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202 views14 pagesPhysics Practical
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/ 14
HIMACHAL PRADESH UNIVERSITY
B.Sc, PART-II
Name of the Course PHYSICS : DSE1A LAB : ELEMENTS OF MODERN PHYSIC
(Credits : 02)
Code PHYS301PR
Yearly Based Examination 20 marks (3 Hrs)
Distribution of Marks : Experiment = 8 marks, Written/Skills= 4 marks, Viva Voce = 4 marks
Practical Record Book = 4 marks
{PRACTICALS LAB-DSE1A1
60 Lectures P 4
Ito deteriide value of Boltamann constant using V-IchatdCteristic of PN diode.
2. ‘Todetermine work function of material of filament of directly heated vacuum diode.
Todetermine value of Planck’s constant using LEDs of at least 4 different colours.7
AB fomenn the ionization potential of mereury,”
5. Todetermine the wavelength of H-alpha se of Hydrogen atom.
6, Todetermine the adsorption lines in the rotational spectrum of iodine vapour.
@ To study the diffraction patterns of single and double slits using laser source and
measure its intensity variation using Photosensor and compare with incoherent
source of Na light.
(raven effect : photo current versus intensity and wavelength “of light;
maxim energy of photo-electrons versus frequency of light. ,
9. Todetermine the value of e/m by magnetic focussing.
10. Tosetup the Millikan oil drop of apparatus and determine the charge of an electron.
er verify the inverse square law by using photovoltaic cell.
‘To measure the DC voltage by using CRO.
® To display the action of junction Diode as (a) Half wave rectifier and (b) Full wave
rectifier using CRO, ~T ;
14. Todetermine e/m by magnetron method or small solenoid method. junction. (A minimum vouuge vs tential barr
Gin a eaedy engine wns ovr ter df tty penal br
are ence gram te Po es move othe git and the electrons the et across to an cle combination
ean dunation is overcome, and the hls’ Prnbine and cease (0 xst as mobile carriers. For eac sleet on ib ated
Fake nines csceuans and holes resent bond near the positive terminal of the battery reals ay aco¥alene bool ne
Pot ae nett aad du ths breaking the ole moves toward i pn wari te
TE rare Ga = cd hole is arrested by negative eran aie
ive terminal of the battery, breaks down anc is a na te extemal CO 8 ites an
nee A ama of this, a large current flows through ie fete ee v orks ‘carrier current flowing in th
is carried t jon indicated in Fig. 1.2. On ,
battery is carried by electrons in the direction in
as, This is because the minority carr
direction opposite to that of the majority carrier current is not affected by the forward bias. This is
current depends only on the temperature.
Gi Reverse biasing
A reverse biased p-n junction with the symbolic representation is shown in Fig. ie
applied to the junction causes the hole in the p-type material and the electrons in
(a) and (b). In this case the voltag,
type material to move away from th
N
oS Pe
o>
oS*
= Ir
(@ ©)
Fig. 1.3
Junction and hence the thickness of depletion layer increases. Due to the increase in the barrier height a negligible number o
majority carriers will be able to cross the junction and the current will be practically zero, But due to thermally generate
electron hole pairs, a small current of few micro amperes still flows. This current is due to minority carriers. If we 80 oF
increasing the reverse bias, the temperature ofthe p-n junction increases and this rise in temperature enhances the minori
carer concentration leading to an increase of the reverse current. The maximum reverse potential difference which a p
iunction can tolerate without breaking is called reverse break down voltage or zener voltage. Is value depends on the density o
impurity atom.
Experiment 1.1 : To determine the value of Boltzmann's constant using a semiconductor diode.
Apparatus. A p-n-junction diode, a DC power-supply (5 volts), a rheostat, a milliammeter (0-20 mA), a voltmeter (0-2
volt with a least count of 0.05 V or preferably a digital voltmeter) and connecting wires.
‘Theory. We know that when a,
diode is said to be forward-biased.
Positive potential is applied to the p-side of a p-n junction diode with Tespect to its n-side, the
If Vis the voltage across the junction, the current through the diode is given by the relatior
Vv
, [ee a 1] li
the reverse saturation current, q isthe electronic charge, k is the Boltzmann constant,
is a numerical constant. For germinium n = 1, and for silicon n = 2.
For a silicon diode at room temperature (I' = 300°K) eqn. (i) becomes,
T=I, [exp (19.3 V) - 1] oli)
Where Vis the voltage across the diode in volts. :
Fora positive voltage of value 0.5 — 1 V, the exponent: varie x ‘41 x 108. So in this voltage
P . " nent : in this
Loe onan ee ‘Ponential term varies from 1.55 x 104 to 2.41 x 108, So in this voltage range
Therefore we can write ;
Tis the absolute temperature
Ts Iexp W
or =logicl,+ 3303 ngE
When we plot logig I versus V we get'5-352-—-- as the slope from which the Boltzmann constant k an be calculated
5 XZ. Died
(@c.
Be ev5 ¥)
‘Supply)
Fig. 1.4
Procedure :
1. First of all connect the circuit shown in Fig. 1.4 such that the p ~ n diode is forward based. Note that a variable de-
supply can also be used in place of the fixed supply and the theostat.
2. Now slowly increase the input voltage in small steps, and note the voltage V across the diode and the current I through it.
Take readings, tll the current is about 20mA.
3. Plot a graph between V along x-axis and logy, I along y — axis.
Observations :
‘Temperature T =... °K
S.No. Voltage,V Current Current I, logy!
(volts) (mA) (in ampere) ;.
i, z
Once eae
3.
Calculations :
‘The graph between V and logo I is a straight line as shown in Fig. 1.5. Calculate its slope (stope wa
Itis to be noted that log 1 are negative values. Therefore the
graph is in the fourth quadrant but the slope remains positive
(Fig. 1.5).
Boltzmann's constant k is calculated using the relation;
2
4 fo 2 Birgioih cs
2.303 nT © slope
Fora silicon diode at 300 K (n = 2)
eo 1159x107
slope
rel
Fig. 1.5 Precautions and Sources of Error =
1
2
3.
4.
5
SEM,
[= + noerw aPPROACH TO PRACTICAL PHYSICS (ELEMENTS OF MODERN PHYSICS) B.Scull, SEM. V (Kpy
Result : The experimentally determined value of Boltzmann's constant
JK E
Standard value 1.38 x 103 JK-!
%Eror = i
de is made positive w.r.t, the n-side. iM
It should be ensured that p
Tnerease the supply voltage slowly from zero.
‘Take care that the input voltage does not increase excessively above the safe valuc.
‘The room temperature T should be noted down in Kelvin, :
It should be noted that in eq, (i) the value of n= 1 for germanium diode and 2 for silicon diode.
Note : We can determine the reverse saturation current I, at room temperature as the y-intercept in Fig. 1.5 gives log al,
‘from which I, can be found,
nVivaVocen
Q.1. Whatis a p-n junction diode ? :
Ans. A p-n junction diode consists of two wafers of p-type and n-type germanium (or silicon) joined together. It may either
be grown or fused.
Q.2. What do you mean by a p-type and n-type germanium (or silicon) ? /
Ans. When Ge (or Si) is doped with trivalent impurity i.e. element of 3rd group of periodic table like In or Ga, it increases
Ee
the concentration of holes (i.e. positive charge) in the material and the resulting crystal is called p-type semiconductor.
When Ge (or Si) is doped with pentavalent impurity ie. element of Sth group of periodic table like As or Sb, it
increases the concentration of electrons (i.., negative charge) in the material and the resulting crystal is called n-type
semiconductor.
. Explain the flow of current in forward biasing.
In forward biasing, the postive terminal of the battery is connected to p-type semiconductor and negative of the battery
is connected to n-type semiconductor, As a result the holes of p-section and electrons in the n-section move towards the
Junction. Ifthe applied voltage is suficient to overcome the potential barriers in their combining, the two join together
and these cease to exist as mobile charge carriers. For each electron hole pair, a covalent bond in p-region near the
Positive terminal ofthe battery breaks, and an electron is arrested by positive terminal and a hole is created, due to this
breaking the hole moves toward the p-n junction, Similarly in the n-tegion, near the negative terminal of the battery
more electrons arrive to replace the electron lost due to combination with holes. This constant motion of electrons and
holes produces a large current following through the junction.
Q.4. Explain the flow of current in reverse biasing.
es
FS
+ In reverse biasing, the positive terminal of battery is connected to n-type semiconductor and negative of the battery is
Comected to P-type material of the pon junction. As a result, the holes in p-section and electrons in m-seetion wove
away from the junction with the result that the barrier layer is thickened leaving only a few thermally generated
Beyond this limit, called zener level, the voltage across the junction remains constant for a large current change.
What is the order of currents in the above two cases ?
In forward bias, current is in milliamperes and in reverse bias, current is in ‘microamperes.
What is the effect of temperature on the V-I characteristic of p-n junction ?
‘The total current through a junction diode during reverse biasing is given by
wv
Is-I, (eAT -1)
1, is called saturation current,
And for forward biasing,
wv
r= I, ett ‘08
‘SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
Q7.
Qs.
Ans.
Qs.
Q.10.
Ans.
Qu
Ans.
Q12.
The experimental observations made by different workers show that the reverse saturation current increase
approximately 7 per cent per degree celsius for both Ge and Si. It means that it approximately doubles for every 10°C
tise in temperature because (1.07)! = 20.
In the forward direction also current increases with rise in temperature.
What is the order of voltage with it ?
‘The voltage is less than 1V for forward bias.
‘The voltage is up to 6 V in reverse bias.
How does a p-n junction break down ?
‘When large inverse bias is applied the break down of p-n junction takes place due to excessive reverse current flows.
What is this reverse current due to ?
This reverse current is due to the condition of thermally generated electron-hole pair within p and n-type materials
Because some covalent bonds always break down due to normal heat energy of the crystal molecules.
‘What happens if forward bias is made very high ?
If forward bias is made very high the junction will be destroyed due to overheating.
What do you mean by peak inverse voltage (PIV) ?
Itis the reverse voltage that can be applied to the p-n junction without damage to the junction. If the reverse voltag
across the junction exceeds its PIV, the junction may be destroyed due to excessive heat.
What is the importance of PIV ?
When the crystal diode is used as a rectifier i.e. while converting alternating current into direct current care should b
taken that reverse voltage across the diode during negative half cycle of a.c. does not exceed the PIV of diode.
edokejoedededekok eae
i ae
awa MODERN APPROACH TO PRACTICAL PHTaIVS tun . ,
3.4. WORKING OF LED
‘The chip in LED bulb is a p~
and'n regions. When forward voltage is applied to the chip, electrons
between the p and n regions. When an electron crosses the junction, i
sai f electrons bet
i ei arWairier to the flow of el
junction dade, The junction of diode 2 sy one retin across the ja
‘the holes in the p region and re,
energy is converted into electromagnetic
itis attracted to
i ines wit ive hole, electric potential Seon a ds ford af & ne
Every time an electron recombines with a positive hole, ia one ig emitted inthe photog
-hole recombination, a quantum of electromagnetic energy 's ° hotou off
For each such electron-hol q eee oral of the p~ 7 diode ed
with a frequency, which is a characteristics of the semicon«
‘TABLE 3.1 (Suitable Materials For LEDs)
Colour of light emitted
Material a
Aluminium gallium Arsenide (Al GaAs) Red and infrared 8
Gallium Alluminium phosphate (AIGaP) Green
Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP) Red, Orange,
Gallium Nitride (GaN) Green, Blue ; 2
Gallium Phosphide (GaP) Yellow, Green -
Zinc Selenide (ZnSe) Blue
Indium Gallium Nitride (InGaN) Bluish green, Blue
Experiment 3.1 : To determine the value of Planck’s Constant by using light-emitting-diodes (|
Apparatus : Visible LEDs capable of emitting light of different wavelengths, a battery (5 volts), a theostat, a vol
(0 — 3V), a milliammeter, connecting wires, etc. 2
Theory : LEDs are pn-junction diodes madé of materials which have suitable value of the direct band gap (>
electrons which get an extra energy, eV, flow across the junction from n-conduction band to p-conduction band. These ¢
electrons recombine with a hole in that region (or fal to p-valence band) and photons are emitted having an energy appro
equal to the band gap energy. If Vo is the minimum voltage required for the emission of light. then ; f
eV) = Ea thy
‘where Ey isthe energy lost in non-radiative recombination and v is the frequency of the photon emitted. As Eva < h
be neglected.
* Vo = hv :
he i
or eV, ==
pee :
Therefore, ifa minimum voltage V (also called the ‘thershold voltage’ or the ‘tum — on’ Voltage) elven
= given to an
itto glow with light of wavelength A, then a plot of Vp along y-axis and + along x
7 a
he é
“[ From the slope, we can determine the Planck's constant h
Procedure : i ~
1. First of all connect the circuit of Fig. 3.3. A rheostat is used as a Potential-divi ‘across
2. Different LEDs capable of emitting light of different colour can be aie Oe ad
pene ee ‘Deorporated into the circuit one by one by c0!
3. Keep the sliding contact of the rheostat towards the Lend
4, Switch on the power supply and connect N with 1 :
5. Increase the voltage across the diode by slowly movi ids
6. Note down the voltage V across the diode an B Contact towards M,
current I through it, £ UGH Emme UrvuEo (LEU)
Fig. 33
7. Plot the V — I characteristics and note down the turn on voltage Vp by extrapolating the linear portion of the curve as
shown in Fig. 3.4. This is the minimum voltage at which the LED just starts to glow. Note also the colour of the light
emitted. It is to be noted that the turn on voltage V can be found without plotting the I-V curve just by looking at the
diode carefully. But this would cause as it would be difficult to find the voltage V at which LED just begins to glow.
(ma) —>
v7 ‘V (volts) ——>
Fo.34
8. Disconnect I and connect N with 2, 3, 4, 5, one by one and repeat above steps 0 and note down the turn-on voltage Vi
and the colour of light emitted.
9. Find the maximum wavelength (minimum frequency) A of the light emitted by the different LEDs by simply noting the
values from Table .
10. Plot a graph with 1/4 along x — axis and the turn-on voltage Vp along y-axis. It will be a staraight line.
h
LL The slope of the above graph is equal to ra where cis the speed of light and e is the electronic charge. Calculate h
from the slope.
‘TABLE 3.2
Light emitted by LED
Infrared
Red 695
Yellow 590 "
Light green 570
Datk green 505
Blue 472
Violet e 432 | = rover aprronci ro PRACTICAL PHYSICS ELE
‘Observations :
For V-I characteristics
Infrared
Vv 1
(Volt) | (mA)
For’ WA vs. Vo?
Green
Vv 1
(Volt) (mA)
Red
Vv 1 v x
(ort) | may | (Wor) | (ma)
SNo_| Colour of light emitted 2 (am) To) Vo (Volts)
Red 695 1.44 x 106
wnone
Calculations : The slope of the straight line in ‘Vy vs. TA’ graph (Fig. 3.5) is
Vp (Volt) —>
sec
6022 x 10-19 C
.998 x 108 m/s,
‘The experimentally determined value of the Planck’s constant
Actual value of Planck's constant = 6,626 x 10-4 J sec
% Error
Precautions
1. The LEDs should always be connected in forward-bias mode.
2, The current through the LED should not exceed the prescribed limit,
3. The tum on voltage Vq should be noted very carefully.
mliva-Voce,
Q.1. What are the operating voltages for LEDs ?
‘Ans. In the range 0-3 Volts.
Q.2. What happens if an LED is operated in a reverse-bias mode?
Ans. When reverse-biased, LEDs emit no light. In fact. it will Quickly destroy it,
where e
and c
1 (wt) —
.Tsec
Fig. 3.5 “ ss sama pistes) oem eam very
MODERN APPROACH TO PRACTICAL PHYSICS (ELEMENTS Ce ectrons my ced iy
This current dipping to a minimum at 4.9 volts does not reach zero because setpiealy Sevord minimault CUTER OD the
i reaching the collector pate, avoiding an inelastic collision with a mercury atom, ae eco eee ieh withe energy Eb
a i electrons start reaching P after the inelas i inimom. This can
plate, Then as V is further increased, the electrons s A is
i . ACV =9.8 volts, the current ag reury atoms before
‘overcome V. Hence, the plate current again increases. voli the caret agin di tore
lained i is two consecutive inelastic collisions aS av, saceia/ ie
reer pa Suc ay cleo exes bo the mercury atoms fo tee Hirt excied states, losing 49 ¢
reaches the plate. Suc a
a Z ie ainda a d state by the emission
bah de tsi oa RG ean, ha ery ata Wil bo excite nt 1 ne oe 206A
rotons. By using spectroscopic techniques, the wavelength ofthe radiation coming from the We ME TT nr
‘corresponding to transitions from the first excited state to the ground state. Let us see wi is
‘wavelength.
he (6.63 x 107**) (3 x 108)
a 2536 x 10-1
(6.63 x 10-*4) (3 x 108)
~ 19.
(2536 x 107!) (1.6 x 10719) es a
‘Thus, this experiment shows thatthe energy lost by the electron in its inelastic collision with the mercury mn reappe x
a quantum of energy of wavelength hc/E, This experiment shows in a very convincing way the existence of nergy:
levels in the merucury atom. The main drawback of this experiment is that one cannot distinguish between the excitation and
ionisation potentials,
B=
eV =49eV
‘Experiment 4.1 :To measure the ionization potential of mercury vapours using vapour filled diode,
‘Apparatus : A high tension battery or power supply giving d.c. output of 0-30 V, two rheostats or wire potentiometer
to vary potential by potential dividing arrangement, a milliammeter; a voltmeter, flexible wires; Low tension battery of
6.3 V for the filament or heater,
Theory : The process by which the electron is completely removed from the atom is called ionisation. SM
The amount of energy which must be supplied to separate the most easily removable of the electrons is called ionization
energy. When ionization energy is measured in electron volts then it is called [ONIZATIONAL POTENTIAL.
If the incident electron in case of Hg atom has energy more than 10.4 eV than electron of Hg atom is knocked out and does
not remain bound to the nucleus. At this stage gas is said to be ionised.
‘The atom which is robbed of one electron behaves as Positive ion and the elec
The corresponding potential of 10.4 volt required to ionise the Hg
Atomic number of Hg is 80 and its electronic configuration is
1s? 2s? 2p6 35? 3p6 3410 452 4p6 4_l0 552 5p6 5pt4 510 652
‘Thus it has two electrons in the valence shell,
To completely remove the electrons,
mercury.
Procedure :
1. Draw the diagram using an indirectly heated Hg vapour-filled DIODE (with two el
cron behaves as negative ion,
‘atom is called ionization potential of Hg.
energy of 10.38 eV is required, which corresponds to the ionization potential of
ectrodes filament and plate) showing
the scheme of connections with low tension for the file s is a
oe swith low tension forthe filament supply and high tension forthe plate supply as shown in the
-Ar
ai:
Dotter
Tancur hed :
‘ube gH 4
v D.C. Power} 3
. [Supply
oy,
" Fig. 4.3 IONZATION POTENTIAL OF MERCURY, =
‘Also take care that the positive terminals of the milli-ammeter and voltmeter are connected to the positive of the d.c.
ower supply.
21 -Aimly a satabo poremal fro Low tonslon bailey tothe Rlament Swi on tho voltage so that the filament gets
heated up. : :
3. Gradually increase the plate potential by using Rheostat or potentiometer attached to power supply and increase in steps
‘of one volt and go taking the reading of the milliammeter in the circuit. Proceed tll the plate potential is about 15 volts or
there is a lash of light within the valve. DO NOT PROCEED FURTHER.
4, Now draw a graph between the plate voltage and plate current taking the voltage along the X-axis and current along the
Y-axis.
Observations
ote : Any zero error in voltmeter or milliammeter should be removed before proceeding with the readings)
No. Plate voltage (Volts) Plate Current (mA)
Calculations and Results : If a graph is plotted between plate potential and plate
current (for a constant value of filament current) the plae current at first increases slowly
for a given increase in plate voltage and when the plate potential is equal to or greater than
the ionization potential there is a greater increase in plate current for the same increase in
plate potential.
‘The change in slope is, however, not very abrupt but there is a short curved portion
within which the change in plate current goes on becoming more and more rapid,
To find the value of ionization potential the two straight portions PQ and RS of the
Plate current (mA)
graph are produced to meet at a point I. If we draw a perpendicular IN on the X-axis, then” —Fiaja vatago =>
ON represents the ionization potential. (Wotts)
Value of ionization potential from the graph = volts Fig. 4.4
Standard value = volts
Percentage Error =
Precautions
1. Increase in potential should be very gradual.
2. At the start some time should be given to the apparatus for heating the filament,
3. For accurate measurement of voltage VTVM may be used in place of ordinary voltmeter.
4. A key should be used in plate circuit.
eMiva.Voce,
Q 1. What is meant by ionisation of a gas or vapours ?
Ans. Iris the process by which the atoms are excited to knock out the electrons from them.
Q.2. What are two types of ions ?
Ans, There are two types of ions: Positive
Q.3. What is meant by mobility of ions 2
Ans. The velocity acquired in cm s~! under the action of external field of 1 Ver + 1, Itcannot make current measurement directly,
2, Accurate readings can be obtained only for sine waves
riment 8.1 (a) : To find the value of P| "
Ede using a photo-csii lanck’s constant and work function of material of the
(b) To study the variation of photo electric Current with anode potential in case of photo cell.
tA
Apparatus: A pots RCA 917 or RCA 922) ited on an optical bench, power supply unit (giving voltage 0 to 200
sce ‘aay ta iene 8 tap key in parallel with it or micro-ammeter of suitable range, one way key, a
ig . ifferent colour . 4
sly up 00,05 V: (red, blue, yellow, green and violet), a voltmeter capable of reading
Theory : As aeady discussed in working ofthe photocel,
Procedure :
1. Draw a diagram showing the scheme of connections_as shown in the
Fig. 8.13.
Photocall Shutter Source of light
" Filter “in enclosure
From
Tapping key mains
LE Optical bench UJ
8.13.
2. Make the connections as given in the diagram. Arrange the mercury lamp; filter; shutter and photo cell on the uprights so
that they are in the same straight line. Also set the ballistic galvanometer so that its coil is free to move. Adjust the lamp
and scale arrangement of the ballistic galvanometer and bring the spot at the zero mark on the scale, Also adjust the knob
of the potential divider so that the voltmeter reading is zero when there is no light falling on photo-cell.
3. Switch on the mercury lamp and place the violet filler (last wavelength; highest frequency) infront of the photocell.
Adjust the distance on the scale of the optical bench to get a reasonable deflection on the galvanometer seale.
4. Goon increasing the negative potential applied to the anode ofthe photocell slowly so thatthe deflection on te galvanometer
scale just becomes zero. The voltmeter reading is recorded.
5. Repeat the experiment by placing. different filters i. of blue; green ; yellow and red colours and find the corresponding
Stopping potentials.
Observations
StNo. | Fitter Colour Wavelength from ‘Frequency Stopping Potential Vp
3x10"
standard table 1 (volts)
1. Violet 4050 x 10° cm
2 Blue 4360 x 10-8 em
i: Green 5460 x 10-* cm
Ae ‘Yellow 5780 x 10-8 em
5. Red 6910 x 10-8 em MODERN PHY8IC8)
MODERN APPROACH TO PRACTICAL PHYSICS (ELEMENTS OF
Calculations
Plot stopping potential against the frequency taking stopping potential along
Yaniv and feseney along Xsan ny py
the slope and the intercept of the graph as alreacly explained.
then hee tand 16% 10- AND
‘ay
2 tine D8,
Photo electric work function, wy = ¢xOC#1,10-!? x OCI
= OC electron-volt,
(b) To study the variation of photo electrle current with the voltage.
1. Mount a filter of definite wavelength on the upright and make other adjustments as alreudy stated in the previous par,
2. Make the connections as shown in the fig. 8.13,
3. Fix the distance d, between light source and photo cell for one set of observations). This will Keep the Mux of thy
incident light on the cell as constant. Say, the distance d, 8 40 cm,
4. Now, vary anode potential in steps (say, + 20 V, + 30V, +40 V etc.) and record corresponding deflection of galvanomte
{ill saturation current is obtained.
5. Now reverse the connections of the power supply and connect its negative to anode A. Then vary anode potenttal in stops
and record corresponding deflection in galvanometer till the deflection is zero,
6. For second set (or second curve), vary the distance d, between light source and photo cell (say 60 em) and then proces
as explained in points (4 and 5). Similarly for the other sets.
Observations
Initial position of the spot of galvanometer = em,
S.No. Anode Deflection 0 for Deflection, 0 for Deflection, 0 for
potential d=40.cm, d= 60cm. d= 80m,
z + om, oem, em,
oe + oom, em. oem,
3. + oem, em, cm,
4. + om, em,
5. iS em, ow om,
6 es oem, oem,
Result
Graphs are plotted between the deflection @ and the anode potential taking
deflection along Y-axis and potential along X-axis. The curves are as shown in the
fig. 8.14.
Precautions
1. The source of light should be very intense,
2. The distance between source and cell should be constant for one set of reading,
3. Experiment should be performed in a dark room,
4, The whole surface of the cathode shouldbe exposed tothe incident light, poe
5, The initial distance should be adjusted s0 as to get good deflection on the invous,
scale.
Fig. 8.14 2. If signal generator is used, then set it for si
ec Poon
§
| 32
80 Sicha
£3) 4° |cenenaron AL @
=
a3 Po TRACE
© ®
Fig. 126
3, Synchronize the signal being fed to the C.R.O. and trace it on a tracing paper.
_ Use different load resistances and trace different output signals. The traces will be as shown in Fig. 12.6 (6).
) Full Wave Rectifier
. Draw the circuit diagram as shown in Fig, 12.7 (a) and make the connections.
TRACE
'STEPOOWN
TRANSFORMER
@ ®
Fig. 127 5 :
2 I signal generator is used, then set it for sine wave and if step down transformer is used, the connect the input to
3 BV ac. and get output ac. about 2 t0 4 volts. ’
\ Synchronize the signal bei the CRO. and trace it on a tracing paper.
i ignal being ged to the r 2
Use different lead resistances and trace different output signals, The traces will be as shown in Fig, 12,7 (®).
tutions, Samé as in Experiment 12.1.
Ment 12.3 : To measure de voltage with the help of C.R.O.
5 i 50 (potentiometer type).
ACRO, ade. source; a variable resistance ofthe order of 20 to iomete
Mea A sharp and bright spot is obtained on the screen of C:R.O. at P, when no voltage is applied to XX; plates or YY, plates.
ve pole to Y plates through a
i is applied with it ced to upper plate Y, of CR.O. and — ve pole t :
Se Deanne oon
"60 sven by te vlemeer connected parle ith he ec 12.1. CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE e
é i i s values of rapidly varying phy,
Cathode ray oscilloscope, (C:R.O,) is an instrument which can record men san ey ote Phys
quantities. Its purpose is to reveal the detailed variation in rapidly changing electri i te
beat and to visually observe their wave shapes and to take measurement on them. It is called a euthode a eee beca
it traces the required waveform with a beam of electrons and beams of electrons were original ) Ce 0” UTA Nays,
‘A cathode-ray oscilloscope is essentially an electrostatic instrument. Its basic compos fi aber an, tube, sig
amplifier, sweep waveform generator. The block diagram of C-R.O. indicating its basic components 1s AAGW AA Pi, 12.1
horizontal and vertical signals are applied to (after amplification) to horizontal and vertical plates respectively. The sw
‘generator acts as trigger to start at the left of the screen at a particular instant on the internal vertical signal (int), an ext
Signal (ext) of ac. supply line. The gain of vertical amplifier is usually variable. An intensity control varies the acceler
potential in the electron gun and a focus control determines the potential on the focussing electrodes.
TOCALIBRATE VERTICAL
PLATES
HORIZONTAL
VERTICAL , yA VERTICAL PLATES
input. Tt 8 ge Do [AMPLIFIER
&
a
#
5
INT
TRIGGER TRIGGER |_[~ sweep
4 = \¥
AC LIN JGeNERATOR|[GENERATORL] gy Loreen