THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM ● This causes the pericardial layers to bind and

A closed system of the heart and blood vessels stick to each other, forming painful adhesions
● The heart pumps blood that interfere with heart movements
● Blood vessels allow blood to circulate to all parts The Heart: Heart Wall
of the body Three layers
Functions of the cardiovascular system ● Epicardium
● To deliver oxygen and nutrients to cells and ○ Outside layer
tissues ○ This layer is the visceral pericardium
● To remove carbon dioxide and other waste ○ Connective tissue layer
products from cells and tissues ● Myocardium
The Heart ○ Middle layer
● Location ○ Mostly cardiac muscle
○ Thorax between the lungs in the inferior ● Endocardium
mediastinum (medial cavity of the ○ Inner layer
thorax) ○ Endothelium
● Orientation
○ Pointed apex directed toward left hip The Heart: Chambers
○ Base points toward right shoulder Right and left side act as separate pumps
● About the size of your fist Four chambers
● Atria
○ Receiving chambers
○ Right atrium
○ Left atrium
● Ventricles
○ Discharging chambers
○ Right ventricle
○ Left ventricle

The Heart: Septa

● Interventricular septum
○ Separates the two ventricles
● Interatrial septum
○ Separates the two atria

The Heart: Coverings

Pericardium—a double-walled sac
● Fibrous pericardium is loose and superficial
● Serous membrane is deep to the fibrous
pericardium and composed of two layers
○ Visceral pericardium—Next to heart;
also known as the epicardium
○ Parietal pericardium—Outside layer
that lines the inner surface of the fibrous The Heart’s Role in Blood Circulation
pericardium ● Systemic circulation
● Serous fluid fills the space between the layers of ○ Blood flows from the
pericardium left side of the heart
through the body
tissues and back to the
right side of the heart
● Pulmonary circulation
○ Blood flows from the
right side of the heart
to the lungs and back
Homeostatic Imbalance to the left side of the
Pericarditis heart
● Inflammation of the pericardium
● Often results in a decrease in the serous fluid
 The Heart: Conduction System
The Heart: Valves Intrinsic conduction system (nodal system)
Allow blood to flow in only one direction to prevent ● Heart muscle cells contract, without nerve
backflow impulses, in a regular, continuous way
Four valves Special tissue sets the pace
● Atrioventricular (AV) valves—between atria and ● Sinoatrial node = SA node (“pacemaker”), is in
ventricles the right atrium
○ Bicuspid (mitral) valve (left side of ● Atrioventricular node = AV node, is at the
heart) junction of the atria and ventricles
○ Tricuspid valve (right side of heart) ● Atrioventricular bundle = AV bundle (bundle
● Semilunar valves - between ventricle and artery of His), is in the interventricular septum
○ Pulmonary semilunar valve ● Bundle branches are in the interventricular
○ Aortic semilunar valve septum
● Purkinje fibers spread within the ventricle wall
The Heart: Valves muscles
● AV valves
○ Anchored in place by chordae tendineae
(“heart strings”)
○ Open during heart relaxation and closed
during ventricular contraction
● Semilunar valves
○ Closed during heart relaxation but open
during ventricular contraction
● Notice these valves operate opposite of one
another to force a one-way path of blood through
the heart Heart Contractions
(refer to the Operation of the AV valves pg. 26 in PPT) ● Contraction is initiated by the sinoatrial node
(SA node)
Cardiac Circulation ● Sequential stimulation occurs at other
Blood in the heart chambers does not nourish the autorhythmic cells
myocardium ● Force cardiac muscle depolarization in one
The heart has its own nourishing circulatory system direction—from atria to ventricles
consisting of ● Once SA node starts the heartbeat
● Coronary arteries—branch from the aorta to ○ Impulse spreads to the AV node
supply the heart muscle with oxygenated blood ○ Then the atria contract
● Cardiac veins—drain the myocardium of blood ● At the AV node, the impulse passes through the
● Coronary sinus—a large vein on the posterior of AV bundle, bundle branches, and Purkinje fibers
the heart, receives blood from cardiac veins ● Blood is ejected from the ventricles to the aorta
•Blood empties into the right atrium via the coronary and pulmonary trunk as the ventricles contract
sinus
Homeostatic imbalance
The Heart: Associated Great Vessels ● Heart block—damaged AV node releases them
Arteries from control of the SA node; result is in a slower
● Aorta—Leaves left ventricle heart rate as ventricles contract at their own rate
● Pulmonary arteries—Leave right ventricle ● Ischemia—lack of adequate oxygen supply to
Veins heart muscle
● Superior and inferior venae cavae—Enter right ● Fibrillation—a rapid, uncoordinated shuddering
atrium of the heart muscle
● Pulmonary veins (four)—Enter left atrium ● Tachycardia—rapid heart rate over 100 beats per
minute
Blood Flow Through the Heart ● Bradycardia—slow heart rate less than 60 beats
● Superior and inferior venae cavae dump per minutes
blood into the right atrium
● From right atrium, through the tricuspid The Heart: Cardiac Cycle & Heart Sounds
valve, blood travels to the right ● Atria contract simultaneously
ventricle ● Atria relax, then ventricles contract
● From the right ventricle, blood leaves ● Systole = contraction
the heart as it passes through the ● Diastole = relaxation
pulmonary semilunar valve into the Cardiac cycle—events of one complete heartbeat
pulmonary trunk ● Mid-to-late diastole
● Pulmonary trunk splits into right and ○ Pressure in heart is low
left pulmonary arteries that carry blood ○ Blood flows from passively into the atria
to the lungs and into ventricles
○ Semilunar valves are closed
 ○ Atrioventricular valves are open
○ Atria contract and force blood into
ventricles
● Ventricular systole
○ Blood pressure builds before ventricle
contracts
○ Atrioventricular valves close causes first
heart sound, “lub”
○ Semilunar valves open as blood pushes
against them
○ Blood travels out of the ventricles
through pulmonary trunk and aorta
○ Atria are relaxed
● Early diastole
○ At the end of systole, all four valves are Blood Vessels: The Vascular System
briefly closed at the same time Transport blood to the tissues and back
○ Second heart sound is heard as semilunar ● Carry blood away from the heart
valves close, causing “dup” sound ○ Arteries
○ Atria finish refilling as pressure in the ○ Arterioles
heart drops ● Exchanges between tissues and blood
○ Ventricular pressure is low ○ Capillary beds
○ Atrioventricular valves open ● Return blood toward the
heart
○ Venules
○ Veins

Blood Vessels: Microscopic Anatomy

Three layers (tunics)
● Tunic intima—Endothelium
The Heart: Cardiac Output ● Tunic media—Smooth muscle and Controlled by
● Cardiac output (CO) sympathetic nervous system
○ Amount of blood pumped by each side ● Tunic externa—Mostly fibrous connective tissue
(ventricle) of the heart in one minute
● Stroke volume (SV)
○ Volume of blood pumped by each
ventricle in one contraction (each
heartbeat)
○ Usually remains relatively constant
○ About 70 mL of blood is pumped out of
the left ventricle with each heartbeat
● Heart rate (HR)
○ Typically 75 beats per minute
CO = HR × SV
CO = HR (75 beats/min) × SV (70 mL/beat)
CO = 5250 mL/min
Starling’s law of the heart—the more the cardiac muscle Structural Differences Among Blood Vessels
is stretched, the stronger the contraction ● Arteries have a thicker tunica media than veins
Changing heart rate is the most common way to change ● Capillaries are only one cell layer (tunica intima)
cardiac output to allow for exchanges between blood and tissue
● Veins have a thinner tunica media than arteries
The Heart: Regulation of Heart Rate ○ Veins also have valves to prevent
Increased heart rate backflow of blood
● Sympathetic nervous system ○ Lumen of veins are larger than arteries
○ Crisis
○ Low blood pressure Venous Aids for the Return of Blood to the Heart
● Hormones Veins:
○ Epinephrine ● Have a thinner tunica media
○ Thyroxine ● Operate under low pressure
● Exercise ● Have a larger lumen than arteries
● Decreased blood volume To assist in the movement of blood back to the heart:
Decreased heart rate ● Larger veins have valves to prevent backflow
● Parasympathetic nervous system ● Skeletal muscle “milks” blood in veins toward
● High blood pressure or blood volume the heart
● Decreased venous return
Movement of Blood Through Vessels ○ Splenic artery (spleen)
● Most arterial blood is pumped by the heart ○ Common hepatic artery (liver)
● Veins use the milking action of muscles to help ● Superior mesenteric artery supplies most of the
move blood small intestine and first half of the large intestine
● Left and right renal arteries (kidney)
Capillary Beds ● Left and right gonadal arteries
Capillary beds consist of two types of vessels ○ Ovarian arteries in females serve the
● Vascular shunt—vessel directly connecting an ovaries
arteriole to a venule ○ Testicular arteries in males serve the
● True capillaries—exchange vessels testes
○ Oxygen and nutrients cross to cells ○ Lumbar arteries serve muscles of the
○ Carbon dioxide and metabolic waste abdomen and trunk
products cross into blood ● Inferior mesenteric artery serves the second
● half of the large intestine
● Left and right common iliac arteries are the final
branches of the aorta
○ Internal iliac arteries serve the pelvic
organs
○ External iliac arteries enter the thigh >
femoral artery > popliteal artery
>anterior and posterior tibial arteries

Major Arteries of System Circulation

Aorta
● Largest artery in the body
● Leaves from the left ventricle of the heart
● Regions
○ Ascending aorta—leaves the left
ventricle
○ Aortic arch—arches to the left
○ Thoracic aorta—travels downward
through the thorax
○ Abdominal aorta—passes through the
diaphragm into the abdominopelvic
cavity

Arterial branches of the ascending aorta

● Right and left coronary arteries serve the heart

Arterial branches of the aortia arch (BCS)

● Brachiocephalic trunk splits into the
○ Right common carotid artery
○ Right subclavian artery
● Left common carotid artery splits into the
○ Left internal and external carotid arteries
● Left subclavian artery branches into the
○ Vertebral artery
○ In the axilla, the subclavian artery
becomes the axillary > artery brachial > Major Veins of
artery radial and ulnar arteries Systemic Circulation
Superior and inferior vena cava enter the right atrium of
Arterial branches of the thoracic aorta the heart
● Intercostal arteries supply the muscles of the ● Superior vena cava drains the head and arms
thorax wall ● Inferior vena cava drains the lower body
● Other branches of the thoracic aorta supply the
○ Lungs (bronchial arteries) Veins draining into the superior vena cava
○ Esophagus (esophageal arteries) ● Radial and ulnar veins > brachial vein > axillary
○ Diaphragm (phrenic arteries) vein
● These veins drain the arms
Arterial branches of the abdominal aorta ● Cephalic vein drains the lateral aspect of the arm
● Celiac trunk is the first branch of the abdominal and empties into the axillary vein
aorta. Three branches are: ● Basilic vein drains the medial aspect of the arm
○ Left gastric artery (stomach) and empties into the brachial vein
 ● Basilic and cephalic veins are joined at the Circle of Willis
median cubital vein (elbow area) ● Anterior and posterior blood supplies are united
● Subclavian vein receives by small communicating arterial branches
○ Venous blood from the arm via the ● Result—complete circle of connecting blood
axillary vein vessels called cerebral arterial circle or circle of
○ Venous blood from skin and muscles via Willis
external jugular vein
● Vertebral vein drains the posterior part of the
head
● Internal jugular vein drains the dural sinuses of
the brain
● Left and right brachiocephalic veins receive
● venous blood from the:
○ Subclavian veins
○ Vertebral veins
○ Internal jugular veins
● Brachiocephalic veins join to form the superior Fetal Circulation
vena cava > right atrium of heart ● Fetus receives exchanges of gases, nutrients, and
● Azygous vein drains the thorax wastes through the placenta
● Umbilical cord contains three vessels
Veins draining into the inferior vena cava ○ Umbilical vein—carries blood rich in
● Anterior and posterior tibial veins and fibial nutrients and oxygen to the fetus
veins drain the legs ○ Umbilical arteries (2)—carry carbon
● Posterior tibial vein > popliteal vein > femoral dioxide and debris-laden blood from
vein > external iliac vein fetus to placenta
● Great saphenous veins (longest veins of the ● Blood flow bypasses the liver through the ductus
body) receive superficial drainage of the legs venosus and enters the inferior vena cava > right
● Each common iliac vein (left and right) is formed atrium of heart
by the union of the internal and external iliac ● Blood flow bypasses the lungs
vein on its own side ○ Blood entering right atrium is shunted
● Right gonadal vein drains the right ovary in directly into the left atrium through the
females and right testicle in males foramen ovale
● Left gonadal vein empties into the left renal vein ○ Ductus arteriosus connects the aorta and
● Left and right renal veins drain the kidneys pulmonary trunk (becomes ligamentum
● Hepatic portal vein drains the digestive organs arteriosum at birth)
and travels through the liver before it enters
systemic circulation
● Left and right hepatic veins drain the liver

Hepatic Portal Circulation

● Veins of hepatic portal circulation drain
○ Digestive organs
○ Spleen
○ Pancreas
● Hepatic portal vein carries this blood to the liver
● Liver helps maintain proper glucose, fat, and
Arterial Supply of the Brain protein concentrations in blood
Internal carotid arteries divide into: ● Major vessels of hepatic portal circulation
● Anterior and middle cerebral arteries ○ Inferior and superior mesenteric veins
● These arteries supply most of the cerebrum ○ Splenic vein
Vertebral arteries join once within the skull to form the ○ Left gastric vein
basilar artery
● Basilar artery serves the brain stem and
cerebellum
Posterior cerebral arteries form from the division of the
basilar artery
•These arteries supply the posterior cerebrum
 ○ Various substances can cause increases
or decreases
● Diet

Pulse
● Pressure wave of blood
● Monitored at “pressure points” in arteries where
pulse is easily palpated
● Pulse averages 70 to 76 beats per minute at rest Variations in Blood Pressure
Blood Pressure Normal human range is variable
● Measurements by health professionals are made ● Normal
on the pressure in large arteries ○ 140 to 110 mm Hg systolic
○ Systolic—pressure at the ○ 80 to 75 mm Hg diastolic
peak of ventricular ● Hypotension
contraction ○ Low systolic (below 110 mm Hg)
○ Diastolic—pressure when ○ Often associated with illness
ventricles relax •Write ● Hypertension
systolic pressure first and ○ High systolic (above 140 mm Hg)
diastolic last (120/80 mm ○ Can be dangerous if it is chronic
Hg)
● Pressure in blood vessels decreases Capillary Exchange
as distance from the heart increases ● Substances exchanged due to concentration
gradients
● Oxygen and nutrients leave the blood
● Carbon dioxide and other wastes leave the cells

Capillary Exchange: Mechanisms

● Direct diffusion across plasma membranes
● Endocytosis or exocytosis
● Some capillaries have gaps (intercellular clefts)
○ Plasma membrane not joined by tight
junctions
● Fenestrations (pores) of
some capillaries

Fluid Movements at Capillary

Blood Pressure: Effects of Factors Beds
● BP is blood pressure ● Blood pressure forces
○ BP is affected by age, weight, time of fluid and solutes out of
day, exercise, body position, emotional capillaries
state ● Osmotic pressure draws fluid into capillaries
● CO is the amount of blood pumped out of the ● Blood pressure is higher than osmotic pressure at
left ventricle per minute the arterial end of the capillary bed
● PR is peripheral resistance, or the amount of ● Blood pressure is lower than osmotic pressure at
friction blood encounters as it flows through the venous end of the capillary bed
vessels
○ Narrowing of blood vessels and Developmental Aspects of the Cardiovascular System
increased blood volume increases PR • A simple “tube heart” develops in the embryo and
BP = CO × PR pumps by the fourth week
● Neural factors • The heart becomes a four-chambered organ by the end
○ Autonomic nervous system adjustments of seven weeks
(sympathetic division) • Few structural changes occur after the seventh week
● Renal factors • Aging problems associated with the cardiovascular
○ Regulation by altering blood volume system include
○ Renin—hormonal control ● Venous valves weaken
● Temperature ● Varicose veins
○ Heat has a vasodilating effect ● Progressive atherosclerosis
○ Cold has a vasoconstricting effect ● Loss of elasticity of vessels leads to hypertension
● Chemicals ● Coronary artery disease results from vessels
filled with fatty, calcified deposits