HUMAN PHYSYOLOGY

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
➢ Explain the functions of the circulatory system.
➢ State the types of circulatory system in different kinds of living things.
➢ Differentiate hemolymph from blood.
➢ Compare open and closed circulatory systems.
➢ Outline the circulatory system in vertebrates.
➢ Compare and Contrast the arteries, veins and capillaries in terms of
both their structures and functions.
➢ Describe the composition of the different compositions of body fluids.
➢ Identify the different types of circulatory circuits.
○ fish, amphibian, reptile (crocodile/panizza canal), bird
➢ Identify the coronary blood vessels and state their functions.
➢ Annotate the human heart.
➢ Explain both the pulmonary and the systemic circulations.
➢ Distinguish the cardiac muscle from the other muscle types.
➢ Outline the stages of the cardiac cycle.
➢ Explain the Starling’s Hypothesis.
➢ Compare and contrast the different types of blood vessels (including the
magnification of blood flow).
➢ Explain how the blood move in veins against the gravity.
➢ Evaluate the conditions that may occur due to the presence of a plaque.
➢ List the path of blood through the heart.
➢ Outline the process of blood clotting.
➢ Explain the functions and components of the lymphatic system.
 Introduction
• Each organism needs substances from the
environment to carry on its life processes. In
order to enter the cell, these substances must
move across cell membranes.
• Once they are inside the cell, the substances
must be moved to places where they can be
used or stored.
• The process by which substances move into
or out of cells or are distributed within cells
is called transport.
 Introduction
• All cells must
–receive nutrients,
–exchange gases (take Oxygen, remove Carbon
dioxide), and
–remove wastes (Toxic substances).
• Diffusion alone is inadequate for large and
complex bodies.
 Circulatory System:
• In simple organisms, there is no need for a
special transport system to move materials
within cells and between cells.
• This is because the cells of these organisms are
in close contact with their outside environment.
• However, in large and complex organisms, many
cells are far from the outside environment.
• These organisms need a special system to
transport materials to and from all parts of the
organism.
Circulatory & Respiratory System Overview
 Circulatory System:
• All circulatory systems have three major parts;
–A pump, the heart, that keeps the blood
circulating
–A liquid, blood, that serves as a medium of
transport
–A system of tubes, blood vessels, that
conduct the blood throughout the body
Heart
• The heart is a cone-shaped organ about the size
of a fist, located in the thoracic cavity between
the lungs, in a position protected by the sternum.
• The heart wall consists of cardiac muscle.
• Internally, the heart is divided into four
chambers;
–The two upper thin walled chambers are the atria.
–The two lower, thick-walled chambers are the
ventricles.
–The left and right sides of the heart are
separated by a partition called the septum.
Anatomy of Heart
 The heart is composed of
three layers:
I. Pericardium: outermost tough connective tissue
sac. It is made up of two layer and the outermost
membrane is called epicardium.
Fluid secreted by the pericardium reduces friction
between the beating heart and the surrounding tissues.
The pericardium is also attached to the diaphragm and
firmly anchors the heart in position.
II. Myocardium: Middle layer of the heart made up
of cardiac muscle and it thicker than other layers.
III. Endocardium: Innermost, smooth and single
layer. It does not have blood vessels. It is the part
that contacts with blood.
 Valves
• The flow of blood through the heart is
controlled by four flap like valves, called the
atrioventricular (av) valves; allow blood to
flow from atria into ventricles.
–In the right side of the heart, the AV valve is
called the tricuspid valve, because it has 3-
flaps.
–In the left side, it is called the bicuspid, or
mitral valve because it has 2-flaps.
 Valves
• The other two valves, called the semilunar
valves, allow blood to move from the ventricles
into the pulmonary artery and the aorta.
• They prevent backflow from these arteries into
the ventricles.
• ! A heart murmur is a defect in one or more
heart valves that permits a backflow of blood
and reduces the cardiac output.
Heart as a double pump

• Actually, the heart is a double pump.

• The right side of the heart sends deoxygenated
blood to the lungs, while the left side sends
oxygenated blood to the rest of the body.
Coronary arteries & veins
• Coronary arteries arise
from the base of the aorta
and pass over the surface of
the heart, supplying the
capillaries of the cardiac
muscle with oxygenated
blood.
• Deoxygenated blood is
collected by the coronary
veins, which drain into the
right atrium.
 Cardiac cycle – Heart beat
• The heart contracts and relaxes in a rhythmic
cycle called the cardiac cycle. The cycle
consists of two main phases.
• During diastole (relaxation phase), blood flows
–from veins
–into heart chambers.
• During systole (contraction phase), blood flows
–from atria
–into ventricles.
 Cardiac cycle – Heart beat
• The heart beats in a coordinated fashion;
–Both atria contract and pump blood into the
ventricles
–Both ventricles contract and pump blood into
the arteries that exit the heart
–All chambers relax briefly before the cycle
repeats
The Cardiac Cycle

The cardiac cycle lasts less than 1 second (0.85 seconds). The
time taken for one cardiac cycle of contraction and relaxation is
0.8 seconds when the heart is beating at a rate of 75 beats per
minute.
 Cardiac cycle – Heart beat
• During the first 0.15 second of the cardiac cycle,
the atria contract and force blood into the
ventricles. The ventricles contract for about 0.30
second and push the blood out of the heart,
completing systole.
• During diastole, the heart relaxes and blood
flows into the atria and ventricles (0.40 seconds).
• Blood also flows into the atria during the second
part of systole. The blood and heart movements
during the cardiac cycle generate vibrations that
produce a "Lub-dup" sound.
A Cardiac Cycle in a Human with a Heart
Rate of About 72 Beats a Minute
Excitation and Control of the Heart
• Some cardiac muscle cells are self-excitable,
meaning they contract without any signal from
the nervous system.
• The contraction of the heart is initiated and
coordinated by a pacemaker, a cluster of
specialized heart muscle cells that produce
spontaneous electrical signals (action potentials)
at a regular rate.
• The heart’s pacemaker is the sinoatrial (SA)
node, located in the upper wall of the right
atrium.
Excitation and Control of the Heart
• Electrical signals from the SA node pass freely into the
connecting cardiac muscle cells and then throughout the
atria.
• The electrical signal then passes from the right atrium to a
specialized group of muscle cells between the right atrium
and right ventricle called the atrioventricular (AV) node.
• Impulses from the AV node pass through a strand of
specialized muscle in the interventricular septum known as
the Bundle of His.
• The bundle branches into right and left halves that travel to
the pointed apex of the heart, where they branch into
Purkinje fibers that transmit the electrical signal
throughout the ventricle.
The Heart’s Pacemaker and Its
Connections
Artificial Pacemaker

If the pacemaker fails, it

may be necessary to
install an artificial
pacemaker, an electronic
device about the size of a
pocket watch. Such
surgery is now fairly
routine.
Electrocardiogram
Impulses that travel during the cardiac cycle
can be recorded as an electrocardiogram
(ECG or EKG).
.
Regulation of Heartbeat Rate
a) Nervous Control of Heart Rate
• Sensory receptors in the walls of certain vessels and heart
chambers are sensitive to changes in blood pressure. When
stimulated, they send messages to cardio-vascular centers in the
medulla oblongata of the brain. These cardiac centers maintain
control over two sets of autonomic nerves that pass to the SA
node.
• Sympathetic nerves (accelerator nerve) release adrenaline
(epinephrine), which speeds the heart rate and increases the
strength of contraction.
• Parasympathetic nerves (Vagus nerves) release acetylcholine,
which slows the heart and decreases the force of contraction.
b) Non-nervous Control of Heart Beating Rate
• There are a number of non-nervous stimuli that act directly on
cardiac muscle or on the SA node.
NON-NERVOUS AGENCIES AFFECTING HEART RATE
Effect on Heart
Non-nervous Stimulus
Rate
High pH Decreases
Low pH (e.g. high CO2 levels) Increases
Low temperature Decreases
High temperature Ex:(due to exercises or
Increases
illnesses)
Stimulants like caffeine or nicotine Increases
Mineral ions
The rate is influenced
Endocrine factors (e.g. insulin, thyroxin, sex
directly or indirectly.
hormones, adrenaline)
Arteries

Arteries and arterioles carry blood away from

the heart.

The walls of arteries are thicker and more

elastic than those of veins, enabling the
arteries to withstand the high pressure of
blood caused by ventricular contractions.
With each heartbeat, the arteries expand
slightly, like thick-walled balloons. The
They are able to expand and
diameter of arteries and thickness of their
accommodate the sudden
walls steadily decrease as their distance
increase in blood volume that
from the heart increases.
results after each heartbeat.
Arteries branch into smaller diameter
vessels called arterioles, which play a major
role in determining how blood is distributed
in the body.
Veins
Veins and venules carry blood towards
the heart.
After picking up carbon dioxide and other
wastes from cells, capillary blood drains
into larger vessels, called venules, which
empty into still larger veins. Valves within the
veins point, or
open, toward the
heart, preventing a
The walls of the veins have fewer elastic backflow of blood
when they close.
and muscular fibers than those of the
arteries, but their thickness increases as
they approach the heart.
Blood is under low pressure in the veins,
and backflow of the blood is prevented by
the one-way valves. When veins are
compressed, one-way valves keep blood
flowing toward the heart.
Capillaries
The wall of the capillaries consists of a single layer
of endothelium.
Arterioles conduct blood into elaborate networks
of tiny capillaries. Capillaries are so narrow that red
blood cells pass through them single file. They are
so numerous that increase surface area.
The thin walls of the capillaries allow the exchange
of dissolved nutrients, wastes, oxygen and other
substances between the blood and the body cells
through interstitial fluid.
A capillary is a small blood vessel having a wall one
endothelial cell thick. They are the smallest blood vessels
in the body: they convey blood between the arterioles and
venules.
These microvessels are the site of exchange of many
substances with the interstitial fluid surrounding them.
Substances which exit include water, oxygen, and
glucose; substances which enter include water , carbon
dioxide, uric acid, lactic acid, urea and creatinine.
A capillary is a small blood vessel having a wall one
endothelial cell thick. They are the smallest blood vessels
in the body: they convey blood between the arterioles and
venules.
These microvessels are the site of exchange of many
substances with the interstitial fluid surrounding them.
Substances which exit include water, oxygen, and
glucose; substances which enter include water , carbon
dioxide, uric acid, lactic acid, urea and creatinine.
As blood flows from the It has been calculated that if
aorta into the various
all the blood vessels in a
arteries and arterioles,
blood pressure falls. human body were
connected end to end, the
total distance would reach
around the Earth at the
equator two times! Most of
this distance would be due
to the large number of
capillaries.
The difference between
systolic and diastolic
pressure gradually
diminishes.
In capillaries, blood is under
In the capillaries, there is a minimal pressure and has
slow, fairly even flow of the least velocity. Blood
blood. This may be pressure and velocity drop
related to the very high off, because capillaries have
total cross-sectional area a greater total cross-
of the capillaries sectional area than
arterioles.
Two forces primarily control the movement of fluid through the capillary wall:
(1) osmotic pressure, which tends to cause water to move from interstitial fluid into blood, and
(2) blood pressure, which tends to cause water to move in the opposite direction. At the arterial end of a capillary, the
osmotic pressure of blood (21 mm Hg) is lower than the blood pressure (30 mm Hg).

Osmotic pressure is created by the presence of salts and the plasma proteins. Because osmotic pressure is lower
than blood pressure at the arterial end of a capillary, water exits a capillary at this end.
The substances that leave a capillary contribute to interstitial fluid. Because plasma proteins are too large to readily pass
out of the capillary, interstitial fluid tends to contain all components of plasma but has much lower amounts of protein.

In addition to nutrients and wastes, the blood distributes heat to body parts. When you are warm, many capillaries that
serve the skin are open, and your face is flushed. This helps rid the body of excess heat. When you are cold, skin
capillaries close, conserving heat, and your skin takes on a bluish tinge.
Blood Vessels
• There are three kinds of blood vessels: arteries, veins, and
capillaries.
• The walls of arteries and veins consist of three layers;
–an innermost layer of squamous endothelium
–a middle layer of smooth muscle and elastic fibers
–and outer layer of fibrous connective tissue
• The epithelial layer that lines blood vessels is called the
endothelium.
Human Circulatory System
Structural Relationships of Blood Vessels
a) Arteries
• Arteries and arterioles carry blood away from the heart
• The walls of arteries are thicker and more elastic than those of
veins, enabling the arteries to withstand the high pressure of
blood caused by ventricular contractions.
• With each heart beat, the arteries expand slightly, like thick-
walled balloons
• The diameter of arteries and thickness of their walls steadily
decrease as their distance from the heart increases.
• Arteries branch into smaller diameter vessels called arterioles,
which play a major role in determining how blood is distributed
in the body.
b) Capillaries
• The wall of the capillaries consists of a single layer of
endothelium.
• Arterioles conduct blood into elaborate networks of tiny
capillaries, microscopically thin vessels
• The thin walls of the capillaries allow the exchange of dissolved
nutrients, wastes, oxygen and other substances between the
blood and the body cells through tissues fluid (intercellular fluid).
• Capillaries are so narrow that red blood cells pass through them
single file
• They are so numerous that increase surface area for gas and
fluid exchange with the interstitial fluid.
Diffusion Between Blood in
Capillaries and Tissue Cells
Cross Section of Capillaries
c) Veins
• Veins and venules carry blood towards the heart.
• After picking up carbon dioxide and other wastes from cells,
capillary blood drains into larger vessels, called venules, which
empty into still larger veins.
• The walls of the veins have fewer elastic and muscular fibers
than those of the arteries, but their thickness increases as they
approach the heart.
• Blood is under low pressure in the veins, and backflow of the
blood is prevented by the semi-lunar valves.
• When veins are compressed, one-way valves keep blood flowing
toward the heart.
ARTERY CAPILLARY VEIN
Link arteries to veins. Site of
Transport blood away Transport blood towards the
exchange of materials between
from the heart heart
blood and tissues
The walls are thick and The walls are relatively thin and
Only tissue present is squamous
composed of elastic, only slightly muscular. Few elastic
endothelium. No elastic fibers.
muscular tissue fibers.
Semi-lunar valves at intervals
No semi-lunar valves No semi-lunar valves along the length to prevent
backflow.
Blood pressure is high Blood pressure is falling and non- Blood pressure is low and non-
and pulsatile pulsatile pulsatile
Blood flow is rapid Blood flow is the slowest Blood flow is slow
Transports oxygenated
Transports mixed oxygenated Transports deoxygenated blood
blood, except Pulmonary
and deoxygenated blood except in pulmonary vein
artery
Blood Flow Velocity
• Blood does not flow through the circulatory system at a uniform
speed. Velocity of blood flow is slowest in the capillary beds, as a
result of the high resistance and large total cross-sectional area
• Blood flow in capillaries is necessarily slow for exchange of
materials.
The interrelationship of cross-sectional
area of blood vessels, blood flow
velocity, and blood pressure
 Blood Pressure
–is the force blood exerts on vessel walls,
–depends on cardiac output and resistance of vessels to
expansion, and
–decreases as blood moves away from the heart.
• Blood pressure is
–highest in arteries and
–lowest in veins.
• Blood pressure is measured as
–systolic pressure—caused by ventricular contraction, and
–diastolic pressure—low pressure between contractions.
Blood Pressure
• The highest pressure occurs during ventricular systole
(contraction of ventricles), when the blood is pumped from the
ventricles into arteries with great force. This pressure is called
the systolic pressure.
• During diastole (relaxation), blood pressure remains relatively
high because the elasticity of the artery walls helps to maintain
the pressure between heartbeats. However, there is some drop
in pressure during diastole. This pressure is called diastolic
pressure.
• Blood pressure is commonly stated in the form of systolic
pressure, diastolic pressure. Thus the normal blood pressure in a
resting adult is 120/ 80 mm-Hg.
Blood Pressure
• During exercise and time of stress, blood pressure increases.
• By the time blood reaches the veins, its pressure is not affected
much by the heart.
How does blood return to the heart especially when it
must travel from the lower extremities against gravity?
• Veins are sandwiched in between muscles, and whenever we
move, our skeletal muscles pinch our veins and squeeze blood
through the vessels.
• Within large veins, the valves allow the blood to flow only in the
direction of the heart.
• Muscular activity during exercise increases the rate at which
blood returns to the heart, and the increased load stimulates the
heart to speed up.
• Breathing also helps return blood to the heart; when we inhale,
the change in pressure within the thoracic (chest) cavity causes
the vena cava and other large veins near the heart to expand
and fill.
• Suction force during relaxation of atria
Valves Direct Blood Flow in Veins
Exchange of Substances Between Blood And
Tissue Fluids (Starling Hypothesis)
• The capillaries are the sites of exchange between the blood and
the cells of the body. Substances take various routes across the
thin capillary walls.
–Gases, water, and lipid-soluble hormones and fatty
acids diffuse through the endothelial cell membranes.
–Small water-soluble nutrients, such as salts, glucose,
and amino acids, enter the extracellular fluid through
narrow spaces between adjacent capillary cells.
–Some proteins may be ferried across the endothelial
cell membrane as vesicles.
Starling Hypothesis
• In addition to the passive diffusion of substances out of the
blood, fluid is pushed through the endothelium by blood
pressure (hydrostatic pressure) within the capillary.

• The difference between blood pressure and osmotic pressure

drives fluids out of capillaries at the arteriole end and into
capillaries at the venule end.
Starling Hypothesis
• Pressure within the capillaries drops as blood travels toward the
venules, and the high osmotic pressure of the blood that remains
inside the capillaries draws water back into the vessels by
osmosis as blood approaches the venous end of the capillaries.
Starling Hypothesis
• As water enters the capillaries, diluting the blood, dissolved
substances in the extracellular fluid tend to diffuse back into the
capillaries. Thus, most of the extracellular fluid is restored to the
blood through the capillary walls on the venous side of the
capillary network.
Exchange Accross Capillary Walls
Starling Hypothesis

• About 99% of the fluid that leaves the blood at the arterial end
of a capillary bed reenters from the tissue fluid at the venous
end, and the remaining 1% of the fluid lost from the capillaries is
eventually returned to the blood by the vessels of the lymphatic
system.
Fluid Exchange Between Capillaries and the Interstitial
Fluid
The Movement of Fluid out of a Capillary and into a
Lymph Vessel
What about edema?
• Edema occurs when tiny blood vessels in your body (capillaries)
leak fluid. The fluid builds up in surrounding tissues, leading to
swelling. Causes;
– Sitting or staying in one position for too long
– Eating too much salty food
– Premenstrual signs and symptoms
– Pregnancy
Measurement of blood pressure
• The cardiac cycle generates the forces that are measured when
blood pressure is taken.
• Systolic pressure, the higher of the two readings, is measured
during ventricular contraction.
• Diastolic pressure is the minimum pressure in the arteries as the
heart rests between contractions.
• You can hear sound through a stethoscope positioned against
the chest wall.
• At each "lub", the AV valves are closing as the ventricles contract.
• At each "dub", the semilunar valves are closing as the ventricles relax.
• A pulse is the rhythmic bulging of artery walls with each
heartbeat.
Blood Pressure Measurement
Blood pressure in the veins is low and is insufficient for moving
blood back to the heart, especially from the limbs of the body.
Venous return is dependent on three factors:

❏ Skeletal muscles near veins put pressure on the

collapsible walls of the veins, and therefore on the blood
contained in these vessels, when they contract.

❏ Valves in the veins prevent the backward flow of blood,

and therefore pressure from muscle contraction moves
blood toward the heart. Varicose veins, abnormal
dilations in superficial veins, develop when the valves of
the veins become weak and ineffective due to a backward
pressure of the blood.

❏ Variations in pressure in the chest cavity during

breathing, also known as the respiratory pump, cause
blood to flow from areas of higher pressure (such as the
abdominal cavity) to lower pressure (in the thoracic cavity)
during each inhalation.
BLOOD
Blood is considered to be a connective tissue with a fluid matrix. The blood of
mammals has a number of functions that help maintain homeostasis:

❏ Transporting gases, nutrients, waste

products, and hormones throughout
the body
❏ Combating pathogenic
microorganisms
❏ Helping maintain water balance and
pH
❏ Regulating body temperature
❏ Carrying platelets and factors that
ensure clotting to prevent blood loss

Blood has two main portions: a liquid portion,

called plasma, and the formed elements,
consisting of cells and platelets.
Blood
• Blood is the circulatory fluid. An adult human has nearly 5 liters
of blood. Density of blood 1,05 g/cm3. pH of blood is 7.4.
Temperature of blood 38 °C.
Functions of blood;
• Transport: Supply of oxygen, nutrients, hormones to tissues
and removes wastes such as carbon dioxide, urea, and lactic acid
from tissues.
• Regulation: Osmotic balance, pH buffering, and maintaining ion
concentration of interstitial fluid.
• Defence: Defence against microbes by means of antibody
production.
• Protection: Coagulation, the response to a broken blood vessel
to stop bleeding.
Blood Composition
Blood has two major components;
• A liquid, called plasma, which comprises about 55% of total
blood volume.
• The cell-based portion, which is about 40–45% of total blood
volume and consists of:
–Red blood cells
–White blood cells
–Platelets
The Composition of Human Blood
Differentiation of Blood Cells
a) Red Blood Cell
• RBCs are among the smallest and most specialized of human cells.
They are flattened discs.
• Developing erythrocytes have the usual cell organelles, but mature
cells lose them, including nuclei, mitochondria, and ribosomes.
• These cells generate their ATP exclusively by anaerobic metabolism.
• Their cytoplasm is filled with an iron-containing protein known as
hemoglobin that transport oxygen.
– Oxygenated hemoglobin takes on a bright cherry-red color.
– Hemoglobin becomes bluish as it releases O 2 and picks up CO2 at tissues. This
is why diagrams depict vessels carrying oxygenated blood in red and
deoxygenated blood in blue. It gives blood its red color. Each red blood cell
contains about 250 million molecules of hemoglobin.
a) Red Blood Cell
• RBCs is that they do not leave blood vessels.
• Normally, there are about 5 million red blood cells per mm3 of
blood.
• Each cell lives about 120 days, after which it is destroyed in the
liver or spleen. In adults, new red blood cells are produced by
stem cells in the red bone marrow.
• Their rate of production (~ 2 million/ sec) is controlled by a
kidney hormone known as erythropoietin, which is released into
the blood when cells in the kidney detect a drop in blood
oxygen level.
a) Red Blood Cell
• At high altitudes (above sea level), RBC production increase due
to decrease in oxygen level.
• A condition in which a person has too few RBCs or an
insufficient amount of hemoglobin is called anemia. They lower
the amount of oxygen that can be carried by the blood.
• So cells of the body cannot receive enough oxygen. Sickle- cell
anemia is a hereditary disorder caused by an abnormal form of
hemoglobin.
Red Blood Cell Regulation by
Negative Feedback
Plasma
Plasma contains many types of molecules,
including nutrients, wastes, salts, and hundreds
of different types of proteins.
Albumin, involved in buffering the blood,
effectively keeping the pH near 7.4. They also
maintain the blood’s osmotic pressure, so that
water has an automatic tendency to enter blood
capillaries. transports bilirubin, a breakdown
product of hemoglobin
Fibrinogens, are involved in blood clotting, and
others transport large organic molecules in the
blood.
Various types of lipoproteins transport
cholesterol.
Another very significant group of plasma
proteins are the antibodies, which are proteins
produced by the immune system in response to
specific pathogens and other foreign materials
Cells The formed elements are of three types:

red blood cells, or erythrocytes (Gk. erythros, “red”;

kytos, “cell”);

white blood cells, or leukocytes (Gk. leukos, “white”);

and platelets, or thrombocytes (Gk. thrombos, “blood

Differentiation of Blood Cells clot”).
Red Blood Cells - Erythrocytes
RBCs are among the smallest and most specialized of human
cells. They are flattened discs.
Developing erythrocytes have the usual cell organelles, but
mature cells lose them, including nuclei, mitochondria, and
ribosomes. These cells generate their ATP exclusively by
anaerobic metabolism. Their cytoplasm is filled with an iron-
containing protein known as hemoglobin that transport
oxygen.

Oxygenated hemoglobin takes on a bright cherry-red color.

Hemoglobin becomes bluish as it releases O2and picks up
CO2at tissues. This is why diagrams depict vessels carrying
oxygenated blood in red and deoxygenated blood in blue. It
gives blood its red color. Each red blood cell contains about
250 million molecules of hemoglobin.

RBCs is that they do not leave blood vessels. Normally, there

are about 5 million red blood cells per mm3 of blood. Each
cell lives about 120 days, after which it is destroyed in the liver
or spleen. In adults, new red blood cells are produced by stem
cells in the red bone marrow.
No nucleus / no organelles in mature RBCs
Their rate of production (~ 2 million/ sec) is Red Blood Cell Regulation by Negative
controlled by a kidney hormone known as Feedback
erythropoietin, which is released into the blood
when cells in the kidney detect a drop in blood
oxygen level. At high altitudes (above sea level),

RBC production increase due to decrease in

oxygen level. A condition in which a person has
too few RBCs or an insufficient amount of
hemoglobin is called anemia. They lower the
amount of oxygen that can be carried by the
blood. So cells of the body cannot receive
enough oxygen.

Sickle- cell anemia is a hereditary disorder

caused by an abnormal form of hemoglobin.
b) White Blood Cell
• White blood cells are defenders of the body. They are colorless cells and
protect the body from disease-causing organisms.
• Mature white blood cells have a nucleus and larger than RBCs. Bone
marrow and lympathic tissue (lymph nodes) produce white blood cells.
• They function inside and outside the circulatory system. When there is an
infection in the body, some WBCs pass the capillary walls and move
through the infected tissue and attack the invading organisms.
• Normally 1 mm3 of blood contains 5.000 - 10.000 leukocytes but the
number increases to attack the invading organisms whenever the body is
fighting an infection.
• Leukocytes arise in bone marrow from stem cells. Some lymphocytes
mature, after leaving the marrow in the lymphoid organs.
b) White Blood Cell
• There are five major types of WBCs: Neutrophils (60-70 %),
Basophils, Eosinophil, Monocytes (5-6%), and Lymphocytes.
• Neutrophils and monocytes are known as phagocytes. They
engulf bacteria and cellular debris. Monocytes are differentiated
in lymphatic tissues and converted into macrophage.
• Basophils and eosinophils form mast cells in loose
connective tissues. These cells secrete heparin and histamin.
Eosinophils release clot-digesting enzyme and fight against
allergy-causing substances.
b) White Blood Cell
• Lymphocytes produce antibodies. They differentiate and
become active in lymph tissue like lymph nodes, thymus gland,
spleen, tonsils or appendix.
• Lymphocytes are grouped into two:
– B-Lymphocytes are produced and matured in bone marrow. They
produce antibodies.
– T-lymphocytes are produced in bone barrow and matured at thymus.
They directly attack infected cells or cancerous cells.
b) White Blood Cell
• Cancer of the cells that
produce WBC is called
leukemia. People with
leukemia have abnormally high
levels of some types of white
blood cells.
White Blood Cell - Leukocytes

White blood cells are defenders of the body. They are

colorless cells and protect the body from disease-causing
organisms. Mature white blood cells have a nucleus and
larger than RBCs. Bone marrow and lymphatic tissue
(lymph nodes) produce white blood cells. They function
inside and outside the circulatory system. When there is
an infection in the body, some WBCs pass the capillary
walls and move through the infected tissue and attack the
invading organisms.
Normally 1 mm3 of blood contains 5.000 - 10.000
leukocytes but the number increases to attack the
invading organisms whenever the body is fighting an
infection. Leukocytes arise in bone marrow from stem
cells. Some lymphocytes mature in the lymphoid organs
Cancer of the cells that produce WBC is called leukemia.
People with leukemia have abnormally high levels of some
types of white blood cells.
c) Platelets (thrombocytes)
• Platelets are not really cells at all, but fragments of cells.
• They have no nuclei and originate as pinched-off
cytoplasmic fragments of large cells in the bone marrow.
• 1 mm3 of blood normally contains 250.000 - 400.000
thrombocytes.
• They live for about 5 to 12 days.
• Platelets function in the clotting of blood.
Platelets - Thrombocytes
Platelets are not really cells at all, but fragments of cells. They have no
nuclei and originate as pinched-off cytoplasmic fragments of large cells
in the bone marrow. 1 mm3 of blood normally contains 250.000 -
400.000 thrombocytes. They live for about 5 to 12 days.
Platelets function in the clotting of blood.
 Blood Clotting

❏ Blood clotting is a complex process that plugs damaged blood

vessels and protects animals from excessive blood loss.
❏ Clotting begins when the endothelium of a blood vessel is
damaged, exposing collagen fibers that attract platelets, which
form a platelet plug.
❏ The platelets and ruptured cells release chemicals that initiate a
series of reactions, producing the enzyme thrombin from its
inactive form, prothrombin.
❏ Thrombin catalyzes the conversion of the soluble plasma protein
fibrinogen into insoluble strands of a protein called fibrin, a
threadlike protein that helps form a clot that plugs the leak.
Blood Clotting
• Blood clotting is a complex process that plugs damaged
blood vessels and protects animals from excessive blood
loss.
• Clotting begins when the endothelium of a blood vessel is
damaged, exposing collagen fibers that attract platelets,
which form a platelet plug.
• The platelets and ruptured cells release chemicals that
initiate a series of reactions, producing the enzyme
thrombin from its inactive form, prothrombin.
• Thrombin catalyzes the conversion of the soluble plasma
protein fibrinogen into insoluble strands of a protein called
fibrin, a threadlike protein that helps form a clot that plugs
the leak.
Blood Clotting
Blood Clotting
Blood Groups
• All humans and many other primates can be typed for the
ABO blood group. There are four principal types: A, B, AB,
and O.
• There are two antigens and two antibodies that are mostly
responsible for the ABO types. The specific combination
of these four components determines an individual's type
in most cases.
Blood Groups
Blood Groups
All humans and many other
primates can be typed for the
ABO blood group. There are
four principal types: A, B, AB,
and O. There are two antigens
and two antibodies that are
mostly responsible for the ABO
types. The specific combination
of these four components
determines an individual's type
in most cases.
Blood Groups
• For example, people with type A blood will have the A
antigen on the surface of their red blood cells
(erytrocytes).
• As a result, anti-A antibodies will not be produced by them
because they would cause the destruction of their own
blood.
• However, if B type blood is injected into their systems,
anti-B antibodies in their plasma will recognize it as alien
and burst or agglutinate the introduced red cells in order
to cleanse the blood of alien protein.
 Blood Groups
• Individuals with type O blood do not produce ABO antigens. As a
result, type O people are universal donors for transfusions, but
they can receive only type O blood themselves.
• Those who have type AB blood do not make any ABO antibodies.
Consequently, they are universal receivers for transfusions, but
their blood will be agglutinated when given to people with every
other type because they produce both kinds of antigens.
 Blood Groups
• Some people have an additional marker, called Rh factor, in their
blood. Because each of the four main blood groups (A, B, AB, and
O) may or may not have Rh factor, scientists further classify blood
as either "positive" (meaning it has Rh factor) or "negative"
(without Rh factor).
 Determining Blood Groups
• A serum containing anti-A antibodies is mixed with some of the
blood.
• Another serum with anti-B antibodies is mixed with the remaining
sample.
• Another serum with anti-D(Rh) antibodies is mixed with the
remaining sample.
• Whether or not agglutination occurs in either sample indicates the
ABO type and Rh type. It is a simple process of elimination of the
possibilities.
• For instance, if an individual's blood sample is
agglutinated by the anti-A antibody, but not the anti-B
antibody, it means that the A antigen is present but not
the B antigen. Therefore, the blood type is A.
 Blood Transfusions
• A transfusion is a simple medical procedure that doctors use
to make up for a loss of blood.
• Agglutination blocks capillaries, damages cell structure or
release of hemoglobin into plasma from RBCs by phagocytic
activity of WBC.
• Hemoglobin is also broken down into bilirubin by phagocytic
activity of WBC. Increasing amount of bilirubin causes
jaundice.
• Most deaths caused by wrong blood transfusions are due to
kidney failure. Septic shock due to decrease in RBCs causes
relase of toxic substances which constricts the kidney vessels.
Agglutination
Blood Transfusions

❏ A transfusion is a simple medical procedure that

doctors use to make up for a loss of blood.

❏ Agglutination blocks capillaries, damages cell

structure or release of hemoglobin into plasma
from RBCs by phagocytic activity of WBC.

❏ Hemoglobin is also broken down into bilirubin by

phagocytic activity of WBC. Increasing amount of
bilirubin causes jaundice.

❏ Most deaths caused by wrong blood transfusions

are due to kidney failure. Septic shock due to
decrease in RBCs causes release toxic substances
which constricts the kidney vessels.
The Human Heart
The heart is a
cone-shaped,
muscular organ
about the size of
a fist.

It is located
between the
lungs directly
behind the
sternum
(breastbone) and
is tilted so that
the apex (the
pointed end) is
oriented to the
left.
The coronary arteries are extremely important because they supply oxygen and
nutrients to the heart muscle itself. The coronary arteries arise from the aorta just
above the aortic semilunar valve. They lie on the exterior surface of the heart,
where they branch into arterioles and then capillaries. Deoxygenated blood is
collected by the coronary veins, which drain into the right atrium.
Pericardium:
A thick membranous
sac that secretes a
small quantity of
lubricating fluid

Myocardium:
Cardiac muscle cells/
intercalated disks

Endocardium:
A membrane
composed of
connective tissue and
endothelial tissue.
The flow of blood through the
heart is controlled by four flap
like valves, called the
Atrioventricular (AV) valves;
allow blood to flow from atria
to the ventricles.

In the right side of the heart,

the AV valve is called the
tricuspid valve, because it has
3-flaps.In the left side, it is
called the bicuspid, or mitral
valve because it has 2-flaps.

The other two valves, called

the semilunar valves, allow
blood to move from the
ventricles into the pulmonary
artery and the aorta.
They prevent backflow from
these arteries into the
ventricles.
a. When the atria contract, the ventricles are relaxed and filling with blood. The atrioventricular valves
are open, and the semilunar valves are closed. b. When the ventricles contract, the atrioventricular
valves are closed, the semilunar valves are open, and the blood is pumped into the pulmonary trunk and
aorta. c.When the heart is relaxed, both the atria and the ventricles are filling with blood. The
atrioventricular valves are open, and the semilunar valves are closed. d. Aortic semilunar valve (shown
on left) and bicuspid or mitral atrioventricular valve (shown on right).
The average human heart contracts, or beats, about 70 times a minute, so each
heartbeat lasts about 0.85 second. This adds up to about 100,000 beats per day.
Over a 70-year lifespan, the average human heart will have contracted about 2.5
billion times.

Cardiac Cycle
The term systole (Gk. systole,
“contraction”) refers to
contraction of the heart
chambers, and
The term diastole (Gk.
diastole, “dilation, spreading”)
refers to relaxation of these
chambers.
Each heartbeat, or cardiac
cycle, consists of the
following phases.
During the first 0.15 second of the
cardiac cycle, the atria contract
and force blood into the
ventricles. The ventricles contract
for about 0.30 second and push
the blood out of the heart,
completing systole.
During diastole, the heart relaxes
and blood flows into the atria and
ventricles (0.40 seconds).
Blood also flows into the atria
during the second part of systole.
The blood and heart movements
during the cardiac cycle generate
vibrations that produce a "Lub-
dup" sound.
Pacemaker
Blood pressure readings are usually given as two numbers.
Normal blood pressure is when the top number (systolic blood pressure) is below
120 most of the time, and the bottom number (diastolic blood pressure) is below
80 most of the time (written as 120/80 mm Hg)
Path of Blood Through the Heart
Even though both atria and then both ventricles contract simultaneously due to
the presence of intercalated disks, we can trace the path of blood through the
heart in the following manner:
➢ The superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava, which carry oxygen-
poor blood that is relatively high in carbon dioxide, empty into the right
atrium.
➢ The right atrium sends blood through an atrioventricular valve (the
tricuspid valve) to the right ventricle.
➢ The right ventricle sends blood through the pulmonary semilunar valve
into the pulmonary trunk and the two pulmonary arteries to the lungs.
➢ Four pulmonary veins, which carry oxygen-rich blood, empty into the
left atrium.
➢ The left atrium sends blood through an atrioventricular valve (the
bicuspid, or mitral, valve) to the left ventricle.
➢ The left ventricle sends blood through the aortic semilunar valve into the
aorta and to the rest of the body.
The Systemic Circuit

The Pulmonary
Circuit

The Pulmonary Circuit

The Systemic Circuit

Blood Flow
through the
Double
Circulation
Atherosclerosis
Atherosclerosis is an accumulation of soft masses of fatty materials, particularly
cholesterol, beneath the inner linings of arteries. Such deposits are called
plaque. As deposits occur, plaque tends to protrude into the lumen of the
vessel, interfering with the flow of blood.
Plaque can also cause a clot to form on the irregular arterial wall. As long as the
clot remains stationary, it is called a thrombus, but when and if it dislodges and
moves along with the blood, it is called an embolus. If thromboembolism is not
treated, complications can arise.
Cardiovascular Disease
Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the
leading cause of death in most Western
countries. According to the American
Heart Association, CVD has been the
most common cause of death in the
United States every year since 1900. The
only exception to this statistic was 1918,
the worst year of a global influenza
pandemic. According to the American
Heart Association’s Heart Disease and
Stroke Statistical Update 2014, about
2,150 Americans die of CVD each day,
which is an average of one death every
40 seconds, and about one out of every
three deaths overall.
Hypertension
It is estimated that about 30% of Americans suffer from
hypertension, which is high blood pressure. Another 30% are
thought to have a condition called prehypertension, which can lead
to hypertension. Under age 45, a reading above 130/90 is
hypertensive, and beyond age 45, a reading above 140/95 is
hypertensive.

Hypertension is most often caused by a

narrowing of arteries due to atherosclerosis.
This narrowing causes the heart to work
harder to supply the required amount of
blood.
The resulting increase in blood pressure can
damage the heart, arteries, and other organs.
Other risk factors that can contribute to
hypertension include obesity, smoking,
chronic stress, and a high dietary salt intake
(which causes retention of fluid). Only about
two-thirds of people with hypertension seek
medical help for their condition, and it is
likely that many people with high blood
pressure are unaware of it.
Stroke and Heart Attack
Strokes and heart attacks are associated
with hypertension and atherosclerosis. A
stroke, or disruption of blood supply to the
brain, often results when a small cranial
arteriole bursts or is blocked by an
embolus. A lack of oxygen causes a
portion of the brain to die, and paralysis or
death can result. A person is sometimes
forewarned of a stroke by a feeling of
numbness in the hands or the face,
difficulty speaking, or temporary blindness
in one eye.

If a coronary artery becomes partially

blocked, the individual may suffer from
angina pectoris, characterized as a
squeezing sensation or a flash of burning. If
a coronary artery is completely blocked,
perhaps by a thromboembolism, a portion
of the heart muscle dies due to a lack of
oxygen. This is a myocardial infarction, also
called a heart attack.
Circulatory Pathways

• The role of the circulatory system is to transport

blood to all parts of the body.
• Each organ has a major artery supplying it with blood
from the heart and a major vein that returns blood
to the heart.
Pulmonary and Systemic Circulations
a) Pulmonary Circulation
• Blood returning to the heart from the body tissues is
low in oxygen and high in carbon dioxide. This blood
enters the right atrium and flow into the right ventricle.
• The right ventricle pumps it through the pulmonary
arteries to the lungs.
! The pulmonary arteries are the only arteries that
carry deoxygenated blood. All other arteries carry
oxygenated blood.
a) Pulmonary Circulation
• As the blood travels through the capillaries in the lungs,
it gains oxygen and gets rid of carbon dioxide.
• The pulmonary capillaries merge into pulmonary veins
that carry oxygenated blood to the left atrium of the
heart.
! The pulmonary veins are the only veins that carry
oxygenated blood. All other veins carry deoxygenated
blood.
b) Systemic Circulation
• From the left atrium, the blood enters the left ventricle.
The systemic circulation begins in the left ventricle of
the heart.
• From the left ventricle, the blood is pumped out into
the aorta.
• The aorta branches and forms the arteries that serve
all parts of the body.
• The arteries divide and subdivide, forming arterioles
and finally forming the capillaries.
b) Systemic Circulation
• Capillaries merge to form the venules, which in turn
merge to form the veins. The largest veins of the body,
the Superior Vena Cava and the Inferior Vena Cava
empty into the right atrium of the heart.
• The superior vena cava returns blood from the head,
arms, and chest; the inferior vena cava returns blood
from the lower body regions.
I. The Coronary (Cardiac) Circulation: It supplies
blood to the heart muscle, and includes the coronary
arteries and veins.
II. The Hepatic Portal Circulation: It transports
blood from the digestive tract to the liver.
III. The Renal Circulation: Renal arteries and veins
bring blood to and from the kidneys where wastes,
excess water, and other substances are removed
from the blood.
Blood Flow through the Double Circulation of the
Human Cardiovascular System