EE413
Sensors and Transducers
Module I
Lecture 8
2 Electrostatic Transducers
Capacitive transducers with bilateral characteristics, used with DC polarization
Capacitor formed with a rigid plate 𝑝1 and a flexible diaphragm which can move due to
applied force
Bias voltage 𝑉𝑠 is sufficiently large
As transducer: Gap x between the plates changes due to pressure (electrostatic
microphone), resulting in a change in electric potential
Electrical circuit representation: Resistance R with a capacitance C varying sinusoidally
results in a sinusoidal current i to flow in the circuit, output voltage Vo is measured across R.
3 Electrostatic Transducers
Generating action: Sinusoidal input voltage is applied along with
the bias voltage 𝑉𝑠 between the two plates → an electrostatic force
would develop between these them → diaphragm undergoes
electrostatic vibration; the existence of an electrostatic force
attracts them towards each other
4 Piezoelectric Transducers
Piezoelectric effect: When certain solid materials are
deformed, they generate electric charge (electric
polarization due to mechanical strain in crystals)
Effect is reversible i.e., if a varying potential is applied to the
proper axis of the crystal, it will change the dimensions of the
crystals, thereby deforming it.
Crystals due to their natural asymmetric structure exhibit
piezoelectric property. Effects are dependent on direction.
5 Piezoelectric Transducers
Materials: Natural (Rochelle salt, quartz), Synthetic (Lithium sulphate, ammonium
dihydrogen phosphate, ethylene diamine tartarate), polarized ferroelectric
ceramics (barium titanate), etc.
Ferroelectric ceramics are artificially polarized by applying strong magnetic field
to the material while it is heated beyond Curie temperature and then slowly
cooling in presence of the field. Upon removal of the external field, remnant
polarization is retained, and it exhibits piezoelectric property.
Quartz is a highly stable crystal which is naturally available, but it has small
output levels. Slowly varying parameters can be measured with quartz. Need
amplifier circuit for accurate measurement.
Reverse piezoelectric effect i.e., electrical to mechanical conversion is used in
sonar systems, ultrasonic non-destructive test equipment, ultrasonic flowmeters,
etc.
6 Piezoelectric Transducers
The piezoelectric effect can be made to respond to or cause mechanical
deformations of the material in various modes: thickness expansion, transverse
or length expansion, thickness shear and face shear.
Mechanical deformation generates charge which appears as a voltage across
electrodes.
Piezoelectric effect is direction sensitive. A tensile force will produce voltage of
one polarity and compressive force will produce voltage of opposite polarity.
7 Piezoelectric Transducers
A piezoelectric crystal is represented by three cartesian co-ordinates such
that the polarization is represented in vector form
𝑷 = 𝑃𝑥𝑥 + 𝑃𝑦𝑦 + 𝑃𝑧𝑧
𝑃𝑥𝑥 , 𝑃𝑦𝑦 , 𝑃𝑧𝑧 are related to axial (𝜎) and shear stress (𝜒)
𝜎𝑥𝑥
𝜎𝑦𝑦
𝑃𝑥𝑥 𝑑11 𝑑12 𝑑13 𝑑14 𝑑15 𝑑16 𝜎𝑧𝑧
𝑃𝑦𝑦 = 𝑑21 𝑑22 𝑑23 𝑑24 𝑑25 𝑑26 𝜒𝑦𝑧
𝑃𝑧𝑧 𝑑31 𝑑32 𝑑33 𝑑34 𝑑35 𝑑36 𝜒𝑧𝑥
𝜒𝑥𝑦
8 Piezoelectric Transducers
d constants (Charge sensitivity of the crystal)(𝑑𝑖𝑗 )
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖 𝑄𝑖
𝑑𝑖𝑗 = = ; C/N
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑗 𝑓𝑗
Reverse effect d coefficients are defined as
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖 𝜀𝑖
𝑑𝑖𝑗 = = ; (N/m)/(V/m)
𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑗 𝐸𝑗
g coefficient: Voltage gradient or field in the crystal per unit pressure
imparted to it (Voltage sensitivity of the crystal)
𝑄𝑖 𝑑𝑖𝑗
𝑔𝑖𝑗 = =
𝜀𝑑 𝑓𝑗 𝜀𝑑
9 Piezoelectric Transducers
Magnitude and polarity of the induced surface charges are proportional to the
magnitude and direction of the applied force F.
Charge, 𝑸 = 𝒅 𝑭 coulomb
where, d = Charge sensitivity of the crystal; C/N, F = Applied force; N
𝑭
𝑭𝒕
Young’s modulus, Y = Stress/Strain = 𝑨
𝚫𝒕 = 𝑨𝚫𝒕; N/m2
𝒕
Force causes a change in thickness of the crystal.
𝑭 = 𝑨𝒀𝚫𝒕/𝒕; N
where, A = area of crystal; m2, t = thickness of crystal; m, Y = Young’s modulus; N/m2
𝑨 = 𝒘𝒍
where, w = width of crystal; m, l = length of crystal; m.
𝚫𝒕
𝑸 = 𝒅𝑨𝑬
𝒕
10 Piezoelectric Transducers
𝜺𝟎 𝜺𝒓 𝑨
Capacitance between electrodes, 𝑪𝒑 = ; F
𝒕
This charge gives rise to an output voltage, E0.
𝑸 𝒅𝑭 𝒅𝑷 𝒅𝒕𝑷
𝑬𝟎 = = =𝜺 𝜺 = = 𝒈𝒕𝑷
𝑪𝒑 𝜺𝟎𝜺𝒓𝑨 𝟎 𝒓 𝜺𝟎𝜺𝒓
𝒕 𝒕
where, Pressure or stress, P = F/A; N/m2, g = Voltage sensitivity of the crystal = d/ε0εr;
Vm/N. This is constant for a given crystal cut.
𝑬𝟎
𝑬𝟎
𝒈 = = 𝒕
𝒕𝑷 𝑷
E0/t = electric field strength; V/m
g = electric field/stress
𝑬𝟎
g33 = (Field produced in direction 3)/(Stress applied in direction 3) = 𝒕
𝑭
𝑨
11 Piezoelectric Transducers
Major properties of a piezoelectric crystal are the ‘g’ constants and ‘d’
constants with subscripts. The first subscript refers to the direction of
electrical effect and the 2nd to the mechanical effect.
𝑭
Voltage output, 𝑬𝟎 = 𝒈𝟑𝟑 𝒕 = 𝒈𝟑𝟑𝒕𝑷
𝑨
𝑸
d33 = (Charge generated in direction 3)/(Force applied in direction 3) = =
𝑭
𝜺𝟎𝜺𝒓𝒈𝟑𝟑
While dealing with quartz, subscripts 11 is used because the thickness
expansion mode is along the crystallographic axis, conventionally called
axis 1.
12 Piezoelectric Transducers
h coefficient: Voltage gradient per unit strain
𝑔𝑖𝑗 = 𝑌ℎ𝑖𝑗
Y: Young’s modulus of the material
Crystals are characterized by coupling coefficient (𝐾𝑖𝑗 ) i.e., measure
of efficiency of the crystal as energy converter
𝐾𝑖𝑗 = 𝑑𝑖𝑗 ℎ𝑖𝑗
13 Piezoelectric Transducers
Magnitude and polarity of the induced surface charges are
proportional to the magnitude and direction of the applied force F.
Quartz sensor of thickness 𝒕 = 𝒍𝒙 is obtained by cutting perpendicular to
its x-axis, two faces having same area 𝜶 = 𝒍𝒚 𝒍𝒛 and perpendicular to the
axis are metallized
Force applied along the x-direction = 𝒇𝒙
Charge generated, 𝑸𝒙 = 𝒅𝟏𝟏 𝒇𝒙 ; coulomb
𝜺𝒅 𝜶 𝜺𝒅 𝒍𝒚 𝒍𝒛
Capacitance between electrodes, 𝑪𝒙 = = ;F
𝒕 𝒍𝒙
𝑸𝒙 𝒅𝟏𝟏 𝒇𝒙 𝒍𝒙
Voltage generated, 𝑽𝒙 = =
𝑪𝒙 𝜺𝒅 𝒍𝒚 𝒍𝒛
14 Piezoelectric Transducers
Charge on plates perpendicular to the x-direction due to force 𝑓𝑦 in the y-
direction
𝒍𝒚
𝑸𝒙 = 𝒅𝟏𝟐 𝒇
𝒍𝒙 𝒚
All d coefficients of a quartz are not non-zero finite values
𝒅𝟏𝟏 −𝒅𝟏𝟏 𝟎 𝒅𝟏𝟒 𝟎 𝟎
𝒅 = 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 −𝒅𝟏𝟒 −𝟐𝒅𝟏𝟏
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝒍𝒚
𝑸𝒙 = −𝒅𝟏𝟏 𝒇
𝒍𝒙 𝒚
𝒅𝟏𝟏 𝒇𝒚
𝑽𝒙 = −
𝜺𝒅 𝒍𝒛
