surface which connects the crest and the root (also called the flank).
Angle of the thread is the angle formed by the intersection of the two sides of the
threaded groove. 72
Depth is the distance between the crest and root of a thread, measured
perpendicular to the axis.
Major diameter is the largest diameter of a screw thread.
Minor diameter is the smallest diameter of a screw thread.
Pitch diameter is the diameter of an imaginary cylinder formed where the width of
the groove is equal to one-half of the pitch. This is the critical dimension of threading
as the fit of the thread is determined by the pitch diameter (Not used for metric
threads).
Threads per inch is the number of threads per inch may be counted by placing a
rule against the threaded parts and counting the number of pitches in 1 inch. A
second method is to use the screw pitch gage. This method is especially suitable for
checking the finer pitches of screw threads.
A single thread is a thread made by cutting one single groove around a rod or
inside a hole. Most hardware made, such as nuts and bolts, has single threads.
Double threads have two grooves cut around the cylinder. There can be two, three,
or four threads cut around the outside or inside of a cylinder. These types of special
threads are sometimes called multiple threads.
A right-hand thread is a thread in which the bolt or nut must be turned to the right
(clockwise) to tighten.
A left hand thread is a thread in which the bolt or nut must turn to the left
(counterclockwise) to tighten.
Thread fit is the way a bolt and nut fit together as to being too loose or too tight.
Metric threads are threads that are measured in metric measurement instead of
inch measurement.

Single and multiple start threads:

A single threaded screw contains only one helix running on a cylindrical
surface. Naturally there will be only one end from where the thread starts, hence it
is called single start thread. There may be two or more helixes running parallel
on the cylindrical surface. They will start from as many ends. Such threads are
called multi start threads. The nut on a single start thread will advance a distance
equal to pitch in one rotation. In double or triple start thread the nut will advance
by two or three pitches in one rotation. The nut advance per rotation is called lead.
Figure given below shows single start and double start threads.

In most cases, increasing the number of starts is preferable to increasing the pitch
because larger pitches reduce the minor diameter. A small minor diameter
decreases the screw stiffness and makes it more difficult to tap nuts because of
the likelihood of the tap breaking during tapping. Also, for the same lead,
increasing the number of starts actually increases the thread contact area when
compared to a thread with the same lead but using fewer starts and a
coarser pitch. Close examination of the thread will reveal the number of starts
(Figure 49). Simply place a pencil or marker pen in the thread groove and rotate
the thread one revolution. If the end of the pencil mark is in the adjacent thread
groove, the screw has a single start. If there is one thread between the beginning
and the end of the mark, it is a two start thread, two grooves, a three start thread
and so on. Another way to discover the thread starts is to examine a transverse
section of the screw. As illustrated in the , if the end view is an offset circle, the
screw is single start. A two start thread will have roughly a football shape, a
three start thread will have a tri‐oval shape and a four start thread will be
noticeably four cornered.

Metric Thread:
The basic profile of ISO metric screw thread is shown in Figure BIS
(Bureau of Indian Standard) has adopted the same thread form as in the practice
in several other countries.

74
The thread is characterized by angle of 600 between the flanks and pitch,
denoted by p. The theoretical depth, H is related to p as H = 0.866025
p
Certain practical changes are introduced in manufactured threads according
to design profiles of threads. Figure shows design profile for external and
internal threads. P = Pitch = 1/Number of threads per inch (TPI)
H = Angular Depth = 0.866025 x P
H/8 = Shortening of major dia = 0.108253 x P
H/4 = Shortening of minor dia = 0.216506 x P
d = Actual Depth = 0.541266 x P
r = Radius at the Root = 0.1443 x P
Hn = Basic height of Internal Thread = 0.54127 x P
Hs = Basic height of External Thread = 0.61344 x P

British Standard Whitworth Thread (BSW):

This V‐ thread is much similar to ISO standard thread with such differences as flank
angle is 550 instead of 600. The other differences can be seen in Figure below.
This form was earlier used in Great Britain and also in India. They are often referred
to as BSW.

75
 P = Pitch = 1/Number of threads per inch (TPI)
h = Angular Depth = 0.960491 x P
D = Depth of Rounding = 0.073917 x P
h/6 = Shortening = 0.160083 x P
d = Actual Depth = 0.640327 x P
r = Radius at the Crest & Root = 0.137329 x P
C = Core diameter = Major Diameter ‐ 1.280654 x P
Effective or Pitch Diameter = Major Diameter ‐ .640327 x P

THREAD CUTTING PROCESS

Thread cutting is one of the most important operations performed in a lathe.
The principle of thread cutting is to produce a helical grove on a cylindrical or
conical surface by feeding the tool longitudinally when the job is revolved between
centres or by a chuck. The longitudinal feed should be equal to the pitch of the
thread to be cut per revolution of the work piece. The lead screw of the lathe
through which the saddle receives its traversing motion has a definite pitch. A
definite pitch ratio between the longitudinal feed & rotation of the head stock
spindle should therefore be found out so that the relative speeds of rotation of
the work and the lead screw will result in the cutting of a screw of the desired
pitch. This is affected by change gears arranged between the spindle & the lead
screw or by the change gear mechanism or feed box used in a lathe, where it
provides a wider range of feed and the speed ratio can be easily and quickly
changed.

During the thread cutting the lead screw of the machine come into play an important
role, it is necessary to know how the ratio is obtained, and exactly where the driving
and driven wheels are to be placed. Hence this unit must help you to calculate the
gear train for different pitch of thread.
CALCULATION FOR CHANGE WHEELS:
Sometime on the machine the lead screw has metric pitch and some of the lead
screw is having English pitch in TPI. Hence the following two methods are
discussed for calculating the gear train.
76
Calculation with Metric lead screw :
To calculate the wheels required for cutting a screw of certain pitch it is necessary
to know how the ration is obtained, and exactly where the driving and driven
wheels are to be placed. Suppose the pitch of a lead screw is 12 mm and it is
required to cut a screw of 3 mm pitch, them lathe spindle must rotate 4 times
the speed of the lead screw, that is

Spindle turn = 4
Lead screw turn 1

Spindle turn = 4 means

mean
Lead screw turn 1that

Driver teeth = 1 since a small gear rotates faster than a larger one with
Driven teeth 4 which it is connected

Hence, Driver teeth = lead screw turn

Driven teeth spindle turn

= pitch of the screw to be cut

Pitch of the lead screw
For setting the gears on the machine there are a set of gears ranging from 20 to 120
teeth in steps of 5 teeth and one special gear with 127 teeth which is useful for
English lead screw.
Example‐1: the pitch of a lead screw is 6 mm, and the pitch of the thread to be
cut is1 mm. finds the change gears.
= Driver teeth = pitch of the work
Driven teeth pitch of the lead screw

= 1 = 1 x 20 = 20 or driver teeth
6 6 x 20 120 driven teeth

Hence 20 no of teeth of driver and 120 no of teeth of driven

Example‐2: calculate the gear for cutting a 0.8 mm pitch screw on a lathe width a
lead screw of 6 mm pitch. Solution:
Driver = pitch to be cut = 0.8 = 8
Driven pitch of lead screw 6 60
77
A simple gear cannot be made as no gear with 8 T or 16 T will normally be available
Therefore:‐
= 8 = 4 X 2 = 40 X 20
60 10 X 6 100 60
A compound train with 40 T and 20 T as drivers and 100 & 60 T as the driven will
work
The types of gears of gear connection on a lathe may be simple, and compound.
in a simple train, shown in figure the gear on the spindle drives direct through the
intermediate gear to the gear on the lead screw. This intermediate gear has no effect
on the ration between the two, and serves to keep the rotation of driver and driven in
the same direction. In a compound train, shown in figure the stud carries two
wheels which are keyed together so that they rotate as a unit.

The gear on the stud shaft acts as a driver, and in all calculations it is considered as
the spindle gear, as usually it runs at the same spindle speed. In modern lathes
using quick change gear, the correct gear ratio for cutting a particular thread is
quickly obtained by simple shifting the levers in different positions which are given
on the charts or instruction plates supplied with the machine.
In English measurement:
Driver teeth = thread per inch on lead screw = pitch of the work
Driven teeth thread per inch on work pitch of lead screw
Example‐1:
Find the gear for cutting screw of lead 1/28 inch on a lathe whose lead screw has
4 threads per inch.
Solution:
Lead screw has 4 tpi , so pitch = 1/4 inch.
Driver/Driven = Pitch of the work /pitch of the lead screw
= (1/28) /(1/4)
= 4/28
= (2 X 2) / (4 X 7)
= [( 2 X 20) /(4 x 20)] X [(2 X 10) / (7X 10)]
= 40 X 20 / 80 X 70
Hence the driving gears will have 40 and 20 teeth and the driven gears 80 and 70
teeth.
78
Calculation with English lead screw:
In this case the pitch of the lead screw will be in English standard as Thread per
inch (TPI) and the pitch to be cut on work will be in metric(mm).
Hence the formula that we normally use to calculate the gear train is given below.
Driver/ Driven = 5pn/127
Here p =pitch of the work in mm
n = No. of thread per inch on lead screw in TPI
Derivation of the above formula:
The standard formula that we use to find out the gear train is,
Driver/Driven = (Pitch to be cut) / ( pitch of lead screw [let’s say ‘n’ TPI]).
= p / (1/n)
= p / (25.4/n)
= p n / (254/10)
= 10pn/254
= 5pn/127

Example‐1: cutting pitch = 7 mm lead screw 4 T.P.I

P= 7mm n = 4 TPI
Driver = 5 pn = 5 X 7 X 4 = 140 = 70 X 40
Driven 127 127 127 127 20

Hence driver = 70 T & 40 T driven = 127 T & 20 T

79
 Assessment

Working Steps:
•Hold the job in a four‐jaw chuck and face both the ends to maintain a total length
of 140 mm.
•Centre drill at the ends and hold the job between centers using a driving plate
having slots milled at 1800 and a bent tail carrier.
•Turn the outer Ø32 mm to full length and chamfer the ends.
•Form the radius groove Ø 25 x 10 mm at 30 mm distance from the end.
•Arrange the gear train to cut M30X3.5 left hand threads on the job.
•Remove and refix the job, setting the bent tail of the dog carrier in the
opposite slot of the faceplate.
•Reverse the job and turn the step Ø 23.8 mm for 30 mm length and
form the radius groove Ø 20 x 10 mm.
•Arrange the gear train to cut M24X3mm right hand threads.

80