• Ventricles

The Cardiovascular System • Discharging chambers

• • Right ventricle
• A closed system of the heart and blood vessels
• Left ventricle
• The heart pumps blood
• Blood vessels allow blood to circulate to all parts The Heart: Septa
of the body • Interventricular septum
• The functions of the cardiovascular system • Separates the two ventricles
• To deliver oxygen and nutrients to cells and • Interatrial septum
tissues
• Separates the two atria
• To remove carbon dioxide and other waste
products from cells and tissues The Heart’s Role in Blood Circulation

The Heart
• Systemic circulation

• Location
• Blood flows from the left side of the heart
through the body tissues and back to the right side of the
• Thorax between the lungs in the inferior heart
mediastinum
• Pulmonary circulation
• Orientation
• Blood flows from the right side of the heart to the
• Pointed apex directed toward left hip lungs and back to the left side of the heart
• Base points toward right shoulder
The Heart: Valves
• About the size of your fist
• Allow blood to flow in only one direction to
The Heart: Coverings prevent backflow

• Pericardium—a double-walled sac

• Four valves

• Fibrous pericardium is loose and superficial

• Atrioventricular (AV) valves—between atria and
ventricles
• Serous membrane is deep to the fibrous
•
pericardium and composed of two layers Bicuspid (mitral) valve (left side of heart)

• Visceral pericardium
• Tricuspid valve (right side of heart)

• Next to heart; also known as the epicardium

• Semilunar valves—between ventricle and artery

• Parietal pericardium
• Pulmonary semilunar valve

• Outside layer that lines the inner surface

• Aortic semilunar valve
of the fibrous pericardium
The Heart: Valves
• Serous fluid fills the space between the layers of
•
pericardium AV valves
• Anchored in place by chordae tendineae (“heart
The Heart: Heart Wall strings”)
• Three layers • Open during heart relaxation and closed during
• Epicardium ventricular contraction

• Outside layer
• Semilunar valves

• This layer is the visceral pericardium

• Closed during heart relaxation but open during
ventricular contraction
• Connective tissue layer
• Notice these valves operate opposite of one
• Myocardium another to force a one-way path of blood through the
• Middle layer heart

• Mostly cardiac muscle Cardiac Circulation

• Endocardium • Blood in the heart chambers does not nourish
• Inner layer the myocardium

• Endothelium
• The heart has its own nourishing circulatory
system consisting of
The Heart: Chambers • Coronary arteries—branch from the aorta to
• Right and left side act as separate pumps supply the heart muscle with oxygenated blood

• Four chambers
• Cardiac veins—drain the myocardium of blood

• Atria
• Coronary sinus—a large vein on the posterior of
the heart, receives blood from cardiac veins
• Receiving chambers • Blood empties into the right atrium via the
• Right atrium coronary sinus
• Left atrium
The Heart: Associated Great Vessels • Force cardiac muscle depolarization in one
• Arteries direction—from atria to ventricles
• Aorta
Heart Contractions
• Leaves left ventricle
• Once SA node starts the heartbeat
• Pulmonary arteries
• Impulse spreads to the AV node
• Leave right ventricle
• Then the atria contract
• At the AV node, the impulse passes through the
AV bundle, bundle branches, and Purkinje fibers
The Heart: Associated Great Vessels • Blood is ejected from the ventricles to the aorta
• Veins and pulmonary trunk as the ventricles contract
• Superior and inferior venae cavae
Heart Contractions
• Enter right atrium • Homeostatic imbalance
• Pulmonary veins (four) • Heart block—damaged AV node releases them
• Enter left atrium from control of the SA node; result is in a slower heart
rate as ventricles contract at their own rate
Blood Flow Through the Heart • Ischemia—lack of adequate oxygen supply to
• Superior and inferior venae cavae dump blood heart muscle
into the right atrium • Fibrillation—a rapid, uncoordinated shuddering
• From right atrium, through the tricuspid valve, of the heart muscle
blood travels to the right ventricle
• Heart Contractions
From the right ventricle, blood leaves the heart
as it passes through the pulmonary semilunar valve into • Homeostatic imbalance (continued)
the pulmonary trunk • Tachycardia—rapid heart rate over 100 beats
• Pulmonary trunk splits into right and left per minute
pulmonary arteries that carry blood to the lungs • Bradycardia—slow heart rate less than 60 beats
per minutes
Blood Flow Through the Heart
• Oxygen is picked up and carbon dioxide is The Heart: Cardiac Cycle & Heart Sounds
dropped off by blood in the lungs • Atria contract simultaneously
• Oxygen-rich blood returns to the heart through • Atria relax, then ventricles contract
the four pulmonary veins
• Blood enters the left atrium and travels through
• Systole = contraction
the bicuspid valve into the left ventricle • Diastole = relaxation
• From the left ventricle, blood leaves the heart via
The Heart: Cardiac Cycle & Heart Sounds
the aortic semilunar valve and aorta
• Cardiac cycle—events of one complete heart
The Heart: Conduction System beat
• Intrinsic conduction system (nodal system) • Mid-to-late diastole
• Heart muscle cells contract, without nerve • Pressure in heart is low
impulses, in a regular, continuous way • Blood flows from passively into the atria and
into ventricles
The Heart: Conduction System
• Special tissue sets the pace
• Semilunar valves are closed

• Sinoatrial node = SA node (“pacemaker”), is in

• Atrioventricular valves are open
the right atrium • Atria contract and force blood into ventricles
• Atrioventricular node = AV node, is at the
The Heart: Cardiac Cycle & Heart Sounds
junction of the atria and ventricles
• Atrioventricular bundle = AV bundle (bundle of
• Cardiac cycle—events of one complete heart
beat
His), is in the interventricular septum
• Bundle branches are in the interventricular
• Ventricular systole
septum • Blood pressure builds before ventricle contracts
• Purkinje fibers spread within the ventricle wall • Atrioventricular valves close causes first heart
muscles sound, “lub”

Heart Contractions
• Semilunar valves open as blood pushes against
them
• Contraction is initiated by the sinoatrial node (SA • Blood travels out of the ventricles through
node)
pulmonary trunk and aorta
• Sequential stimulation occurs at other • Atria are relaxed
autorhythmic cells
The Heart: Cardiac Cycle & Heart Sounds • Arterioles
• Cardiac cycle—events of one complete heart • Exchanges between tissues and blood
beat
• Early diastole
• Capillary beds

• At the end of systole, all four valves are briefly

• Return blood toward the heart
closed at the same time • Venules
• Second heart sound is heard as semilunar • Veins
valves close, causing “dup” sound
• Atria finish refilling as pressure in the heart
Blood Vessels: Microscopic Anatomy
drops • Three layers (tunics)
• Ventricular pressure is low • Tunic intima
• Atrioventricular valves open • Endothelium

The Heart: Cardiac Output

• Tunic media

• Cardiac output (CO)

• Smooth muscle

• Amount of blood pumped by each side

• Controlled by sympathetic nervous system
(ventricle) of the heart in one minute • Tunic externa
• Stroke volume (SV) • Mostly fibrous connective tissue
• Volume of blood pumped by each ventricle in
Structural Differences Among Blood Vessels
one contraction (each heartbeat)
• Usually remains relatively constant
• Arteries have a thicker tunica media than veins

• About 70 mL of blood is pumped out of the left

• Capillaries are only one cell layer (tunica intima)
to allow for exchanges between blood and tissue
ventricle with each heartbeat
• Heart rate (HR)
• Veins have a thinner tunica media than arteries

• Typically 75 beats per minute

• Veins also have valves to prevent backflow of
blood
The Heart: Cardiac Output • Lumen of veins are larger than arteries
• CO = HR × SV
Venous Aids for the Return of Blood to
• CO = HR (75 beats/min) × SV (70 mL/beat) the Heart
• CO = 5250 mL/min • Veins:
• Starling’s law of the heart—the more the cardiac • Have a thinner tunica media
muscle is stretched, the stronger the contraction
• Operate under low pressure
• Changing heart rate is the most common way to
• Have a larger lumen than arteries
change cardiac output
• To assist in the movement of blood back to the
The Heart: Regulation of Heart Rate heart:
• Increased heart rate • Larger veins have valves to prevent backflow
• Sympathetic nervous system • Skeletal muscle “milks” blood in veins toward the
• heart
Crisis
• Low blood pressure Movement of Blood Through Vessels
• Hormones • Most arterial blood is pumped by the heart
• Epinephrine • Veins use the milking action of muscles to help
• Thyroxine
move blood

• Exercise Capillary Beds

• Decreased blood volume • Capillary beds consist of two types of vessels

The Heart: Regulation of Heart Rate

• Vascular shunt—vessel directly connecting an
arteriole to a venule
• Decreased heart rate
• True capillaries—exchange vessels
• Parasympathetic nervous system
• Oxygen and nutrients cross to cells
• High blood pressure or blood volume
• Carbon dioxide and metabolic waste products
• Decreased venous return cross into blood

Blood Vessels: The Vascular System Major Arteries of System Circulation

• Transport blood to the tissues and back • Aorta
• Carry blood away from the heart • Largest artery in the body
• Arteries • Leaves from the left ventricle of the heart
• Regions • Inferior mesenteric artery serves the second half
• of the large intestine
Ascending aorta—leaves the left ventricle
• Aortic arch—arches to the left
• Left and right common iliac arteries are the final
branches of the aorta
• Thoracic aorta—travels downward through the • Internal iliac arteries serve the pelvic organs
thorax
• Abdominal aorta—passes through the
• External iliac arteries enter the thigh femoral
artery popliteal artery anterior and posterior tibial
diaphragm into the abdominopelvic cavity
arteries
Major Arteries of System Circulation
Major Veins of Systemic Circulation
• Arterial branches of the ascending aorta • Superior and inferior vena cava enter the right
• Right and left coronary arteries serve the heart atrium of the heart

Major Arteries of Systemic Circulation

• Superior vena cava drains the head and arms

• Arterial branches of the aortia arch (BCS)

• Inferior vena cava drains the lower body

• Brachiocephalic trunk splits into the Major Veins of Systemic Circulation

• Right common carotid artery • Veins draining into the superior vena cava
• Right subclavian artery • Radial and ulnar veins brachial vein
• axillary vein
Left common carotid artery splits into the
• Left internal and external carotid arteries
• These veins drain the arms

• Left subclavian artery branches into the

• Cephalic vein drains the lateral aspect of the
arm and empties into the axillary vein
• Vertebral artery • Basilic vein drains the medial aspect of the arm
• In the axilla, the subclavian artery becomes the and empties into the brachial vein
axillary artery brachial artery radial and ulnar • Basilic and cephalic veins are jointed at the
arteries
median cubital vein (elbow area)
Major Arteries of Systemic Circulation
Major Veins of Systemic Circulation
• Arterial branches of the thoracic aorta • Veins draining into the superior vena cava
• Intercostal arteries supply the muscles of the • Subclavian vein receives
thorax wall
• Other branches of the thoracic aorta supply the
• Venous blood from the arm via the axillary vein

• Lungs (bronchial arteries)

• Venous blood from skin and muscles via
external jugular vein
• Esophagus (esophageal arteries) • Vertebral vein drains the posterior part of the
• Diaphragm (phrenic arteries) head

Major Arteries of Systemic Circulation

• Internal jugular vein drains the dural sinuses of
the brain
• Arterial branches of the abdominal aorta
• Major Veins of Systemic Circulation
Celiac trunk is the first branch of the abdominal
aorta. Three branches are • Veins draining into the superior vena cava
• Left gastric artery (stomach) • Left and right brachiocephalic veins receive
• venous blood from the
Splenic artery (spleen)
• Common hepatic artery (liver)
• Subclavian veins

• Superior mesenteric artery supplies most of the

• Vertebral veins
small intestine and first half of the large intestine • Internal jugular veins

Major Arteries of Systemic Circulation

• Brachiocephalic veins join to form the superior
vena cava right atrium of heart
• Arterial branches of the abdominal aorta • Azygous vein drains the thorax
• Left and right renal arteries (kidney)
• Major Veins of Systemic Circulation
Left and right gonadal arteries
• Ovarian arteries in females serve the ovaries
• Veins draining into the inferior vena cava

• Testicular arteries in males serve the testes

• Anterior and posterior tibial veins and fibial veins
drain the legs
• Lumbar arteries serve muscles of the abdomen • Posterior tibial vein popliteal vein femoral
and trunk
vein external iliac vein
Major Arteries of Systemic Circulation • Great saphenous veins (longest veins of the
body) receive superficial drainage of the legs
• Arterial branches of the abdominal aorta
• Each common iliac vein (left and right) is formed • Spleen
by the union of the internal and external iliac vein on its • Pancreas
own side
• Hepatic portal vein carries this blood to the liver
Major Veins of Systemic Circulation • Liver helps maintain proper glucose, fat, and
• Veins draining into the inferior vena cava protein concentrations in blood
• Right gonadal vein drains the right ovary in
Hepatic Portal Circulation
females and right testicle in males
• Left gonadal vein empties into the left renal vein
• Major vessels of hepatic portal circulation

• Left and right renal veins drain the kidneys

• Inferior and superior mesenteric veins

• Hepatic portal vein drains the digestive organs

• Splenic vein
and travels through the liver before it enters systemic • Left gastric vein
circulation
Pulse
Major Veins of Systemic Circulation • Pulse
• Veins draining into the inferior vena cava • Pressure wave of blood
• Left and right hepatic veins drain the liver • Monitored at “pressure points” in arteries where
pulse is easily palpated
Arterial Supply of the Brain
• Internal carotid arteries divide into
• Pulse averages 70 to 76 beats per minute
at rest
• Anterior and middle cerebral arteries
• Blood Pressure
These arteries supply most of the cerebrum
• Vertebral arteries join once within the skull to
• Measurements by health professionals are
made on the pressure in large arteries
form the basilar artery
• Basilar artery serves the brain stem and
• Systolic—pressure at the peak of ventricular
contraction
cerebellum
• Diastolic—pressure when ventricles relax
Arterial Supply of the Brain • Write systolic pressure first and diastolic last
• Posterior cerebral arteries form from the division (120/80 mm Hg)
of the basilar artery • Pressure in blood vessels decreases as
• These arteries supply the posterior cerebrum distance from the heart increases

Circle of Willis Blood Pressure: Effects of Factors

• Anterior and posterior blood supplies are united • BP is blood pressure
by small communicating arterial branches • BP is affected by age, weight, time of day,
• Result—complete circle of connecting blood exercise, body position, emotional state
vessels called cerebral arterial circle or circle of Willis • CO is the amount of blood pumped out of the left
ventricle per minute
Fetal Circulation
• • PR is peripheral resistance, or the amount of
Fetus receives exchanges of gases, nutrients, friction blood encounters as it flows through vessels
and wastes through the placenta
• • Narrowing of blood vessels and increased blood
Umbilical cord contains three vessels volume increases PR
• Umbilical vein—carries blood rich in nutrients • BP = CO × PR
and oxygen to the fetus
• Umbilical arteries (2)—carry carbon dioxide and Blood Pressure: Effects of Factors
debris-laden blood from fetus to placenta • Neural factors
Fetal Circulation • Autonomic nervous system adjustments
(sympathetic division)
• Blood flow bypasses the liver through the ductus
venosus and enters the inferior vena cava right atrium • Renal factors
of heart • Regulation by altering blood volume
• Blood flow bypasses the lungs • Renin—hormonal control
• Blood entering right atrium is shunted directly
into the left atrium through the foramen ovale Blood Pressure: Effects of Factors
• Ductus arteriosus connects the aorta and • Temperature
pulmonary trunk (becomes ligamentum arteriosum at
birth)
• Heat has a vasodilating effect
• Cold has a vasoconstricting effect
Hepatic Portal Circulation • Chemicals
• Veins of hepatic portal circulation drain • Various substances can cause increases or
• Digestive organs decreases
• Diet • Coronary artery disease results from vessels
filled with fatty, calcified deposits
Variations in Blood Pressure
• Normal human range is variable
• Normal
• 140 to 110 mm Hg systolic
• 80 to 75 mm Hg diastolic
• Hypotension
• Low systolic (below 110 mm Hg)
• Often associated with illness
• Hypertension
• High systolic (above 140 mm Hg)
• Can be dangerous if it is chronic

Capillary Exchange
• Substances exchanged due to concentration
gradients
• Oxygen and nutrients leave the blood
• Carbon dioxide and other wastes leave the cells

Capillary Exchange: Mechanisms

• Direct diffusion across plasma membranes
• Endocytosis or exocytosis
• Some capillaries have gaps (intercellular clefts)
• Plasma membrane not joined by tight junctions
• Fenestrations (pores) of some capillaries

Fluid Movements at Capillary Beds

• Blood pressure forces fluid and solutes out of
capillaries
• Osmotic pressure draws fluid into capillaries
• Blood pressure is higher than osmotic pressure
at the arterial end of the capillary bed
• Blood pressure is lower than osmotic pressure
at the venous end of the capillary bed

Developmental Aspects of
the Cardiovascular System
• A simple “tube heart” develops in the embryo
and pumps by the fourth week
• The heart becomes a four-chambered organ by
the end of seven weeks
• Few structural changes occur after the seventh
week

Developmental Aspects of
the Cardiovascular System
• Aging problems associated with the
cardiovascular system include
• Venous valves weaken
• Varicose veins
• Progressive atherosclerosis
• Loss of elasticity of vessels leads to
hypertension