CHAPTER 7

DISLOCATIONS AND STRENGTHENING MECHANISMS

PROBLEM SOLUTIONS

Basic Concepts of Dislocations

Characteristics of Dislocations

7.1 To provide some perspective on the dimensions of atomic defects, consider a metal specimen with a
dislocation density of 105 mm–2. Suppose that all the dislocations in 1000 mm3 (1 cm3) were somehow removed and
linked end to end. How far (in miles) would this chain extend? Now suppose that the density is increased to 109
mm–2 by cold working. What would be the chain length of dislocations in 1000 mm3 of material?

Solution

The dislocation density is just the total dislocation length per unit volume of material (in this case per cubic
millimeters). Thus, the total length in 1000 mm3 of material having a density of 105 mm-2 is just

(105 mm −2 )(1000 mm3 ) = 108 mm = 105 m = 62 mi

Similarly, for a dislocation density of 109 mm-2, the total length is

(109 mm−2 )(1000 mm3 ) = 1012 mm = 109 m = 6.2 × 105 mi

 7.2 Consider two edge dislocations of opposite sign and having slip planes that are separated by several
atomic distances, as indicated in the following diagram. Briefly describe the defect that results when these two
dislocations become aligned with each other.

Answer

When the two edge dislocations become aligned, a planar region of vacancies will exist between the
dislocations as:
Slip Systems

7.3 Compare planar densities (Problem 3.35) for the (100), (110), and (111) planes for BCC.

Solution

For the BCC crystal structure, the planar densities of the (100) and (110) planes were determined in
Homework Problem 3.35, which are as follows:

3 0.19
PD100 (BCC) = =
16R2 R2

3 0.27
PD110 (BCC) = =
8R2 2 R2

Below is a BCC unit cell, within which is shown a (111) plane.

(a)

The centers of the three corner atoms, denoted by A, B, and C lie on this plane. Furthermore, the (111) plane does
not pass through the center of atom D, which is located at the unit cell center. The atomic packing of this plane is
presented in the following figure; the corresponding atom positions from the Figure (a) are also noted.
 (b)

Inasmuch as this plane does not pass through the center of atom D, it is not included in the atom count. One sixth of
each of the three atoms labeled A, B, and C is associated with this plane, which gives an equivalence of one-half
atom.
In Figure (b) the triangle with A, B, and C at its corners is an equilateral triangle. And, from Figure (b), the
xy
area of this triangle is . The triangle edge length, x, is equal to the length of a face diagonal, as indicated in
2
Figure (a). And its length is related to the unit cell edge length, a, as

x 2 = a2 + a2 = 2a2

or
x=a 2

4R
For BCC, a = (Equation 3.4), and, therefore,
3

4R 2
x=
3

Also, from Figure (b), with respect to the length y we may write

2
⎛ x⎞
y2 + ⎜ ⎟ = x2
⎝ 2⎠

x 3
which leads to y = . And, substitution for the above expression for x yields
2
 x 3 ⎛ 4R 2⎞ ⎛ 3⎞ 4R 2
y= =⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟=
2 ⎝ 3 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠ 2

Thus, the area of this triangle is equal to

1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 4 R 2 ⎞ ⎛ 4 R 2 ⎞ 8 R2
AREA = xy = ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟=
2 ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠ 3

And, finally, the planar density for this (111) plane is

0.5 atom 3 0.11

PD111 (BCC) = = =
8R 2 16 R 2 R2
3
 7.4 One slip system for the BCC crystal structure is {110} 111 . In a manner similar to Figure 7.6b,

sketch a {110}-type plane for the BCC structure, representing atom positions with circles. Now, using arrows,
indicate two different 111 slip directions within this plane.

Solution

Below is shown the atomic packing for a BCC {110}-type plane. The arrows indicate two different 〈111〉

type directions.
 7.5 Equations 7.1a and 7.1b, expressions for Burgers vectors for FCC and BCC crystal structures, are of
the form
a
b= uvw
2
where a is the unit cell edge length. The magnitudes of these Burgers vectors may be determined from the following
equation:

(
a 2 2
)
1/2
b= u + v + w2 (7.11)
2
determine the values of |b| for copper and iron. You may want to consult Table 3.1.

Solution

This problem asks that we compute the magnitudes of the Burgers vectors for copper and iron. For Cu,
which has an FCC crystal structure, R = 0.1278 nm (Table 3.1) and, from Equation 3.1

a = 2R 2 = (2)(0.1278 nm)( 2)

= 0.3615 nm

Also, from Equation 7.1a, the Burgers vector for FCC metals is

a
b = 〈110〉
2

Therefore, the values for u, v, and w in Equation 7.11 are 1, 1, and 0, respectively. Hence, the magnitude of the
Burgers vector for Cu is

a
b = u2 + v 2 + w 2
2

0.3615 nm
= (1 )2 + (1 )2 + (0)2 = 0.2556 nm
2

For Fe which has a BCC crystal structure, R = 0.1241 nm (Table 3.1) and, from Equation 3.4

4R (4)(0.1241 nm)
a= =
3 3

= 0.2866 nm

Also, from Equation 7.1b, the Burgers vector for BCC metals is
 a
b = 〈111〉
2

Therefore, the values for u, v, and w in Equation 7.11 are 1, 1, and 1, respectively. Hence, the magnitude of the
Burgers vector for Fe is

0.2866 nm
b = (1)2 + (1)2 + (1)2 = 0.2482 nm
2
 7.6 (a) In the manner of Equations 7.1a to 7.1c, specify the Burgers vector for the simple cubic crystal
structure whose unit cell is shown in Figure 3.3. Also, simple cubic is the crystal structure for the edge dislocation
of Figure 4.4, and for its motion as presented in Figure 7.1. You may also want to consult the answer to Concept
Check 7.1.
(b) On the basis of Equation 7.11, formulate an expression for the magnitude of the Burgers vector, |b|, for
the simple cubic crystal structure.

Solution

(a) This part of the problem asks that we specify the Burgers vector for the simple cubic crystal structure
(and suggests that we consult the answer to Concept Check 7.1). This Concept Check asks that we select the slip
system for simple cubic from four possibilities. The correct answer is {100} 010 . Thus, the Burgers vector will lie
in a 010 -type direction. Also, the unit slip distance is a (i.e., the unit cell edge length, Figures 4.4 and 7.1).

Therefore, the Burgers vector for simple cubic is

b = a 010

Or, equivalently

b = a 100

(b) The magnitude of the Burgers vector, |b|, for simple cubic is

b = a(12 + 02 + 02 )1 / 2 =a
Slip in Single Crystals

7.7 Consider a metal single crystal oriented such that the normal to the slip plane and the slip direction
are at angles of 60° and 35°, respectively, with the tensile axis. If the critical resolved shear stress is 6.2 MPa, will
an applied stress of 12 MPa cause the single crystal to yield? If not, what stress will be necessary?

Solution

This problem calls for us to determine whether or not a metal single crystal having a specific orientation
and of given critical resolved shear stress will yield. We are given that f = 60°, l = 35°, and that the values of the
critical resolved shear stress and applied tensile stress are 6.2 MPa and 12 MPa, respectively. From Equation 7.2

τ R = σ cos φ cos λ = (12 MPa)(cos 60°)(cos 35°) = 4.91 MPa

Since the resolved shear stress (4.91 MPa) is less that the critical resolved shear stress (6.2 MPa), the single crystal
will not yield.
However, from Equation 7.4, the stress at which yielding occurs is

τ crss 6.2 MPa

σy = = = 15.1 MPa
cos φ cos λ (cos 60°)(cos 35°)
 7.8 Consider a single crystal of nickel oriented such that a tensile stress is applied along a [001] direction.
If slip occurs on a (111) plane and in a [101] direction and is initiated at an applied tensile stress of 13.9 MPa,
compute the critical resolved shear stress.

Solution

This problem asks that we compute the critical resolved shear stress for nickel. In order to do this, we must
employ Equation 7.4, but first it is necessary to solve for the angles l and f which are shown in the sketch below.

The angle l is the angle between the tensile axis—i.e., along the [001] direction—and the slip direction—i.e.,
[101], and may be determined using Equation 7.6 as

⎡ ⎤
u1u2 + v1v2 + w1w2
λ= cos−1 ⎢ ⎥
⎢
⎢⎣ ( )( ) ⎥
u12 + v12 + w12 u22 + v22 + w22 ⎥
⎦

where (for [001]) u1 = 0, v1 = 0, w1 = 1, and (for [1 01] ) u2 = –1, v2 = 0, w2 = 1. Therefore, l is equal to

⎡ ⎤
⎢ (0)(−1) + (0)(0) + (1)(1) ⎥
λ= cos−1 ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎡(0)2 + (0)2 + (1)2 ⎤ ⎡(−1)2 + (0)2 + (1)2 ⎤ ⎥
⎣ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎦

⎛ 1 ⎞
= cos−1 ⎜ ⎟ = 45°
⎝ 2⎠

Furthermore, f is the angle between the tensile axis—the [001] direction—and the normal to the slip
plane—i.e., the (111) plane; for this case this normal is along a [111] direction. Therefore, again using Equation 7.6
 ⎡ ⎤
⎢ (0)(1) + (0)(1) + (1)(1) ⎥
φ = cos−1 ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎡(0)2 + (0)2 + (1)2 ⎤ ⎡(1)2 + (1)2 + (1)2 ⎤ ⎥
⎣ ⎣ ⎦⎣ ⎦⎦

⎛ 1 ⎞
= cos−1 ⎜ ⎟ = 54.7°
⎝ 3⎠

And, finally, using Equation 7.4, the critical resolved shear stress is equal to

τ crss = σ y (cos φ cos λ )

= (13.9 MPa) ⎡⎣cos(54.7°)cos(45°) ⎤⎦

⎛ 1 ⎞⎛ 1 ⎞
= (13.9 MPa) ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ = 5.68 MPa
⎝ 3⎠⎝ 2⎠
 7.9 (a) A single crystal of a metal that has the BCC crystal structure is oriented such that a tensile stress is
applied in the [100] direction. If the magnitude of this stress is 4.0 MPa, compute the resolved shear stress in the
[111] direction on each of the (110), (011), and (101) planes.
(b) On the basis of these resolved shear stress values, which slip system(s) is (are) most favorably
oriented?

Solution

In order to solve this problem, it is necessary to employ Equation 7.2, which means that we first need to
solve for the for angles l and f for the three slip systems.
For each of these three slip systems, the l will be the same—i.e., the angle between the direction of the
applied stress, [100] and the slip direction, [1 11] . This angle l may be determined using Equation 7.6

⎡ ⎤
u1u2 + v1v2 + w1w2
λ = cos−1 ⎢⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ ( 2 2 2
)(
2 2 2 ⎥
u1 + v1 + w1 u2 + v2 + w2 ⎥
⎦ )
where (for [100]) u1 = 1, v1 = 0, w1 = 0, and (for [1 11] ) u2 = 1, v2 = –1, w2 = 1. Therefore, l is determined as

⎡ ⎤
⎢ (1)(1) + (0)( − 1) + (0)(1) ⎥
λ= cos−1 ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎡(1)2 + (0)2 + (0)2 ⎤ ⎡(1)2 + (−1)2 + (1)2 ⎤ ⎥
⎣ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎦

⎛ 1 ⎞
= cos−1 ⎜ ⎟ = 54.7°
⎝ 3⎠

Let us now determine f for the angle between the direction of the applied tensile stress—i.e., the [100] direction—
and the normal to the (110) slip plane—i.e., the [110] direction. Again, using Equation 7.6 where u1 = 1, v1 = 0, w1
= 0 (for [100]), and u2 = 1, v2 = 1, w2 = 0 (for [110]), f is equal to

⎡ ⎤
⎢ (1)(1) + (0)(1) + (0)(0) ⎥
φ[100]−[110] = cos−1 ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎡(1)2 + (0)2 + (0)2 ⎤ ⎡(1)2 + (1)2 + (0)2 ⎤ ⎥
⎣ ⎣ ⎦⎣ ⎦⎦

⎛ 1 ⎞
= cos−1 ⎜ ⎟ = 45°
⎝ 2⎠

Now, using Equation 7.2

 τ R = σ cosφ cos λ

we solve for the resolved shear stress for this slip system as

τ R (110) − [111] = (4.0 MPa) ⎡⎣cos(45°)cos(54.7°) ⎤⎦ = (4.0 MPa)(0.707)(0.578) = 1.63 MPa

Now, we must determine the value of f for the (011)– [1 11] slip system—that is, the angle between the

direction of the applied stress, [100], and the normal to the (011) plane—i.e., the [011] direction. Again, using
Equation 7.6

⎡ ⎤
⎢ (1)(0) + (0)(1) + (0)(1) ⎥
λ[100]−[011] = cos−1 ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎡(1) + (0) + (0) ⎤ ⎡(0) + (1) + (1) ⎤ ⎥
2 2 2 2 2 2
⎣ ⎣ ⎦⎣ ⎦⎦

= cos−1 (0) = 90°

Thus, the resolved shear stress for this (011)– [111] slip system is

τ R (011) − [111] = = (4.0 MPa) ⎡⎣cos(90°)cos(54.7°) ⎤⎦ = (4.0 MPa)(0)(0.578) = 0 MPa

And, finally, it is necessary to determine the value of f for the (101) – [111] slip system—that is, the angle
between the direction of the applied stress, [100], and the normal to the (101) plane—i.e., the [101] direction.
Again, using Equation 7.6

⎡ ⎤
⎢ (1)(1) + (0)(0) + (0)(−1) ⎥
λ[100]-[101] = cos−1 ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎡(1)2 + (0)2 + (0)2 ⎤ ⎡(1)2 + (0)2 + (−1)2 ⎤ ⎥
⎣ ⎣ ⎦⎣ ⎦⎦

⎛ 1 ⎞
= cos−1 ⎜ ⎟ = 45°
⎝ 2⎠

Here, as with the (110)– [111] slip system above, the value of f is 45°, which again leads to

τ R (101) − [111] = (4.0 MPa) ⎡⎣cos(45°)cos(54.7°) ⎤⎦ = (4.0 MPa)(0.707)(0.578) = 1.63 MPa

(b) The most favored slip system(s) is (are) the one(s) that has (have) the largest tR value. Both (110)–
[111] and (101) − [111] slip systems are most favored since they have the same tR (1.63 MPa), which is greater
than the tR value for (011) − [111] (viz., 0 MPa)
 7.10 Consider a single crystal of some hypothetical metal that has the FCC crystal structure and is
oriented such that a tensile stress is applied along a [112] direction. If slip occurs on a (111) plane and in a [011]

direction, and the crystal yields at a stress of 5.12 MPa compute the critical resolved shear stress.

Solution

To solve this problem, we use Equation 7.4; however, it is first necessary to determine the values of f and
l. These determinations are possible using Equation 7.6. Now, l is the angle between [112] and [011] directions.
Therefore, relative to Equation 7.6 let us take u1 = 1, v1 = 1, and w1 = 2, as well as u2 = 0, v2 = 1, and w2 = 1. This

leads to

⎡ ⎤
u1u2 + v1v2 + w1w2
λ = cos−1 ⎢⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ ( 2 2 2
)(
2 2 2 ⎥
u1 + v1 + w1 u2 + v2 + w2 ⎥
⎦ )
⎧ ⎫
⎪ (1)(0) + (1)(1) + (2)(1) ⎪
= cos−1 ⎨ ⎬
⎪ ⎡(1)2 + (1)2 + (2)2 ⎤ ⎡(0)2 + (1)2 + (1)2 ⎤ ⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎣ ⎦⎭

⎛ 3 ⎞
= cos−1 ⎜ ⎟ = 30°
⎝ 12 ⎠

Now for the determination of f, the normal to the (111) slip plane is the [111] direction. Again, using Equation 7.6,
where we now take u1 = 1, v1 = 1, w1 = 2 (for [112] ), and u2 = 1, v2 = 1, w2 = 1 (for [111]). Thus,

⎧ ⎫
⎪ (1)(1) + (1)(1) + (2)(1) ⎪
φ= cos−1 ⎨ ⎬
⎪ ⎡(1)2 + (1)2 + (2)2 ⎤ ⎡(1)2 + (1)2 + (1)2 ⎤ ⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎣ ⎦⎭

⎛ 4 ⎞
= cos−1 ⎜ ⎟ = 19.5°
⎝ 18 ⎠

It is now possible to compute the critical resolved shear stress (using Equation 7.4) as

τ crss = σ y (cosφ cos λ )

⎛ 4 ⎞⎛ 3 ⎞
= (5.12 MPa) ⎜ = 4.18 MPa
⎝ 18 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 12 ⎟⎠
Strengthening by Grain Size Reduction

7.11 Briefly explain why small-angle grain boundaries are not as effective in interfering with the slip
process as are high-angle grain boundaries.

Solution

Small-angle grain boundaries are not as effective in interfering with the slip process as are high-angle grain
boundaries because there is not as much crystallographic misalignment in the grain boundary region for small-angle,
and therefore not as much change in slip direction.
 7.12 Briefly explain why HCP metals are typically more brittle than FCC and BCC metals.

Solution

Hexagonal close packed metals are typically more brittle than FCC and BCC metals because there are
fewer slip systems in HCP.
 7.13 (a) From the plot of yield strength versus (grain diameter)–1/2 for a 70 Cu–30 Zn cartridge brass in
Figure 7.15, determine values for the constants σ0 and ky in Equation 7.7.
(b) Now predict the yield strength of this alloy when the average grain diameter is 2.0 × 10–3 mm.

Solution

(a) Perhaps the easiest way to solve for s0 and ky in Equation 7.7 is to pick two values each of sy and d-1/2

from Figure 7.15, and then solve two simultaneous equations, which may be set up. For example

d-1/2 (mm)-1/2 sy (MPa)

4 75
12 175

Since Equation 7.7 is of the form

σ y = σ 0 + k y d −1/2

the two equations are as follows:

75 = σ 0 + 4 k y

175 = σ 0 + 12k y

Simultaneous solution of these equations yields the values of

k y = 12.5 MPa(mm)1/2

s0 = 25 MPa

(b) When d = 2.0 ´ 10-3 mm, d-1/2 = 22.4 mm-1/2, and, using Equation 7.7,

σ y = σ 0 + k y d −1/2

⎡ 1/2 ⎤
= (25 MPa) + ⎢12.5 MPa(mm) ⎥ (22.4 mm −1/2 ) = 305 MPa
⎣ ⎦
 7.14 If it is assumed that the plot in Figure 7.15 is for non-cold-worked brass, determine the grain size of
the alloy in Figure 7.19; assume its composition is the same as the alloy in Figure 7.15.

Solution

From Figure 7.19a, the yield strength of brass at 0%CW is approximately 175 MPa. This yield strength
from Figure 7.15 corresponds to a d-1/2 value of approximately 12.0 (mm) -1/2. Thus,

1
d= = 6.94 × 10−3 mm
2
⎡12.0 (mm)−1/2 ⎤
⎣ ⎦
Strain Hardening

7.15 Two previously undeformed cylindrical specimens of an alloy are to be strain hardened by reducing
their cross-sectional areas (while maintaining their circular cross sections). For one specimen, the initial and
deformed radii are 15 and 12 mm, respectively. The second specimen, with an initial radius of 11 mm, must have the
same deformed hardness as the first specimen; compute the second specimen’s radius after deformation.

Solution

In order for these two cylindrical specimens to have the same deformed hardness, they must be deformed to
the same percent cold work. For the first specimen

⎛ A − Ad ⎞ ⎛ π r2 − π r2 ⎞
%CW = ⎜ 0 ⎟ × 100 = ⎜ 0 d
⎟ × 100
⎝ A0 ⎠ ⎝ π r0
2
⎠

in which r0 and rd denote the original and deformed specimen radii, respectively. Substitution of the values for

these two parameters provided in the problem statement leads to the following:

⎛ π r2 − π r2 ⎞ π (15 mm)2 − π (15 mm)2

%CW = ⎜ 0 d
⎟ × 100 = × 100 = 36%CW
⎝ π r02 ⎠ π (15 mm)2

For the second specimen, the deformed radius is computed using the above equation for %CW and solving for rd as

%CW
rd = r0 1 −
100

And insertion of the value of %CW determined above (i.e., 36%CW) and the r0 (11 mm) for the second specimen

leads to

36%CW
rd = (11 mm) 1 − = 8.80 mm
100
 7.16 A cylindrical specimen of cold-worked copper has a ductility (%EL) of 15%. If its cold-worked radius
is 6.4 mm, what was its radius before deformation?

Solution

This problem calls for us to calculate the precold-worked radius of a cylindrical specimen of copper that
has a cold-worked ductility of 15%EL. From Figure 7.19c, copper that has a ductility of 15%EL will have
experienced a deformation of about 20%CW. For a cylindrical specimen, Equation 7.8 becomes

⎛ π r2 − π r2 ⎞
%CW = ⎜ 0 d
⎟ × 100
⎝ π r 20 ⎠

Since rd = 6.4 mm, solving for r0 yields

rd 6.4 mm
r0 = = = 7.2 mm
%CW 20.0
1− 1−
100 100
 7.17 (a) What is the approximate ductility (%EL) of a brass that has a yield strength of 345 MPa?
(b) What is the approximate Brinell hardness of a 1040 steel having a yield strength of 620 MPa?

Solution

In order to solve this part of the problem, it is necessary to consult Figures 7.19a and 7.19c. From Figure
7.19a, a yield strength of 345 MPa for brass corresponds to 20%CW. A brass that has been cold-worked 20% will
have a ductility of about 24%EL (Figure 7.19c).
(b) This portion of the problem asks for the Brinell hardness of a 1040 steel having a yield strength of 620
MPa. From Figure 7.19a, a yield strength of 620 MPa for a 1040 steel corresponds to about 5%CW. A 1040 steel
that has been cold worked 5% will have a tensile strength of about 750 MPa (Figure 7.19b). Finally, using Equation
6.20a

TS(MPa) 750 MPa

HB = = = 217
3.45 3.45
Recovery
Recrystallization
Grain Growth
7.18 Explain the differences in grain structure for a metal that has been cold worked and one that has been
cold worked and then recrystallized.

Solution

During cold-working, the grain structure of the metal has been distorted to accommodate the deformation.
Recrystallization produces grains that are equiaxed and smaller than the parent grains.
 7.19 (a) What is the driving force for recrystallization?
(b) What is the driving force for grain growth?

Solution

(a) The driving force for recrystallization is the difference in internal energy between the strained and
unstrained material.
(b) The driving force for grain growth is the reduction in grain boundary energy as the total grain boundary
area decreases.
 7.20 Consider a hypothetical material that has a grain diameter of 2.1 ´ 10-2 mm. After a heat treatment

at 600°C for 3 h, the grain diameter has increased to 7.2 ´ 10-2 mm. Compute the grain diameter when a specimen

of this same original material (i.e., d0 = 2.1 ´ 10-2 mm) is heated for 1.7 h at 600°C. Assume the n grain diameter

exponent has a value of 2.

Solution

To solve this problem requires that we use Equation 7.9 with n = 2. It is first necessary to solve for the
parameter K in this equation, using values given in the problem statement of d0 (2.1 ´ 10-2 mm) and the grain

diameter after the 3-h heat treatment (7.2 ´ 10-2 mm). The computation for K using a rearranged form of Equation
7.9 in which K becomes the dependent parameter is as follows:

d 2 − d02
K=
t

(7.2 × 10−2 mm)2 − (2.1 × 10−2 mm)2

=
3h

= 1.58 × 10−3 mm2 /h

It is now possible to solve for the value of d after a heat treatment of 1.7 h using a rearranged form of Equation 7.9:

d = d02 + Kt

= (2.1 × 10−2 mm)2 + (1.58 × 10−3 mm2 /h)(1.7 h)

= 5.59 × 10−2 mm
 7.21 The average grain diameter for a brass material was measured as a function of time at 650°C, which
is shown in the following table at two different times:

Time (min) Grain Diameter (mm)

40 5.6 × 10–2
100 8.0 × 10–2

(a) What was the original grain diameter?

(b) What grain diameter would you predict after 200 min at 650°C?

Solution

(a) Using the data given and Equation 7.9 (taking n = 2)—that is

d 2 − d02 = Kt

we may set up two simultaneous equations with d0 and K as unknowns, as follows:

(5.6 × 10−2 mm)2 − d02 = (40 min) K

(8.0 × 10−2 mm)2 − d02 = (100 min) K

Solution of these expressions yields a value for d0, the original grain diameter, of

d0 = 0.031 mm,

and a value for K of

K = 5.44 × 10−5 mm2 /min

(b) At 200 min, the diameter d is computed using a rearranged form of Equation 7.9 (incorporating values
of d0 and K that were just determined) as follows:

d= d02 + Kt

= (0.031 mm)2 + (5.44 × 10−5 mm2 /min) (200 min)

= 0.109 mm
 7.22 Grain growth is strongly dependent on temperature (i.e., rate of grain growth increases with
increasing temperature), yet temperature is not explicitly included in Equation 7.9.
(a) Into which of the parameters in this expression would you expect temperature to be included?
(b) On the basis of your intuition, cite an explicit expression for this temperature dependence.

Solution

(a) The temperature dependence of grain growth is incorporated into the constant K in Equation 7.9.
(b) The explicit expression for this temperature dependence is of the form

⎛ Q ⎞
K = K0 exp ⎜ −
⎝ RT ⎟⎠

in which K0 is a temperature-independent constant, the parameter Q is an activation energy, and R and T are the gas

constant and absolute temperature, respectively.

 7.23 The following yield strength, grain diameter, and heat treatment time (for grain growth) data were
gathered for an iron specimen that was heat treated at 800°C. Using these data compute the yield strength of a
specimen that was heated at 800°C for 3 h. Assume a value of 2 for n, the grain diameter exponent.

Grain diameter (mm) Yield Strength (MPa) Heat Treating Time (h)
0.028 300 10
0.010 385 1

Solution

This problem is solved using the following steps:

1. From data given in the problem statement, determine values of d0 and K in Equation 7.9.

2. Using these data, compute the value of d after the heat treatment (800°C for 3 h).
3. From data provided in the problem statement, determine values of s0 and ky in Equation 7.7.

4. Calculate the value of sy using Equation 7.7 incorporating the d value determined in step 2.

Step 1
Using grain diameter-heat treating time data provided in the problem statement, we set up two
simultaneous expressions of Equation 7.9—i.e.,

d 2 − d02 = Kt

as follows:

(0.028 mm)2 − d02 = K(10 h)

(0.010 mm)2 − d02 = K(1 h)

From these expressions it is possible to solve for values of d0 and K:

d0 = 0.0049 mm

K = 7.60 ´ 10-5 mm2/h

Step 2
We now compute the grain size d after the three-hour heat treatment using a rearranged form of Equation
7.9 and the above values for d0 and K as follows:

d = Kt + d02
 = (7.60 × 10−5 mm2 /h)(3 h) + (0.0049 mm)2

= 0.0159 mm

Step 3
Using grain diameter-yield strength data provided in the problem statement, we set up two simultaneous
expressions of Equation 7.7—i.e.,

σ y = σ 0 + k y d −1/2

as follows:

300 MPa = σ 0 + k y (0.028 mm)−1/2

385 MPa = σ 0 + k y (0.010 mm)−1/2

from which we determine values for ky and s0; these values are as follows:

ky = 21.25 MPa-mm1/2

s0 = 172.5 MPa

Step 4
Finally, it is possible to calculate the value of sy using Equation 7.7 incorporating the d value determined

in step 2. Thus,

σ y = σ 0 + k y d −1/2

= 172.5 MPa + (21.25 MPa-mm1/2 )(0.0159 mm)−1/2

= 341 MPa
DESIGN PROBLEMS
Strain Hardening
Recrystallization

7.D1 Determine whether it is possible to cold work steel so as to give a minimum Brinell hardness of 240
and at the same time have a ductility of at least 15%EL. Justify your answer.

Solution

This problem calls for us to determine whether it is possible to cold work steel so as to give a minimum
Brinell hardness of 240 and a ductility of at least 15%EL. According to Figure 6.19, a Brinell hardness of 240
corresponds to a tensile strength of 800 MPa. Furthermore, from Figure 7.19b, in order to achieve a tensile strength
of 800 MPa, deformation of at least 13%CW is necessary. Finally, if we cold-work the steel to 13%CW, then the
ductility is 15%EL from Figure 7.19c. Therefore, it is possible to meet both of these criteria by plastically
deforming the steel.
 7.D2 A cylindrical specimen of cold-worked steel has a Brinell hardness of 240.
(a) Estimate its ductility in percent elongation.
(b) If the specimen remained cylindrical during deformation and its original radius was 10 mm, determine
its radius after deformation.

Solution

(a) For this portion of the problem we are to determine the ductility of cold-worked steel that has a Brinell
hardness of 240. From Figure 6.19, for steel, a Brinell hardness of 240 corresponds to a tensile strength of 800 MPa,
which, from Figure 7.19b, requires a deformation of 12.5%CW. Furthermore, 12.5%CW yields a ductility of about
15%EL for steel, Figure 7.19c.
(b) We are now asked to determine the radius after deformation if the non-cold-worked radius is 10 mm.
From Equation 7.8 and for a cylindrical specimen

⎛ A − Ad ⎞
%CW = ⎜ 0 ⎟ × 100
⎝ A0 ⎠

⎡ π r2 − π r 2 ⎤
=⎢ 0 d ⎥ × 100
⎢⎣ π r02 ⎥⎦

Now, solving for rd from this expression, we get

%CW
rd = r0 1 −
100

And, finally, for 15%CW

15%CW
rd = (10 mm) 1 − = 9.22 mm
100
 7.D3 A cylindrical rod of 1040 steel originally 11.4 mm in diameter is to be cold worked by drawing; the
circular cross section will be maintained during deformation. A cold-worked tensile strength in excess of 825 MPa
and a ductility of at least 12%EL are desired. Furthermore, the final diameter must be 8.9 mm. Explain how this
may be accomplished.

Solution

This problem calls for us to explain the procedure by which a cylindrical rod of 1040 steel may be
deformed so as to produce a given final diameter (8.9 mm), as well as a specific minimum tensile strength (825
MPa) and minimum ductility (12%EL). First let us calculate the percent cold work and attendant tensile strength
and ductility if the drawing is carried out without interruption. From Equation 7.8, for a cylindrical specimen having
original and deformed diameters of 11.4 mm and 8.9 mm, respectively,

⎛ A − Ad ⎞
%CW = ⎜ 0 ⎟ × 100
⎝ A0 ⎠

2 2
⎛d ⎞ ⎛d ⎞
π⎜ 0⎟ − π⎜ d⎟
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
= × 100
2
⎛d ⎞
π⎜ 0⎟
⎝ 2⎠

2 2
⎛ 11.4 mm ⎞ ⎛ 8.9 mm ⎞
π⎜ ⎟ −π⎜
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
= × 100 = 40%CW
2
⎛ 11.4 mm ⎞
π⎜ ⎟⎠
⎝ 2

At 40%CW, the steel will have a tensile strength on the order of 900 MPa (Figure 7.19b), which is adequate;
however, the ductility will be less than 9%EL (Figure 7.19c), which is insufficient.
Instead of performing the drawing in a single operation, let us initially draw some fraction of the total
deformation, then anneal to recrystallize, and, finally, cold-work the material a second time in order to achieve the
final diameter, tensile strength, and ductility.
Reference to Figure 7.19b indicates that 17%CW is necessary to yield a tensile strength of 825 MPa.
Similarly, a maximum of 24%CW is possible for 12%EL (Figure 7.19c). The average of these extremes is
20.5%CW. If the final diameter after the first drawing is d0′ , then, from Equation 7.8
 2 2
⎛ d′ ⎞ ⎛ 8.9 mm ⎞
π⎜ 0 ⎟ − π⎜
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
20.5%CW = × 100
2
⎛ d′ ⎞
π⎜ 0 ⎟
⎝ 2⎠

And, solving for d0′ , yields

8.9 mm
d0′ =
20.5%CW
1 −
100

= 9.98 mm
 7.D4 Consider the brass alloy discussed in Problem 7.21. Given the following yield strengths for the two
specimens, compute the heat treatment time required at 650°C to give a yield strength of 90 MPa. Assume a value
of 2 for n, the grain diameter exponent.

Time (min) Yield Strength (MPa)

40 80
100 70

Solution

This problem is solved using the following steps:

1. From data provided in the problem statement and Problem 7.21, determine values of s0 and ky in Equation 7.7.

2. Calculate the value of d that is required for to give a yield strength of 90 MPa using these values and Equation
7.7.
3. From data given in Problem 7.21, determine values of d0 and K in Equation 7.9.
4. Calculate the heat-treating time required to give the d value determined in step 2, using Equation 7.9.

Step 1
Using grain diameter-yield strength data provided in the problem statement and Problem 7.21, we set up
two simultaneous expressions of Equation 7.7—i.e.,

σ y = σ 0 + k y d −1/2

as follows:
80 MPa = σ 0 + k y (0.056 mm)−1/2

70 MPa = σ 0 + k y (0.080 mm)−1/2

From these expressions it is possible to solve for values of s0 and ky:

ky = 14.49 MPa-mm1/2

s0 = 18.75 MPa

Step 2
We now compute the grain size d required to give a yield strength of 90 MPa using a rearranged from of
Equation 7.7 and the above values of s0 and ky as follows:
 2
⎛ ky ⎞
d=⎜ ⎟
⎝ σ y −σ0 ⎠

2
⎛ 14.49 MPa-mm1/2 ⎞
=⎜ ⎟
⎝ 90 MPa − 18.75 MPa ⎠

= 0.041 mm

Step 3
Using grain diameter-heat treating time data provided in Problem 7.41, we set up two simultaneous expressions of
Equation 7.9—i.e.,

d 2 − d02 = Kt

as follows:

(0.056 mm)2 − d02 = K(40 min)

(0.080 mm)2 − d02 = K(100 min)

From which we determine values for d0 and K as follows:

d0 = 0.031 mm

K = 5.44 ´ 10-5 mm2/min

Step 4
And finally, we calculate the heat-treating time t required to give the d value determined in step 2 (0.041
mm), using a rearranged form of Equation 7.9:

d 2 − d02
t=
K

(0.041 mm)2 − (0.031 mm)2

=
5.44 × 10−5 mm2 /min

= 13.2 min