CHAPTER 4 – INTRODUCTION TO DISLOCATIONS

4.1 A single crystal of copper yields under a shear stress of about 0.62 MPa. The shear modulus of
copper is approximately55 GPa. With this data, compute an approximate value for the ratio of
the theoretical to the experimental shear stresses in copper.

Solution:

Assuming that the theoretical yield shear stress equals one half the shear modulus, i.e.

μ 55 GPa
Theoretical shear stress , τ th= = =27.5GPa
2 2

and

τ th 27,500
= =44,355
τ exp 0.62

4.3 (a) Using a RHSF Burgers circuit, illustrate how to determine the true Burgers vector of an edge
dislocation.

(b) Is the sense of the Burgers vector direction in part (a) of this problem the same as that of the
RHSF local Burgers vector in Fig. 4.22?

Solution:

(a)

This figure illustrates a RHSF Burgers vector circuit that yields a true Burgers vector since it is
measured in the perfect crystal.

(b) Note that the true Burgers vector of this RHSF circuit points from right to left which is opposite
to that of the local RHSF Burgers vector in Fig. 4.22.

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4.4 (a) How many equivalent {111}¿ 11 0>¿ slip systems are there in the fcc lattice?
(b) Indentify each system by writing out its slip plane and slip direction indices.
Solution:

(a) The various slip systems are listed below.

(111)[1 10 ] (1 11)[110] (1 11)[110] (1 11)[1 10 ]
(111)[0 1 1] (1 11)[0 1 1] (1 11)[011] (1 11)[011]
(111)[1 01] (1 11)[101] (1 11)[10 1] (1 11)[101]
4.5 Assume that the triangle in the drawing below lies on the (111) plane of a face-centered cubic
crystal, and that its edges are equal in magnitude to the Burgers vectors of the three total
dislocations that can glide in this plane. Then, if δ lies at the centroid of this triangle, lines
Aδ ,Cδ , and Bδ accordingly correspond to the three possible partial dislocations of this plane.
(a) Indentify each line ( AB , Aδ , etc.) with its proper Burgers vector expressed in the vector
notation.
(b) Demonstrate by vector addition that:
Bδ +δC =BC

Solution:

(a) The direction vectors of the lines in question are as follows:

1 1 1
line AB; [1 01] line BC ; [011] line CA ; [11 0]
2 2 2
1 1 1
line Aδ ; [211] li ne Bδ ; [11 2] line Cδ ; [1 21]
6 6 6

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 (b) Note that the equation Bδ +δC =BC involves the vector δC whose direction indices are the
1
negative of Cδ∨ [ 1 21 ] . Thus,
3

1 1 1 1
Bδ +δC = [ 112 ] + [ 1 21 ] = [ 03 3 ] = [ 01 1 ] =BC
6 6 6 2

4.6 Figure A (below) represents the Thompson tetrahedron as seen in three dimensions. In Fig. B,
the sides of the tetrahedron have been hypothetically folded out so that all four surfaces can be
easily viewed. The symbols α , β , γ and δ represent the centroid of each face respectfully. As in
1
Problem 4.6, lines such as BD represent total dislocations, that is, <110>¿ , and lines such as
2
1
Bγ represent partial dislocations, that is < 211>.
6

(a) Write the Miller indices for CD and DC.

(b) Do the same for BD and DB.

(c) Show that BD + DC = BC.

Solution:

Fig. A Fig. B

1 1
(a) CD= [ 101 ] ; DC= [1 0 1]
2 2
1 1
(b) BD= [ 110 ] ; DB= [11 0]
2 2

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 1 1 1
(c) BD+ DC = [ 110 ] + [ 1 0 1 ] = [ 01 1 ] =BC
2 2 2

4.7 List all the primary, or total, Burgers available for slip in a fcc crystal. Use the vector or Miller
indices notation to describe each Burger vector.

Solution:

1 1 1 1 1 1
They are [ 110 ] , [ 11 0 ] , [ 101 ] , [ 101 ] , [ 011 ] , and [ 011 ] .
2 2 2 2 2 2

4.8 An important slip plane in the hexagonal metals titanium and zirconium is the {11 2 2} plane, on
1 1
which dislocations with a <11 23>¿ Burgers vector may move. Prove that the <11 23>¿
3 3
Burgers vector can be considered as the sum of a basal slip Burgers vector, and a unit Burgers
vector in the c-axis direction.

Solution:

1
The pertinent basal slip Burgers vector is [ 112 0 ] , while a unit Burgers vector in the c-axis
3
direction is [0001]. In the present case the c-axis Burgers vector needs to have a negative sense.
It is therefore [0001]. The two vectors may be added in the following manner.

1 1 1 1
[ 112 0 ] + [ 000 1 ] = [ 112 0 ] + [ 000 3 ] = [11 23]
3 3 3 3

4.9 (a) If a vacancy disc forms on a basal plane of a hexagonal metal close-packed metal, what
stacking sequence of basal planes would result across the disc?

(b) Why would the strain energy of the resulting stacking fault be very high?

(c) Explain how a simple shear along the basal plane, equal to a Cheekily partial, could eliminate
the high energy stacking fault and replace it with one of lower energy.

(d) What then would be the stacking arrangement of the basal planes at the fault?

(e) Is the result in (d) unique or are there several basic probabilites? Explain.

Solution:
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(a) The following drawing illustrates the effects of removing part of a basal plane of a hexagonal-
close packed metal. The stacking sequence in the matrix is shown on the left hand side of the
figure, while the stacking sequence that occurs when a vacancy disc is included may be seen at
the center of the figures outlined.

(b) The stacking fault associated with the vacancy disc involves a very high stacking fault energy
because two adjacent planes are placed over one another in an A orientation. This means that
the atoms in these two planes do not fit into the pockets on the opposite plane at the stacking
fault.

(c) Two sets of pockets, B and C, are shown in the above model of a plane in an A orientation, which
will be assumed to represent the upper of the A orientation planes. The high energy stacking
fault can be converted into one of lower energy by passing a Shockley partial dislocation across
the vacancy disc that shifts the lower plane, so that its atoms move into B pockets. In effect this
partial dislocation moves the atoms of the lower plane through the vector AB shown in the
above sketch.

(d) There are two possibilities, the atoms of the lower plane can move into either B or C pockets.
The resulting stacking sequences are indicated for each possibility below. In each case
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31
 (possibility), the vertical column on the left gives the stacking sequence before the movement of
the partial dislocation, while that on the right give the stacking sequence after the movement of
the partial dislocation.

First possibility Second possibility

BB BB
AA AA
BB BB
AA AA
AB AC
BC BA
AB AC
BC BA

(e) See answer to (d).

4.10 (a) Write a simple computer program that gives the shear stress of a screw dislocation as a
function of the perpendicular distance from the dislocation (see Eq. 4.8). Assuming that the
shear modulus is 86 GPa, and the Burgers vector is 0.248 nm, use the program to obtain the
shear stress at the following values of r: 50, 100, 150, and 200 nm, respectively. Plot the
resulting τ versus r data, and with the aid of this curve, determine the distance from the
dislocation where τ is 27.6 MPa, the shear stress at which an iron crystal will begin to undergo
slip.

(b) To how many Burgers vectors does this distance correspond?

Solution:

(a) Equation 4.8 is:

μb
τ=
2 πr

This becomes, on substituting the given values of μ and b as well as the value of π ,

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32
 −6 −9
86 ×10 (0.248× 10 ) 3.394 × 10−6
τ= = MPa
2 ( 3.1416 ) r r

where r is given in nm. This equation is plotted in the figure below. Now as may be seen in the
plot, the critical resolved shear stress of iron, 27.6 MPa, corresponds to a distance of 122.9 nm.

(b) The distance r, at which the stress of the dislocation becomes equal to the critical resolved shear
stress is 122.9 nm. The length of the iron Burgers vector is 0.248 nm. Thus, the number of
Burgers vectors to the point where the shear stress of the dislocation become equal to the
critical resolved shear stress is 122.9/0.248 = 496 Burgers vectors.

4.11 The equations in 4.9 are the stress field equations of an edge dislocation, in Cartesian
coordinates. Write a computer program based on these equations that gives simultaneous
values of σ xx , σ yy , τ xy for an edge dislocation in an iron crystal assuming
μ=86 GPa , b=0.248 nm , v=0.3 and r =40 b and letting x=r cos θ∧ y=r sin θ . Simplify the
equations so that they can be expressed as functions of the angle θ . Now develop a figure in
which curves are plotted for all three of the stress components over the range of angles from 0
and 2 π radians.

Solution:

The stress field equations for an edge dislocation in Cartesian coordinates are:

−μb y (3 x 2+ y 2)
σ xx =
2 π ( 1−v ) ¿ ¿

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 2 2
μb y (x − y )
σ yy =
2 π (1−v )¿ ¿

μb x ( x2 − y 2)
τ xy=
2 π (1−v)¿ ¿

The primary goal of this problem is to determine how the stress components vary, with their
ocation around the edge dislocation at a fixed distance, r, from the dislocation. In other words
how do they vary with the angle θ . Since the value of r is fixed, the above equations can be
simplified by substituting r cos θ for x and r sin θ for y. If this is done one obtains:

σ xx =−μb r sin θ ¿ ¿

Also since μ=86 GPa or 86,000 MPa, and r is assumed to be equal to 40b, and v is 0.3:

μb 86000 b
= =488.8 MPa
2 π ( 1−v ) r 2 π ( 1−0.3 ) 40 b

Following this procedure we obtain for the three components of the stress:

σ xx =−488.8 sin θ ¿

σ yy =488.8 sinθ ¿

τ xy =488.8 cos θ ¿

The following figures shows how these components vary with θ over the range of angles from 0
to 6.28 radians.

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34
 Note that in the above figure. both σ xx and σ yy are zero at θ=0 and θ=π . These angles
correspond to positions in the slip plane of an edge dislocation and to right and left of the
dislocatin. On the other hand, τ xy is a maximum at these locations. At θ=1.57 or 4.71 radians
corresponding to angles of π /2 and 3 π /2, σ xx =σ yy , and the shear stress components are zero.
These angles correspond to positions exactly above and below the dislocation. They represent
orientations where there is a state of two dimensional hydrostatic normal stress. This stress is
negative or compressive above the dislocation, and tensile below it.

4.12 Now solve Problem 4.10 using the stress field equations of an edge dislocation in polar
coordinates.

Solution:

The stress field equations for an edge dislosction in polar coordinates are:

σ rr =σ θθ=
−μb
( )
sin θ
2 π (1−v) r

τ rθ =
−μb
( )
cos θ
2 π (1−v) r

With the values of μ , b , v and r given in Problem 4.12 these equations become:

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35
 σ rr =σ θθ=488.8 sin θ , σ rθ=488.8 cos θ

The variation of these stress parameters with the angle θ is shown in the following figure

4.13 (a) Consider that two infinitely long parallel edge dislocations are viewed on a simple two
dimensional x-y diagram, such as Fig. 4.37. This first of these dislocations is located at x = 0, y = 0
and is positive. Its slip plane is horizontal and this contains the x-axis. The other dislocation is
negative and also lies in a horizontal slip plane separated from that of the first dislocation by a
vertical distance (y) of 10b, where b is the Burgers vector for both dislocations. Now assume the
first dislocation is fixed in place, and the second can move parallel to the x-axis. With the aid of a
computer, plot F x , the x-component of the force (per unit length) between the dislocations, as
function of x from x = -50 nm to x = +50 nm. Let μ = 86 GPa, b = 0.248 nm, and v =0.3.

(b) Discuss the significance of the variation of F x with distance as the mobile dislocation moves
from x=−∞ to x=+∞ .

Solution:

(a) The geometry of this proble is given in the following sketch.

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36
 The force F x is equal to:

2 2 2
−μ b x( x − y )
τ xy ×b= 2 2 2
2 π ( 1−v ) (x + y )

The expression for F x reduces to the following after

μ=86 GPa , b=0.248 nm , v=0.3 and y=10 b=2.48 nm are substituted into the above equation.

−1.2× x (x 2−6.15)
F x= 2 2
(x +6.15)

This latter expression may now be plotted with a suitable computer to obtain the following
curve of F x versus x .

(b) Note that in this diagram, a negative force corresponds to one that acts to move the upper
dislocation to the left. At large positive values of x, the upper or negative dislocation experiences
a small force of attractiion towards the lower positive dislocation which increases as the
distance from positive dislocation become smaller. However, when x is about 6 or 7 nm, the
force of attraction reaches a maximum. After this it falls rapidly and when

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 x=10 b=2.48 nm , F x goes to zero. This is an equilibrium position becaise for smaller values of
x the force becomes positive or in a directionaway from positive dislocation. A similer situation
exists with negative values of x <-10b the force is positive or to the right. This also corresponds
to an attraction between the two dislocations. A point of equilibrium also exists at x=−10 b .

4.14 The strain energy of a dislocation normally varies as the square of its Burgers vector. One may
see this by examining Eqs. 4.19 and 4.20. This relationship between the dislocation strain energy
and the Burgers vector is known as Frank’s rule. Thus, if b=a [ hkl ] , where a is a numerical
factor, then:

Energy/m a2 {h2 +k 2+l 2 }

Show that in an fcc crystal the dissociation of a total dislocation into its two partials is
energetically feasible. See Eq. 4.4.

Solution:

Equations 4.4 is:

1 1 1
[ 110 ]= [ 1 2 1 ] + [ 211]
2 6 6

1 1
The corresponding energies of the three dislocations are for the total dislocation, ( 2 )= , and
4 2
1 1
for both partials, ( 6 )= . Thus,
36 6

1 1 1 1
> + =
2 6 6 3

The dissociation is energetically feasible.

4.15 The c /a ratio of the hcp zinc crystal is 1.866. Determine the ratio of the strain energy of a
1
dislocation with a <11 23>¿ Burgers vector, to that of a basal slip dislocation in a zinc crystal.
3

Solution:

The Burgers vector of a basal slip dislocation is equal to a, and to that of the pyramidal slip
dislocation is proportional to the vector sum of an a dislocation and a c dislocation. The ratio of
the energies of these two Burger vectors is accordingly:

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38
 2 2 2
a2 +c 2 a +(1.886) a 4.56
Energy ratio= 2 = =
a a2 1

4.16 (a) Consider Eq. 4.19, which gives the strain energy per unit length of a screw dislocation.
Assume that one has a very large square array of long, straight, parallel screw dislocations of
alternating signs, so that the effective outer radius r ' of the stain field of the dislocations may be
1
taken as . With the aid of a computer, determine the strain energy per unit length of a
2√ ρ
screw dislocation as a function of the dislocation density,
11 18 3
ρ , between ρ=10 and ρ=10 m/m .

(b) Plot the line energy against the dislocation density. Assume that μ=86 GPa , b=0.248 nm .

(c) Now plot the energy per unit volume as a function of ρ , assuming that the former can be
equated to ρw , where w is the energy per unit length of the screw dislocations.

Solution:

(a) and (b) Equation 4.19 is:

μ b2 4 r '
w s= ln
4π b

Where w s is the strain energy per unit length of a screw disloction, μ the shear modulus, b the
1
Burgers vector, and r ' may be assumed to equal . When the numerical values of the
2√ ρ
parameters μ∧b are inserted into this equation, it becomes:

−10 8.06 × 109

w s=4.21× 10 ln
√ρ
The figure below shows a semi-logarithmic plot of w s against the dislocation density between
ρ=1011 and ρ=1019.

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39
(c) This next figure give a plot of the energy per unit volume, obtained by plotting ρ × ws
against ρ using double logarithmic coordinates.

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40