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A Manish Singh Sir's Initiative
 GENERAL STUDIES

ENVIRONMENT
F O R M A I N S E X A M I N AT I O N

CONTENT

1. Structure and Functions of Ecosystem ................................................... 01-17

2. Biodiversity and Conservation ................................................................ 18-60

3. Environment and Health ......................................................................... 61-68

4. Degradation of Natural Environment ..................................................... 69-75

5. Environmental Pollution and Degradation ............................................ 76-103

6. Issues of Environmental Concerns .................................................... 104-137

7. Environmental Impact Assessment ................................................... 138-144

8. Environmental Legislation ................................................................. 145-153

9. Environmental Related Institutions and Organisation ........................ 154-163

10. Natural Disaster ................................................................................ 164-190

11. Glossary ............................................................................................ 190-199

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 CHAPTER

1
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ECOSYSTEM

ECOSYSTEM At a national or state level, this forms biogeographic

regions. There are several distinctive geographical regions
An ‘ecosystem’ is a region with a specific and recognizable in India the Himalayas, the Gangetic Plains, the highlands
landscape form, such as a forest, grassland, desert, wetland of Central India, the Western and Eastern Ghats, the semi-
or coastal area. The nature of the ecosystem is based on arid desert in the West, the Deccan Plateau, the Coastal
its geographical features like hills, mountains, plains, rivers, Belts, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. These
lakes, coastal areas or islands. It is also controlled by geographically distinctive areas have plants and animals
climatic conditions the amount of sunlight, the that have been adapted to live in each of these regions.
temperature and the rainfall in the region. The At an even more local level, each area has several
geographical, climatic and soil characteristics form its non- structurally and functionally identifiable ecosystems, such
living or abiotic component. These features create as different types of forests, grasslands, river catchments,
conditions that support a community of plants and animals mangrove swamps in deltas, seashores, islands, etc., to give
that evolution has produced to live in these specific just a few examples. Here, too, each of these forms a
conditions. The living part of the ecosystem is referred to habitat for specific plants and animals.
as its biotic component.
Ecosystems are divided into terrestrial or land-based Definition
ecosystems and aquatic ecosystems in water. These form The living community of plants and animals in any area
the two major habitat conditions for the Earth’s living together with the non-living components of the
organisms. environment such as soil, air and water constitute the
All the living organisms in an area live in communities ecosystem.
of plants and animals. They interact with their abiotic Some ecosystems are fairly robust and are less
environment and with each other at different points in affected by a certain level of human disturbance. Others
time for a large number of reasons. Life can exist only in a are very fragile and are quickly destroyed by human
activities. Mountain ecosystems are extremely fragile, as
small portion of the Earth’s land, water and its atmosphere.
the degradation of forest cover leads to severe soil erosion
At a global level, the thin skin of the Earth on the land, the
and changes in river courses. Island ecosystems, again, are
sea and the air, forms the biosphere.
easily affected by any form of human activity, which can
At a sub-global level, this is divided into lead to the rapid extinction of several of their unique
biogeographical realms. For example, Eurasia is called the species of plants and animals. Evergreen forests and coral
Palearctic realm; South and South-east Asia (of which India reefs are also examples of species-rich fragile ecosystems,
forms a major part) is the Oriental realm; North America which must be protected against a variety of human
is the Nearctic realm; South America forms the Neotropical activities that may lead to their degradation. River and
realm; Africa the Ethiopian realm; and Australia the wetland ecosystems can be seriously affected by pollution
Australian realm. and changes in surrounding land use.
A manish Singh Sir’s Initiative ENVIRONMENT
Understanding Eco-Systems Ecosystem Degradation
Natural ecosystems include the forests, grasslands, deserts, Ecosystems are the basis of life itself The natural
and aquatic ecosystems like ponds, rivers, lakes, and the ecosystems in the wilderness provide a variety of products
sea. Man-modified ecosystems include agricultural land and are regions in which a number of vital ecological
and urban or industrial land use patterns. processes are present; without these processes, human
Each ecosystem has a set of common features that civilization would not be able to exist.
can be observed in the field: However, ecosystems are frequently disrupted by
human actions, leading to the extinction of species of plants
What does the ecosystem look like? and animals that can live only in the different natural
One should be able to describe specific features of the ecosystems. Some species, if eliminated, seriously affect
different ecosystems in one’s own surroundings. Field the ecosystem. These are called ‘keystone’ species.
observations must be made in both urban and natural Extinction occurs due to changes in land use. Forests are
surroundings. deforested for timber, wetlands are drained to create more
agricultural land, and semi-arid grasslands that are used
What is its structure? as pastures are converted to irrigated fields. The pollution
Is it a forest, a grassland, a water body, an agricultural area, from industries and the waste from urban settings can also
a grazing area, an urban area, an industrial area, etc.? lead to the poisoning and extinction of several species.
What you should look for are its different The reason for the depletion of natural resources is
characteristics. A forest has various layers from the ground two-fold—our rapidly exploding population that needs
to the canopy. A pond has different types of vegetation increasing resources to sustain itself, and the growth of
from the periphery to its center. The vegetation on a affluent societies that consume and waste a very large
mountain changes from its base to its summit. proportion of resources and energy. The increasing
extraction of resources is at the cost of our natural
What is the composition of its plant and animal ecosystems, leading to a derailing of their important
species? functions. We all use a variety of resources in our daily
List the well-known plants and animals you can see. Then, lives. If traced back to their source, we find that the
document their abundance and numbers in nature: very resources were originally obtained from nature and natural
common, uncommon, rare. For example, wild mammals ecosystems. Our insensitivity to using resources carefully
will not be seen in large numbers, cattle would be common. has produced societies that nature can no longer sustain.
Some birds are common; find out which are the most If we think before wasting resources such as water, reusing
common species? Insect species are very common and and recycling paper, using less plastic that are non-
most abundant. In fact, there are so many that they cannot degradable, all this can cumulatively conserve our natural
be easily counted. resources.

How does the ecosystem work? Resource Utilization

The ecosystem functions through several biogeochemical Most of the traditional societies used their environment
cycles and energy-transfer mechanisms. Observe and fairly sustainably. Though inequality in resource utilization
document the components of the ecosystem, which consist has existed in every society, the number of individuals that
of its non-living or abiotic features such as air, water, used a large proportion of resources was extremely limited.
climate and soil and its biotic components, the various In recent times, the proportion of ‘rich’ people in affluent
plants and animals. Both these aspects of the ecosystem societies, have grown rapidly. Inequality has thus become
interact with each other through several functional aspects a serious problem. Whereas in the past many resources
to form nature’s ecosystems. Plants, herbivores and such as timber and fuelwood from the forest were
carnivores can be seen to form food chains. All these chains extracted sustainably, this pattern has drastically changed
are joined together to form a ‘web of life’ on which man during the last century. The economically-powerful
depends. Each of these food chains use energy that comes sections began to use greater amounts of forest products,
from the Sun and powers the ecosystem. while those people who lived in the forest became
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increasingly poor. Similarly, the building of large irrigation Most ecosystems are highly complex and consist of
projects has led to wealth in those areas that had canals, an extremely large number of individuals of a wide variety
while those who remained dependent on a constant supply of species. In the species-rich tropical ecosystems (such as
of water from the river itself, have found it difficult to in our country), only a few species are very common, while
survive. most species have relatively few individuals. Some species
The key to this issue is the need for an ‘equitable’ of plants and animals are extremely rare and may occur
distribution of all types of natural resources. A more even only at locations. These are said to be ‘endemic’ to these
sharing of resources within the community can reduce areas.
these pressures on the natural ecosystems. When human activities alter the balance in these
ecosystems, such perturbations often lead to the
Producers, Composers & Decomposers disappearance of some uncommon species. When this
Every living organism is in some way dependent on other happens to an endemic species that is not widely
organisms. Plants are food for herbivorous animals, which distributed, it becomes extinct forever.
are in turn food for carnivorous animals. Thus, there are
different tropic levels in the ecosystem. Some organisms WHAT IS THE STRUCTURE OF AN
such as fungi live only on dead material and inorganic
matter.
ECOSYSTEM
Plants are the ‘producers’ in the ecosystem, as they An ecosystem consists of two main components, biotic
manufacture their food by using energy from the Sun. In (living) part and abiotic (non­living) part. The biotic part
the forest, these form communities of plant life. In the of an ecosystem includes all the living organisms present
sea, these include tiny algal forms to large seaweed. in it, that is, the plants, animals, and the micro-organisms.
The herbivorous animals are ‘primary consumers’, as The abiotic part consists of all the conditions under which
they live on the producers. In a forest, these are the insects, the organisms live.
amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. The herbivorous In terrestrial ecosystems, the abiotic conditions
animals include, for example, the hare, deer and elephants include water, air, soil, nutrients, minerals, sunlight,
that live on plant life. They graze on grass or feed on the temperature, wind, rainfall, geographical location and
foliage from trees. In grasslands, there are herbivores such other such factors. In aquatic ecosystems, the abiotic
as blackbuck that feed on grass. In the semi-arid areas, conditions include the depth, turbidity level, currents,
there are species such as the chinkara or Indian gazelle. In suspended solids, and so on.
the sea, there are small fish that live on algae and other
plants.
At a higher tropic level, there are carnivorous animals,
or secondary consumers’, which live on the herbivores. In
our forests, the carnivores are tigers, leopards, jackals, foxes
and small wild cats. In the sea, carnivorous fish live on
other fish and marine animals. The animals that live in the
sea range in size from microscopic forms to giant mammals
such as the whale.
Decomposers or detrivores are a group of organisms
consisting of small animals like worms, insects, bacteria
and fungi, which break down dead organic material into
smaller particles and finally into simpler substances that Level of Organization in Nature
are used by plants as nutrition. Thus, decomposition is a
vital function in nature, as without this, all the nutrients Structure and Functions of an Ecosystem
would be tied up in dead matter and no new life would be Since each ecosystem has a non-living and a living parts
produced. that are linked to each other, one needs to look around us
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and observe this closely. The non-living components of an the nutrients from the soil. The water is then transpired
ecosystem are the amount of water, inorganic substances from the leaves as water vapor and returned to the
and organic compounds, and climatic conditions, which atmosphere. As it is lighter than air, water vapor rises and
depend on geographical conditions and location. The living forms clouds. The winds blow the clouds for long distances
organisms in an ecosystem are inseparable from their and when the clouds rise higher, the vapor condenses and
habitat. changes into droplets, which fall on the land as rain.
The living component of plant life ranges from Although this is an endless cycle on which life depends,
extremely small bacteria, which live in the air, water and man’s activities are making drastic changes in the
soil, algae which live in fresh and saltwater, to the terrestrial atmosphere through pollution which is altering rainfall
plants which range from grasses and herbs that grow after patterns. This had led to prolonged drought periods
the monsoon every year, to the giant long-lived trees of extending over years in countries such as Africa, while
the forest. The plants convert energy from sunlight into causing devastating floods in countries such as the US. The
organic matter for their growth, thus functioning as El Nino storms due to these effects have ravaged many
producers in the ecosystem. The living component of the places in the last few years.
animal world ranges from microscopic animals, to small
insects and the larger animals such as fish, amphibians, The Carbon Cycle
reptiles, birds and mammals. Man is just one of the 1.8 The carbon found in organic compounds is included in both
million species of plants and animals that inhabit the the abiotic and biotic parts of the ecosystem. Carbon is a
Earth. building block of both plants and animal tissues. In the
atmosphere, carbon occurs as carbon dioxide (CO2). In the
Energy Flow in the Ecosystem presence of sunlight, plants take up carbon dioxide from
Every ecosystem has several interrelated mechanisms that the atmosphere through their leaves. The plants combine
affect human life. These are the water cycle, the carbon carbon dioxide with water, which is absorbed by their roots
cycle, the oxygen cycle, the nitrogen cycle and the energy from the soil. In the presence of sunlight they are able to
cycle. While every ecosystem is controlled by these cycles, form carbohydrates that contain carbon. This process is
each ecosystem’s abiotic and biotic features are distinct known as photosynthesis. Plants use this complex
from each other. mechanism for their growth and development. In this
process, plants release oxygen into the atmosphere on
All the functions of the ecosystem are in some way which animals depend for their respiration. Thus, plants
related to the growth and regeneration of its plant and help in regulating and monitoring the percentage of oxygen
animal species. These interlinked processes can be depicted and carbon dioxide in the Earth’s atmosphere. All of
as the various cycles; all these processes depend on energy mankind depends on the oxygen generated through this
from sunlight. During photosynthesis, carbon dioxide is cycle. It also keeps the CO2 at acceptable levels.
absorbed by plants and oxygen is released into the
Herbivores feed on plant material, which is used by
atmosphere. Animals depend on this oxygen for their them for energy and for their growth. Both plants and
respiration. The water cycle depends on the rainfall, which animals release carbon dioxide during respiration. They
is necessary for plants and animals to live. The energy cycle also return fixed carbon to the soil in the waste they
recycles nutrients into the soil on which plant life grows. excrete. When plants and animals die, they return their
Our own lives are closely linked to the proper functioning carbon to the soil. These processes complete the carbon
of these cycles of life. If human activities go on altering cycle.
them, humanity cannot survive on Earth.
The Oxygen Cycle
The Water Cycle Oxygen is absorbed by plants and animals from the air
When it rains, the water runs along the ground and flows during respiration. The plants return oxygen to the
into rivers or falls directly into the sea. A part of the atmosphere during photosynthesis. This links the oxygen
rainwater that falls on land percolates into the ground. cycle to the carbon cycle. Deforestation is likely to gradually
This is stored underground throughout the rest of the year. reduce the oxygen levels in our atmosphere. Thus, plant
Water is drawn up from the ground by plants along with life plays an important role in our lives, which we frequently

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do not appreciate. This is an important reason to chains. Each food chain has three or four links. However,
participate in afforestation programs. as each plant or animal can be linked to several other plants
or animals through many different linkages, these
The Nitrogen Cycle interlinked chains can be depicted as a complex food web.
Carnivores feed on herbivores that, in turn, feed on plants. This is thus called the ‘web of life’ that shows that there
When animals defecate, this waste material is broken- are thousands of interrelationships in nature.
down by worms and insects, mostly beetles and ants. These The energy in the ecosystem can be depicted in the
small soil animals break the waste material into smaller form of a. food pyramid or energy pyramid. The food
bits on which microscopic bacteria and fungi can act. This pyramid has a large base of plants called producers. The
material is thus broken down further into nutrients that pyramid has a narrower middle section that depicts the
plants can absorb and use for their growth. In this manner, number and biomass of herbivorous animals, which are
nutrients are recycled back from animals to plants. called first-order consumers’. The apex depicts the small
Similarly, the bodies of dead animals are also broken down biomass of carnivorous animals called ‘second -order
into nutrients that are used by the plants for their growth. consumers’. Man is one of the annuals at the apex of the
Thus, the nitrogen cycle, on which life is dependent, is pyramid. Thus, to support mankind, there must be a large
completed. base of herbivorous animals and an even greater quantity
The nitrogen-fixing bacteria and fungi in the soil give of plant material.
this important element to plants, which absord it as When plants and animals die, this material is returned
nitrates. These nitrates are a part of the plant’s metabolism, to the soil after being broken down into simpler substances
which help in forming new proteins. This is used by the by decomposers, such as insects, worms, bacteria and
animals that feed on the plants. The nitrogen is then fungi, so that plants can absorb the nutrients through their
transferred to carnivores when they feed on the herbivores. roots. Animals excrete waste products after digesting food,
So, our own lives are closely interlinked to soil animals, which goes back to the soil. This links the energy cycle to
fungi and even the bacteria in the soil. When we think of the nitrogen cycle.
.food webs, we usually think of the large mammals and
other large forms of life. But we need to understand that Integration of Cycles in Nature
it is the unseen small animals, plants and microscopic forms These cycles are a part of global life processes. These
of life that are great value for the functioning of the biogeochemical cycles have specific features in each of the
ecosystem. ecosystems. These cycles are linked to those of adjacent
ecosystems, although their characteristics are specific to
The Energy Cycle the plant and animal communities in the region. This is, in
The energy cycle is based on the flow of energy through turn, related to the geographical features of the area, the
the ecosystem. The energy from sunlight’s converted by climate and the chemical composition of the soil. Together,
the plants themselves into growing new plant material, the cycles are responsible for maintaining life on Earth. If
which include the leaves, flowers fruit, branches, trunks mankind disturbs these cycles beyond the limits that nature
and roots of plants. Since plants can grow by converting can sustain, they will eventually break down and lead to a
the sun’s energy directly into their tissues, they are known degraded Earth on which man will not be able to survive.
as producers in the ecosystem. The plants are used by
Ecological Succession
herbivores as food, which gives them energy. A large part
of this energy is used up for the metabolic functions of Ecological succession is a process through which
these animals such as breathing, digesting food, supporting ecosystems tend to change over a period of time.
Succession can be related to seasonal environmental
growth of tissues, maintaining blood flow and body
changes, which create changes in the community of plants
temperature. Energy is also used for activities such as
and animals living in the ecosystem. Other successional
looking for food, finding shelter, breeding and rearing the
events may take much longer periods of time, extending
young ones. The carnivores, in turn, depend on the to several decades. If a forest is cleared, it is initially
herbivores on which they feed. Thus, the different plant colonized by a certain group of species of plants and
and animal species are linked to one another through food animals, which gradually change through an orderly
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process of community development. One can predict that The Ecological Pyramids
a cleared or open area will gradually be converted into In an ecosystem, green plants, the producers, utilize energy
grassland, a shrub land, and finally a woodland and a forest,
directly from sunlight and convert it into matter. A large
if permitted to do so without human interference. There
number of these organisms form the most basic, or first
is a tendency for succession to produce a more or less
‘trophic Level’ of the food pyramid. The herbivores that
stable state at the end of the successional stages.
eat plants are at the second trophic level and are called
Developmental stages in the ecosystem thus consist of a
primary consumers. The predators that feed on them form
pioneer stage, a series of changes known as serial stages,
the third trophic level and are known as secondary
and finally a climax stage. The successive stages are related
to the way in which energy flows through the biological consumers. Only a few animals form the third trophic level
system. The most frequent example of successional consisting of the carnivores at the apex of the food
changes occur in a pond ecosystem, where it fluctuates pyramid. This is how energy is used by living creatures and
from a dry terrestrial habitat to the early colonization stage flows through the ecosystem from its base to the apex.
by small aquatic species after the monsoon, which
TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS
gradually passes through to a mature aquatic ecosystem,
and then reverts back to its dry stage in summer when its Terrestrial Ecosystems Aquatic Ecosystems
aquatic life remains dormant. Forest Pond
Grassland Lake
Food Chains, Food Webs and Ecological
Semi-arid areas Wetland
Pyramids Deserts River
The transfer of energy from the source in plants through a Mountains Delta
series of organisms, by eating and being eaten, constitutes Islands Marine
food chains. At each transfer, a large proportion of energy
For each of these ecosystems, we need to understand
is lost in the form of heat. These food chains are not isolated
4 basic issues:
sequences, but are interconnected with each other. This
interlocking pattern is known as the food web. Each step 1. What is the nature of an ecosystem? What are
its structure and functions?
of the food web is called a trophic level These trophic levels
together form the ecological pyramid. 2. Who uses the ecosystem and for what purpose?
3. How is this ecosystem degraded?
The Food Chains 4. What can be done to protect it from
The most obvious aspect of nature is energy must pass deteriorating in the long term? How can the
ecosystem be conserved?
from one living organism to another. When herbivorous
animals feed on plants, energy is transferred from the Ecosystem Goods and Services Direct Values
plants to the animals. In an ecosystem, some of the animals
These are resources that people depend upon directly and
feed on other living organisms, while some feed on dead are easy to quantily in economic terms.
organic matter; the latter form the ‘detritus’ food chain.
 Consumptive use value—the non-market value of
At each link in the chain, a large part of the energy from
fruit, fodder, firewood, etc., that are used by people
the food is lost through daily activities. Each chain usually who collect them from their surroundings.
has only four to five such links. However, a single species
 Productive use value—the commercial value of
may be linked to a large number of species. timber, fish, medicinal plants, etc., that people collect
for sale.
The Food Webs
In an ecosystem there are a very large number of Indirect Values
interlinked chains; together, these form a food web. If the These are uses that are not easy to quantify in terms of a
links in the chains that make up the web of life are clearly definable price.
disrupted due to human activities that lead to the loss or  Non-consumptive use value: scientific research, bird-
extinction of species, the web breaks down. watching, ecotourism, etc.
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 Option value:maintaining options for the future, so habitat for a specific community of animals that are
that by preserving them one could reap economic adapted to live in it.
benefits in the future. The forest ecosystem has two parts:
 Existence value: the ethical and emotional aspects  The non-living or abiotic aspects of the forest: The
of the existence of wildlife and nature. type of forest depends upon the abiotic conditions
Terrestrial ecosystems in their natural state are found at the site. The forests on mountains and hills differ
in different types of forests, grasslands, semiarid areas, from those along river valleys. The vegetation is
deserts and sea coasts. Where the land is intensively used, specific to the amount of rainfall and the local
these have been gradually modified over several thousand temperature, which vary according to latitude,
years into agricultural and pastoral regions. In the recent altitude and soil type.
past, they have been rapidly converted into intensively-  The living or the biotic aspects of the forest: The
irrigated agricultural ecosystems or into urban and plants and animals form communities that are
industrial centers. Though this has increased the specific to each forest type. For instance, coniferous
production of food and provides the raw material for the trees occur in the Himalayas; mangrove trees occur
‘consumer’ goods that we use, the overuse and misuse of in river deltas; thorn trees grow in arid areas. The
land and natural ecosystems has led to a serious snow leopard lives in the Himalayas, while the
degradation of our environment. The unsustainable use leopard and tiger live in the forests in the rest of India.
of soil, water, fuelwood, timber from forest, grasses and Wild sheep and goats live high up in the Himalayas,
herbs from grasslands for grazing and repeatedly burning and many of the birds of the Himalayan forests are
the grass, degrades these natural ecosystems. Similarly, the different from those in the rest of India. The
improper use of resources can destroy the services that evergreen forests of the Western Ghats and North-
the natural ecosystems provide. These processes of nature east India have the richest diversity of plant and
such as photosynthesis, climate control, prevention of soil animal species.
erosion are disturbed by many human activities. The biotic component includes both the large
When our human population was small, most (macrophytes) and the microscopic plants and animals.
ecosystems could supply all our needs. Resources were Plants include the trees, shrubs, climbers, grasses,
thus used ‘sustainably’. As industrial ‘development’ led to and herbs in the forest. These include species that flower
a very great increase in consumption of resources, the (angiosperms), and non-flowering species (gymnosperms)
short-term economic gains for people became an indicator such as ferns, bryophytes, fungi and algae.
of progress, rather than, long-term ecological benefits. This The animals include species of mammals, birds,
has resulted in an ‘unsustainable use’ of natural resources. reptiles, amphibians, fish, insects and other invertebrates
Forests thus disappear, rivers run dry, deserts begin to and a variety of microscopic animals.
spread, and air, water and soil become increasingly polluted
As the plant and animal species are closely
as by-products of development. Human wellbeing itself is
dependent on each other, together they form different
then seriously affected.
types of forest communities. Man is a part of these forest
ecosystems and the local people depend directly on the
FOREST ECOSYSTEMS forest for several natural resources that act as their life-
support systems. People who do not live in the forest buy
Forests are formed by a community of plants, which is forest products such as wood and paper, which has been
predominantly structurally defined by its trees, shrubs, extracted from the forest. Thus, they use forest produce
climbers and ground cover. Natural vegetation looks and indirectly from the market.
is vastly different from a group of planted trees in orderly
rows. The most ‘natural1 undisturbed forests are located Forest Types in India
mainly in our national parks and wildlife sanctuaries. The The forest type depends upon the abiotic factors such as
landscapes that make up various types of forests look very climate and soil characteristics of a region. Forests in India
different from each other. Their distinctive appearances can be broadly divided into coniferous forests and broad-
are fascinating aspects of nature. Each forest type forms a leaved forests.
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They can also be classified according to the nature monsoon period lasts for several months. Some places even
of their tree species evergreen, deciduous, xerophytes or get two monsoons, such as in Southern India. Evergreen
thorn trees, mangroves, etc. They can also be classified plants shed a few of their leaves throughout the year. There
according to the most abundant species of trees, such as is no dry leafless phase as in the case of deciduous forests.
Sal or Teak forests. In many cases, a forest is named after So, an evergreen forest looks green throughout the year.
the first three or four most abundant tree species. The trees overlap with each other to form a continuous
canopy. Thus, very little light penetrates down to the forest
Coniferous Forests floor. Only a few shade-loving plants can grow in the ground
Coniferous forests grow in the Himalayan mountain region, layer in areas where some light filters down from the closed
where the temperatures are low. These forests have tall canopy. The forest is rich in orchids and ferns. The barks of
stately trees with needle like leaves and downward-sloping the trees are covered in moss. The forest abounds in animal
branches. They have cones instead of seeds and are called life and is very rich in insect life.
gymnosperms.
Deciduous Forests
Broad Leaved Forests Deciduous forests are found in regions with a moderate
Broad leaved forests are of several types, such as evergreen amount of seasonal rainfall that lasts for only a few months.
forests, deciduous forests, thorn forests, and mangrove Most of the forests in which Teak trees grow are of this
forests. Broad-leaved trees usually have large leaves of type. The deciduous trees shed their leaves during the
various shapes and are found in middle to lower latitudes. winter and hot summer months. In March or April they
regain their fresh leaves just before the monsoon, when
Evergreen Forests they grow vigorously in response to the rains. Thus, there
Evergreen forests grow in the high rainfall areas of the are periods of leaf-fall and canopy regrowth. The forest
Western Ghats, North-eastern India and the Andaman and frequently has a thick undergrowth as light can penetrate
Nicobar Islands. These forests grow in areas where the easily onto the forest floor.

FOREST COMMUNITIES

Forest Type Plants Common Animal Rare Animal

Examples Examples Examples
Himalayan Confierous Pine, deodar Wild goats and sheep, Snow leopard, Hangul,
Himalayan brown bear,
Himalayan black bear Musk
deer, Himalayan Wolf
Himalayan Broad-leaved Maple, oak
Evergreen North-east, Jamun, Fieus. Tiger Leopard, Pigmy hog, Rhino,
Sambar, Malabar
Western Ghats, Dipterocarpus Whistling thrush, Lion-tailed macaque
Andaman & Nicobar Malabar pied hornbill,
Tree frogs
Deciduous Dry Teak, Ain, Tiger, Chital, Barking deer
Terminalia Babblers, Flycatchers
Deciduous Moist Sal Hornbills
Thorn and scrub, Babul, Ber, Blackbuck, Chinkara, Bustard Florican
Semi-arid forests Neem Four-horned
Antelope, Partridge
Monitor lizard
Mangrove Delta Avicenia Crocodiles, Shorebirds- Water monitor lizard
Forests Sandpipers, Plovers,
Fish, crustaceans

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Thorn Forests household articles. Woods from different species of trees
Thorn forests are found in the semi-arid regions of India. are put to a variety of uses. For instance, softwood is used
The trees, which are sparsely distributed, are surrounded for the yoke of a bullock cart while hardwood is used for
by open grassy areas. Thorny plants, called xerophytic its axle.
species, are able to conserve water. Some of these trees These forest products are of great economic value
have small leaves, while other species have thick, waxy as they are collected, sold and marketed. Forest dwellers
leaves to reduce water losses during transpiration. Thorn and formers use these goods directly, while other people
forest trees have long or fibrous roots to enable them reach get them indirectly from the market. Traditional types of
water at great depths. Many of these plants have thorns, agriculture need forest material like branches and leaves,
which reduce water loss and protect them from herbivores. which are burnt to form wood-ash which acts as a fertilizer
for crops such as rice.
Mangrove forests grow along the coast especially in
the river deltas. These plants are uniquely adapted to be Urban people use these forest resources indirectly
able to grow in a mix of saline and freshwater. They grow as all their food and other goods come from agricultural
luxuriantly in muddy areas covered with silt that the rivers areas that are dependent on the neighboring forests.
have brought down. The mangrove trees have breathing Forest services include the control of the flow of
roots that emerge from the mudbanks. water in streams and rivers. Forest cover reduces the
surface run-off of rainwater and allows groundwater to
Forest Utilization be stored. Forests also prevent the erosion of soil. Once
Natural forests provide local people with a variety of soil is lost by erosion, it can take thousands of years to re-
products, if the forest is used carefully. Over-exploitation form. Forests also regulate the local temperature. It is
for fuelwood or timber, and conversion to monoculture cooler and moister under the shade of the trees in the
plantations for timber or other products, impoverishes the forest. Most importantly, forests absorb carbon dioxide and
local people as the economic benefit usually accrues to release the oxygen that we breathe.
people who live elsewhere. The entire resource base, on DIRECT USES OF FOREST PRODUCTS
which local people have traditionally survived for
generations, is rapidly destroyed. Eventually, the forest is  Fruits: mango, jamun, awla
completely degraded.  Roots: Dioscoria
Natural forest ecosystems play an important role in  Medicine: Gloriosa, Foxglove
controlling local climate and water regimes. It is a well-  Fuelwood for building huts and house woods for
known fact that it is cooler under the canopy of a natural farm implements
forest than outside the forest. During the monsoon, the  Bamboo and cane for baskets
forest retains moisture and slowly releases it through  Grass for grazing and stall feeding livestock
perennial streams during the rest of the year. Plantations INDIRECT USES OF FOREST PRODUCTS
fail to perform this function adequately. The loss of forest
 Building material for construction and furniture
cover in the catchments of a river thus leads to irreversible
for the urban sector Medicinal products collected
changes, such as excessive soil erosion, large run-off of
and processed into drugs Gums and resins
surface water during monsoons leading to flash-floods, and
processed into a variety of products
a shortage of water once the monsoons are over.
 Raw material for industrial products and chemicals
Forest Products  Paper from bamboo and softwoods
Forest products that are collected by people include food The wild relatives of our crop plants and fruit trees
like fruit, roots, herbs and medicinal plants. People depend have special characteristics in their genes, which are used
on fuelwood to cook food, collect fodder for domestic to develop new crops and newer varieties of fruit. These
animals and cut building material for housing; collect newer varieties, developed from wild relatives, give greater
medicinal plants that have been known for generations to yields or are more resistant to diseases. New industrial
treat several ailments; and use a variety of Non Timber products are being produced from the wild plants of the
Forest Products such as fiber, cane and gum, to make forest. Many of our new medicines come from wild plants.
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What are the threats to the Forest Ecosystem?  The majority of the increase in forest cover has been
As forests grow very slowly, we cannot use more resources observed in the open forest category mainly outside
than they can produce during a growing season. If timber forest areas, followed by Very Dense Forest.
is felled beyond a certain limit, the forest cannot  While Open Forest area has increased by 4,744 sq.
regenerate. The gaps in the forest change the habitat km, which is 9.14% of the geographical area, the area
quality for its animal, and the more sensitive species cannot under Very Dense Forest has increased by 2,404 sq.
survive under these changed conditions. Over-utilizing km, which is 2.61% of the geographical area. About
forest resources is an unsustainable way of using our 40% forest cover is in 9 big patches of 10,000 sq. km
limited forest resources. We are now creating more and and more.
more goods that are manufactured from raw materials  Mangrove cover has increased by 112 sq. km since
derived from the forest. This leads to forest degradation the previous assessment.
and finally changes the ecosystem into a wasteland. Wood The 2015 ISFR classifies forest cover as follows:
is being illegally extracted from many forests, leading to a  Very Dense Forest (VFD): Tree canopy density of 70%
highly disturbed ecosystem. and above.
Developmental activities such as rapid population  Moderately Dense Forest (MFD): Tree canopy density
growth, together with, urbanization, industrialization and of 40-70%.
the increasing use of consumer goods, lead to the over-  Open Forest (OF): Tree canopy density of 10-40%.
utilization of forest produce. The forests are rapidly
Forest cover does not include scrub, which is degraded
shrinking as our need for agricultural land increases. It is
forest with tree canopy density of less than 10%.
estimated that India’s forest cover has decreased from
about 33% to 11% in the last century. The increasing use FOREST COVER OF INDIA BY CANOPY DENSITY
of wood for timber, wood-pulp for paper and the extensive
use of fuelwood results in continual forest loss. Forests Canopy Density Type Area (sq. km) % of Total
are also lost by mining and building dams. As the forest Area
resources are exploited, the forest canopy is opened up, Very Dense Forest (VFD) 86000 2.6
the ecosystem is degraded, and its wildlife is seriously Moderately Dense 315000 9.6
threatened. As the forest is fragmented into small patches,
Forest (MFD)
its wild plant and animal species become extinct. And these
Open Forest (OF) 300000 9.1
can never be brought back.
Total Forest Cover 701000 21.3
2015 INDIA STATE OF THE FOREST REPORT : Scrub land 41000
The main conclusions of the 2015 India State of Forest
Report were: What if the forests disappear?
 The total forest and tree cover was 79.42 million ha, When forests are cut, tribal people who depend directly
which is 24.16% of the total geographical area.
on them for food and fuelwood and other products find it
 India’s forest and tree cover has increased by 5,081
very difficult to survive. Farmers do not get enough
sq. km since 2013.
fuelwood, small timber, etc., for making houses and farm
 While the total forest cover of the country increased
implements. Urban people depend on food from
by 3,775 sq. km, the tree cover has gone up by 1,306
sq. km. agricultural areas, which, in turn, depend on neighboring
forest ecosystems, and they have to pay higher prices for
 The overall gain of 2,402 sq. km of very dense forests
is largely due to favourable results from the Andaman food as human population increases.
and Nicobar Islands, Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. The insects that live and breed in the forest — like
 The total carbon stock in the country’s forest is bees, butterflies and moths — decrease in abundance once
estimated to be 7,044 million tonnes, an increase of forests are degraded. As their numbers decrease, they are
103 million tonnes (or 1.48%) over the previous unable to effective pollinate agricultural crops and fruit
assessment. trees. This leads to a decline in agricultural yields.

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The rain that falls on deforested land flows directly A variety of grasses, herbs, and several species of
into nearby rivers. Thus, water is not retained underground, insects, birds and mammals have evolved that they are
and people do not get sufficient quantity of water adapted to these wide-open grass-covered areas. These
throughout the year. The exposed soil is rapidly washed animals are able to live in conditions where food is plentiful
away during the rains once the protective forest cover is after the rains, so that they can store this as fat that they
removed, seriously affecting the agriculture in such areas. use. during the dry period when there is very little to eat.
In deforested areas, the water in streams is brown in color Man began to use these grasslands as pasture to feed
as the soil washed away; while the water in forested livestock when animals were domesticate and, thus,
streams is crystal clear. became a pastoralist in ancient times.
In addition, wild animals lose their habitat, leading Types of grasslands in India
to the extinction of many of our precious specie The
Grasslands form a variety of ecosystems that are located
residual forests must be protected from being destroyed
in different climatic conditions ranging from near-desert
any further if all the diverse species plants and animals
conditions, to patches of shola grasslands that occur in hill-
are to be protected for future generations.
slopes alongside the extremely moist evergreen forests in
South India. In the Himalayan mountain there are the high
How can forest ecosystems be conserved?
cold Himalayan pastures. There are tracts of tall elephant
We can conserve forests only if we use their resources grass in the low-lying terai belt south of the Himalayan
carefully. This can be done by using alternate sources of foothills. There are also semi-arid grasslands in Western
energy instead of fuel wood. There is a need to grow more India, plains of Central India, and in the Deccan Plateau.
trees than are cut down from forests every year for timber.
The Himalayan pasture belt extends up to the
Afforestation needs to be done continuously, from which
snowline; the grasslands at a lower level form patches along
fuel wood and timber can be judiciously used. with coniferous or broad-leaved forests. Himalayan wildlife
The natural forests with all their diverse species must requires both the forest and the grassland ecosystem as
be protected as national parks and wildlife sanctuaries important parts of their habitat. The animals migrate up
where all the plants and animals can be preserved. into the high-altitude grasslands in the summer and move
down into the forest in the winter when the snow covers
the grasslands. These Himalayan pastures have a large
GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEMS
variety of grasses and herbs. The Himalayan hill-slopes are
A wide range of landscapes, in which the vegetation is covered with thousands of colorful flowering plants as well
predominantly grasses and small annual plant are as a large number of medicinal plants.
specifically adapted to India’s various climatic conditions. The terai consists of patches of tall grasslands with a
These form a variety of grassland ecosystems with their Sal forest ecosystem. The patches of tall elephant grass,
specific plants and animals. which grow to a height of about five meters, are located
in low-lying water logged areas. The Sal forest patches
What is a grassland ecosystem? cover the elevated regions and the Himalayan foothills.
Grasslands cover areas where rainfall is usually low and/ The terai also includes marshes in low-lying depressions.
or the soil depth and quality is poor. The rainfall prevents This ecosystem extends in a belt south of the Himalayan
the growth of a large number of trees and shrubs, but is foothills.
sufficient to support the growth of grass cover during the The semi-arid plains of Western India, Central India
monsoon. Many of the grasses and other small herbs and the Deccan are covered by grassland tracts with
become dry and the part above the ground dies during patches of thorn forest. Several mammals such as the wolf
the summer months. In the next monsoon, the grass cover the blackbuck, the chinkara, and birds such as the bustards
grows back from the root-stock and the seeds of the and floricans, are adapted to these arid conditions. The
previous year. This change gives grasslands highly seasonal scrublands of the Deccan Plateau are covered with seasonal
appearance, with periods of increased growth being grasses and herbs on which its fauna is dependent. It teems
followed by a dormant phase. with insect life on which the insectivorous birds feed.

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The shola grasslands consist of patches on hill-slopes is the conversion of grasslands into irrigated farmlands. In
that occur alongside the shola forests on the Western the Deccan, grasslands have been altered to irrigated farms
Ghats, the Nilgiri and Annamalai ranges. These form and are now mainly used to grow sugarcane, which is a
patchworks of grassland on the slopes and forest habitats water-intensive crop. After continuous irrigation, such land
along the streams and low-lying areas. becomes saline and useless in a few years. More recently,
Grasslands are not restricted only to low rainfall many of these residual grassland tracts have been
areas. Certain grassland types form when clearings are converted into industrial areas. This provides short-term
made in different forest types. Some are located on the economic gains but results in long-term economic and
higher, steep hill-slopes with patches of forest that occur ecological losses.
along the streams and in depressions. The grasslands are Grasslands have a limited ability to support domestic
related to repeated fires that do not permit the forest to animals and wildlife. Increasing this pressure by increasing
grow. the number of domestic animals reduces the ‘naturalness’
The grasses are the major producers of biomass in of the grassland ecosystem leading to its deterioration.
these regions. Each grassland ecosystem has a wide variety Most grassland ecosystems are highly modified by
of species of grasses and herbs. Some grass and herb human activities. Cattle, sheep and goat grazing, and
species are more sensitive to excessive grazing and are lighting repeated fires all affect the grasslands adversely.
suppressed if the area is over-grazed. Others are destroyed Changing the grasslands to other forms of land use such
by repeated fires and cannot regenerate. Thus over-used as agriculture, tree plantations and industrialization poses
or frequently burnt grasslands are degraded and are poor a serious threat to this highly-productive ecosystem. Thus,
in plant species diversity. some of the grassland patches, which are in a less disturbed
state and have retained their special plants and animals,
How are grasslands used? need to be urgently protected.
Grasslands are the grazing areas of many rural The degradation of grasslands due to over-grazing
communities. Farmers who keep cattle or goats, as well as by cattle, sheep and goats occurs if more than a critical
shepherds who keep sheep, are highly dependent on number of domestic animals are present in the grasslands.
grasslands. Domestic animals are grazed in the ‘common’ When animals overgraze the area, the grasses are
land of the village. Fodder is collected and stored to feed converted into flat stubs with very little green matter.
cattle when there is no grass left for them to graze in Degraded grasslands have fewer grass species as the
summer. Grass is also used to thatch houses and farm- nutritious species are entirely used up by the large number
sheds. The thorny bushes and branches of the few trees of domestic animals, and are thus unable to regenerate.
that are seen in grasslands are used as a major source of When fires are lit in the grasslands in summer, the
fuel wood burnt grass gets a fresh flush of small green shoots which
Over-grazing by huge herds of domestic livestock has the domestic animals graze on. If this is done too
degraded many grass lands. Grasslands have diverse frequently, the grasslands begin to deteriorate. Finally, the
species of insects that pollinate crops. There are also grasslands become bare; the soil is solidly compacted by
predators of these insects such as the small mammals like trampling, or is washed away during the monsoon by rain
shrews, reptiles like lizards, birds of prey, and amphibians and whipped into dust storms during the hot dry summer.
such as frogs and toads. All these carnivorous animals help The land is degraded, as there is no grass to hold the soil
to control insect pests in the adjoining agricultural lands. in place. It becomes a wasteland.

What are the threats to Grassland Ecosystems? Why are our grassland species vanishing?
In many areas, grasslands have been used for centuries by Most people feel that it is only our forests and its wildlife
pastoral communities. Over-utilization and changes in land that is disappearing. However, other natural ecosystems,
use of the ‘common grazing lands’ of rural communities such as grasslands, are disappearing even more rapidly.
has lead to their degradation. The grassland cover in the Many of the grassland species have disappeared from
country, in terms of permanent pastures, now covers only several parts of India in which they were found 50 or 60
3.7% of the total land. A main threat to natural grasslands years ago. The cheetah is extinct in India; the wolf is now
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highly threatened; the blackbuck and chinkara are being parks and wildlife sanctuaries in all the different types
poached for their meat; birds such as the beautiful Great of grasslands.
Indian Bustard are vanishing. Unless grassland species are  Animals such as the wolf, blackbuck, chinkara and
protected, they will vanish from their shrinking habitat, as birds such as the bustards and floricans have now
natural and undisturbed grasslands are left in very few become rare all over the country. They must be
locations. If these animals and birds are killed or their carefully protected in the few national parks and
habitat is reduced further, their extinction will rapidly wildlife sanctuaries that have natural grassland
follow. habitats as well as outside these PAs.
 We need to create awareness among people that
What if our grasslands disappear?
grasslands are of great value. If we are all concerned
If our grasslands are destroyed, we will lose a highly- about our disappearing grasslands and their
specialized ecosystem in which plants and animals have wonderful wildlife, the Government will be
been adapted to these particular habitat conditions over motivated to protect them.
millions of years. In addition, the local people will not be
 Keeping grasslands alive should be made a national
able to support their livestock herds.
priority.
The extinction of species is a great loss to humankind.
The genes of wild grasses are extremely useful for
developing new crop varieties. New medicines could well DESERT ECOSYSTEMS
be discovered from wild grassland plants. It is possible that
Desert and semi-arid lands are extremely specialized and
genes from wild herbivores like wild sheep, goats and
sensitive ecosystems that are easily destroyed by human
antelopes may be used for developing new strains of
activities. The species of these dry areas can live only in
domestic animals. All these possibilities will be lost along
this specialized habitat.
with the grasslands.
What is a desert or a semi-arid ecosystem?
How can grassland ecosystems be conserved?
The deserts and semi-arid areas are mainly located in
Grasslands should not be over-grazed and some areas of
Western India and the Deccan Plateau. The climate in these
the grasslands should be closed for grazing. It is better to
vast tracts is extremely dry. There are also cold deserts
collect grass for stall-feeding cattle. A part of the grassland
such as in Ladakh, which are located in the high plateaus
in an area must be closed every year, so that a rotational
of the Himalayas. The most typical desert landscape that
grazing pattern is established. Fires must be prevented and
is seen in Rajasthan Desert is in the Thar Desert. This has
rapidly controlled. In hilly areas, soil and water
sand dunes; it also has Semi-arid areas covered with sparse
management in each micro-catchment will help the
grasses and a few shrubs, Ecosystems which grow if it rains.
grassland to return to a natural, highly-productive
In most areas of the Thar, the rainfall is scanty and sporadic.
ecosystem.
In some areas, it may rain only once every few years. In
To protect the most natural undisturbed grassland the adjoining semiarid tract, the vegetation consists of a
ecosystems, sanctuaries and national parks must be few shrubs and thorny trees, such as kher and babul.
created. Their management should focus on preserving all The Great and Little Rann of Kutch are extraordinarily
their unique species of plants and animals. Thus, they specialized arid ecosystems. In the summers, they are
should not be converted into plantations of trees. The open similar to a desert landscape. However, as these are low-
grassland is the habitat of its specialized fauna. Planting lying areas near the sea, they get converted to salt marshes
trees in these areas reduces the natural features of this during the monsoons. During this period they attract an
ecosystem, resulting in the destruction of this unique enormous number of aquatic birds, such as ducks, geese,
habitat for wildlife. cranes, storks, etc. The Great Rann is famous, as it is the
only known breeding colony of the Greater and Lesser
What should we do? Flamingos in our country. The Little Rann of Kutch is the
 There is a pressing need to preserve the few natural only home of the Wild Ass in India. The desert and semi-
grassland areas that still survive by creating national arid regions have a number of highly-specialized insects
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and reptiles. The rare animals include the Indian wolf, natural arid ecosystem, as it will convert the region into
desert cat, desert fox, and birds such as the Great Indian intensive agriculture. In Kutch, areas of the little Rann,
Bustard and the florican. Some of the commoner birds which is the only home of the Wild Ass, will be destroyed
include partridges, quails and sand-grouse. by the spread of salt works.
Development Projects alter the desert and arid
How are desert and semi-arid ecosystems landscape. There is a sharp reduction in the habitat
used? available for its noteworthy species, bringing them to the
Areas of scanty vegetation with semi-arid scrubland have verge of extinction. We need a sustainable form of
been used for camel, cattle and goat grazing in Rajasthan development that takes the special needs of the desert
and Gujarat, and for sheep grazing in the Deccan Plateau. into account.
Areas that have a little moisture, e.g., along the
watercourses, have been used for growing crops such as AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS
jowar (sorghum) and bajra (millet). The natural grasses and
local varieties of crops have adapted to growing at very The aquatic ecosystems comprise of the marine
low moisture levels. These can be used for genetic environments of the seas and the freshwater systems in
engineering and developing semi-arid land crops for the lakes, rivers, ponds and wetlands. These ecosystems
future. provide human beings with a wealth of natural resources.
They provide food like fish and crustaceans. Natural aquatic
What are the threats to desert ecosystems? systems, such as rivers and seas, break down the chemical
Several types of development strategies as well as human and organic wastes created by man.
population growth have begun to affect the natural However, this function has limitations, as the aquatic
ecosystem of the desert and semi-arid lands. The ecosystem cannot handle great quantities of waste. Beyond
conversion of these lands through extensive irrigation a certain limit, pollution destroys this natural function.
systems has changed several of the natural characteristics If aquatic ecosystems are misused or over-utilized,
of this region. The canal water evaporates rapidly bringing their ability to provide resources suffers in the long term.
the salts to the surface. The region becomes highly Over-fishing leads to a fall in the fish catch. River courses
unproductive as it becomes saline. The over-extraction of that are changed by dams to provide electricity affect
groundwater from tubewells lowers the water table, thousands of people who do not get a continuous supply
creating an even drier environment. Thus, human activities of water downstream for their daily use. When wetlands
are destroying the authenticity of this unique ecosystem. are drained, their connected rivers tend to cause floods.
The special species that evolved here over millions of years These are all examples of unsustainable changes in the use
ars under threat and may soon become extinct. of natural resources and nature’s ecosystems that are
dependent on hydrological regimes.
How can desert ecosystems be conserved?
Water is an important factor in all our ecosystems.
Desert ecosystems are extremely sensitive. Their ecological Several ecosystems exist in freshwater and marine
balance that forms a habitat for their plants and animals is saltwater. There is very little freshwater on earth, which is
easily disturbed. Desert people have traditionally protected a fundamental resource for people all over the world.
their meager water resources. The Bishnoi tribe in
Rajasthan is known to have protected their khejdi trees What is an aquatic ecosystem?
and the blackbuck antelope for several generations. The In aquatic ecosystems, plants and animals live in water.
tradition began when the ruler of their region ordered his These species are adapted to live in different types of
army to cut down trees for his own use. Several Bishnois aquatic habitats. The special abiotic features are its physical
have been killed while trying to protect their trees. aspects such as the quality of the water, which includes its
There is an pressing need to protect residual patches clarity, salinity, oxygen content and rate of flow. Aquatic
of this ecosystem within national parks and wildlife ecosystems may be classified as being stagnant ecosystems,
sanctuaries in desert and semi-arid areas. The Indira or running water ecosystems. The mud gravel or rocks that
Gandhi Canal in Rajasthan is destroying this important form the bed of the aquatic ecosystem alter its
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characteristics and influence its plant and animal species plant and animal matter. They act on the detritus, which is
composition. The aquatic ecosystems are also classified broken down into nutrients which aquatic plants can
into freshwater, brackish and marine ecosystems, which absorb, thus completing the nutrient cycle in the pond.
are based on the salinity levels. The temporary ponds begin to dry up after the rains and
The freshwater ecosystems that have running water the surrounding grasses and terrestrial plants spread into
are streams and rivers. Ponds, tanks and lakes are the moist mud that is exposed. Animals like frogs, snails
ecosystems where water does not flow. Wetlands are and worms remain dormant in the mud, awaiting the next
special ecosystems in which the water level fluctuates monsoon.
dramatically in different seasons. They have expanses of
shallow water with aquatic vegetation, which forms an Lake ecosystems
ideal habitat for fish, crustaceans and water birds. A lake ecosystem functions like a giant permanent pond.
Marine ecosystems are highly saline, while brackish A large amount of its plant material is the algae, which
areas have less saline water such as in river deltas. Coral derives energy from the Sun. This is transferred to the
microscopic animals, which feed on the algae. There are
reefs are very rich in species and are found in only a few
fish that are herbivorous and are dependent on algae and
shallow tropical seas. The richest coral reefs in India are
aquatic weeds. The small animals such as snails are eaten
around the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and in the Gulf
by small carnivorous fish, which in turn are preyed upon
of Kutch.
by larger carnivorous fish. Some specialized fish, such as
Brackish water ecosystems in river deltas are covered catfish, feed on the detritus on the muddy bed of the lake;
by mangrove forests and are among the world’s most they are called ‘bottom feeders’. Energy cycles through the
productive ecosystems in terms of biomass production. lake ecosystem from the sunlight that penetrates the water
The largest mangrove swamps are in the Sunderbans in surface to the plants. From the plants, the energy is
the delta of the Ganges River. transferred to herbivorous animals and carnivores. Animals
excrete waste products, which settle on the bottom of the
Pond ecosystems lake and is broken down by small animals that live in the
The pond is the simplest aquatic ecosystem to observe. mud in the lake bed. This acts as the nutrient material that
There are differences between a temporary pond that is used by aquatic plants for their growth. During this
has water only in the monsoon season and a larger tank or process, plants use carbon from CO, for their growth and
lake that is an aquatic ecosystem throughout the year. Most in the process release oxygen. This oxygen is then used by
ponds become dry after the rains are over and are covered aquatic animals, which filter water through their
by terrestrial plants for the rest of the year. respiratory system.

When a pond begins to fill during the rains, its life- Stream and River Ecosystems
forms — such as the algae and the microscopic animals,
Streams and rivers are flowing water ecosystems, in which
aquatic insects, snails, and worms — come out of remained
all the living forms are specially adapted to different rates
dormant during the dry phase. Gradually, the more
of flow. Some plants and animals, such as snails and other
complex animals such as crabs, frogs and fish return to
burrowing animals, can withstand the rapid flow of the
the pond. The vegetation in the water consists of floating
hill-streams. Other species of plants and animals, like water
weeds and rooted vegetation on the periphery, whose
beetles and skaters, can live only in slower moving water.
roots are in the muddy floor under the water and whose
Some species of fish, like the Mahseer, go upstream from
foliage emerges out of the surface of the water. rivers to hill-streams for breeding. They need crystal-clear
As the pond fills in the monsoon season, a large water to be able to breed. As deforestation occurs in the
number of food chains are formed. The algae are eaten by hills, the water in the streams that once flowed throughout
microscopic animals, which are in turn eaten by small fish, the year becomes seasonal. This leads to flash-floods in
on which the larger carnivorous fish depend. These are in the rains and a shortage of water once the streams dry up
turn eaten by birds such as kingfishers, herons and birds after the monsoon. The community of flora and fauna of
of prey. Aquatic insects, worms and snails feed on the waste streams and rivers depends on the clarity, flow and oxygen
material excreted by animals and the dead or decaying content, as well as the nature of their beds. The stream or
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A manish Singh Sir’s Initiative ENVIRONMENT
river can have a sandy, rocky or muddy bed, each type essential for agriculture. Fisher folk use the aquatic
having its own species of plants and animals. ecosystems to earn a livelihood. People catch fish and
crabs; they also collect edible plants. These are used locally
Marine Ecosystems as food or for sale in the market. Over-fishing leads to a
The Indian Ocean, the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal serious decline in the catch and a long-term loss of income
constitute the marine ecosystems around peninsular India. for the fisher folk.
In the coastal area, the sea is shallow while further away, Marshes and wetlands are of great economic
it is deep. Both these are different ecosystems. The importance for people who live on their fish, crustaceans,
producers in this ecosystem vary from microscopic algae reeds, grasses and other produce.
to large seaweeds. There are millions of zooplankton and
Modern man impounds water in dams to be able to
a large variety of invertebrates which fish, turtles and
store it throughout the year. Agriculture and industry are
marine mammals feed on. The shallow areas near Kutch
highly dependent on large quantities of water. However
and around the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are some of
this leads to problems for tribal people who have lived
the most incredible coral reefs in the world. Coral reefs
are only second to tropical evergreen forests in their there before the dams were built as they are displaced for
richness of species. Fish, crustaceans, starfish, jellyfish and these dams.
the polyps that deposit the coral are just a few of the Dams are built across rivers to generate electricity.
thousands of species that form this incredible world under A large proportion of this energy is used by urban people,
the shallow seas. The deforestation of the adjacent by agriculturists in irrigated farmlands and in enormous
mangroves leads to silt being carried out to sea where it is quantities for industry. Large dams have serious ill-effects
deposited on the coral, which gets bleached and then dies. on the natural river ecosystems. While the water from
There are many different types of coastal ecosystems, dams used for irrigation has led to economic prosperity in
which are highly dependent on the tide. The marine some areas, in semi-arid areas that are artificially irrigated
ecosystem is used by coastal fisher folk for fishing, which the high level of evaporation leads to severe Salinisation
is their livelihood. In the past, fishing was done at a as salts are brought up into the surface layers of the soil.
sustainable level and the marine ecosystem continued to This makes such lands gradually more and more saline and
maintain its abundant supply of fish over many unproductive.
generations. Now, with the growth of intensive fishing by
using giant nets and mechanized boats and trawlers. The What are the threats to aquatic ecosystems?
fish catch in the Indian Ocean has dropped significantly. Water pollution occurs from sewage and poorly-managed
solid waste in urban areas when it enters the aquatic
Seashore Ecosystems
ecosystem of lakes and rivers. Sewage leads to a process
Beaches can be sandy, rocky, shell-covered or muddy. On called “eutrophication”, which destroys life in the water
each of these different types, there are several specific as the oxygen content is severely reduced. Fish and
species which have evolved to occupy a separate niche. crustaceans cannot breathe and are killed; a foul odor is
There are different crustaceans, such as crabs, that make
produced; gradually, the natural flora and fauna of the
holes in the sand. Various shore birds feed on their prey
aquatic ecosystem are destroyed.
by probing into the sand or mud on the seashore. Several
different species of fish are caught by fishermen. In many In rural areas the excessive use of fertilizers causes
areas, the fish catch has decreased over the last two an increase in nutrients, which leads to eutrophication.
decades. Pesticides used in adjacent fields pollute the water and
kill off its aquatic animals. Chemical pollution from industry
How are aquatic ecosystems used? kills a large number of life-forms in adjacent aquatic
Man uses aquatic ecosystems for the clean freshwater on ecosystems. Contamination by heavy metals and other
which his life is completely dependent. We need clean toxic chemicals affects the health of people who live near
water to drink and for other domestic uses. Water is also these areas as they depend on this water.

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 ENVIRONMENT An effort of Team EG
SIGNIFICANCE OF ECOSYSTEM SUMMARY
All ecosystems deliver goods and services to humankind An ecosystem is a functional unit of nature and comprises
and therefore have economic value, where economic value abiotic and biotic components. Abiotic components are
is defined as all contributions to human welfare (financial, inorganic materials- air, water and soil, whereas biotic
social, environmental and health). These ecosystem components are producers, consumers and decomposers.
services include the purification of air and water, the Each ecosystem has characteristic physical structure
pollination of crops, nutrient cycling and decomposition resulting from interaction amongst abiotic and biotic
of wastes, the generation and renewal of soils, stabilisation components. Species composition and stratification are the
of climate, mitigation of droughts and floods, and two main structural features of an ecosystem. Based on
source of nutrition every organism occupies a place in an
protecting soils from erosion.
ecosystem.
Evidence from the ecological literature demonstrates
Productivity, decomposition, energy flow, and
the complexity of ecosystem functioning, and the
nutrient cycling are the four important components of an
unpredictability of ecosystem responses to the multitude
ecosystem. Primary productivity is the rate of capture of
of human pressures. In general, land management
solar energy or biomass production of the producers. It is
decisions tend to emphasise only a subset of these divided into two types: gross primary productivity (GPP)
ecosystem consequences, and usually only at local scales, and net primary productivity (NPP). Rate of capture of solar
and the full range of ecosystem services is rarely recognised energy or total production of organic matter is called as
let alone explicitly considered. While ecological science GPP. NPP is the remaining biomass or the energy left after
has repeatedly highlighted the general pattern of utilisation of producers. Secondary productivity is the rate
ecosystem responses to human-imposed stress, including of assimilation of food energy by the consumers.
the existence of response discontinuities characterized by In decomposition, complex organic compounds of
sudden and often catastrophic environmental change, detritus are converted to carbon dioxide, water and
quantifying these patterns and predicting the location of inorganic nutrients by the decomposers. Decomposition
thresholds continue to elude us. involves three processes, namely fragmentation of detritus,
Evidence from the economic literature of the value leaching and catabolism. Energy flow is unidirectional.
of ecosystem services, differentiates between the value of First, plants capture solar energy and then, food is
goods which are used directly (e.g. timber, fish, etc) and transferred from the producers to decomposers.
those services which indirectly support and contribute to Organisms of different trophic levels in nature are
production systems and human welfare (e.g. watershed connected to each other for food or energy relationship
services and nutrient cycling). forming a food chain. The storage and movement of
nutrient elements through the various components of the
Ecosystem services are also valuable for reasons not
ecosystem is called nutrient cycling; nutrients are
related to their use (non-use value), for example because
repeatedly used through this process. Nutrient cycling is
we believe they should exist for others now or in future
of two types gaseous and sedimentary. Atmosphere or
and for their own sake. Use and non-use values combine hydrosphere is the reservoir for the gaseous type of cycle
to give the total economic value (TEV) of a resource. (carbon), whereas Earth’s crust is the reservoir for
Through analysing the changes in the TEV, economics sedimentary type (phosphorus). Products of ecosystem
provides a framework that recognises the distribution of processes are named as ecosystem services, e.g.,
economic benefits between (or economic values held by) purification of air and water by forests.
different stakeholders, there are gaps in the quantitative
The biotic community is dynamic and undergoes
evidence base.
changes with the passage of time. These changes are
Economic analysis also shows that maintaining sequentially ordered and constitute ecological succession.
ecosystems in an unused/undeveloped state is Succession begins with invasion of a bare lifeless area by
economically viable, i.e. generates higher welfare than use pioneers which later pave way for successors and ultimately
or development, generally only when all components of a stable climax community is formed. The climax
TEV are taken into account showing the importance of community remains stable as long as the environment
indirect use and non-use values. remains unchanged.
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 CHAPTER

2
BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION

A wide variety of living organisms including plants, animals species has more genetic variation, it can adapt better to
and micro-organisms with whom we share this planet earth the changed environmental conditions. Lower diversity in
makes the world a beautiful place to live in. Living a species leads to genetic uniformity of genetically similar
organisms exist almost everywhere from mountain peaks crop plants. This homogeneity is desirable in producing
to the ocean depths; from deserts to the rainforests. They uniform quality of grain. But genetic uniformity restricts
vary in their habit and behaviour, shapes, sizes and colour. adaptability of a species to environmental stress as all the
The remarkable diversity of living organisms form an plants have same level of resistance.
inseparable and significant parts of our planet however,  With the above background, genetic diversity refers
the ever increasing human population is posing serious to the variety of genes contained within species of
threats to bio-diversity. plants, animals and micro-organisms. New genetic
variation in individuals occurs by gene and
BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY chromosomal mutation, and in organisms with sexual
reproduction may be spread across the population
Sum total of all the variety of living organisms on earth by recombination. For instance, two brothers differ
constitute biodiversity. Biological diversity is usually in their structure, although their parents are the
considered at three different levels- same. The differences could be in alleles (different
variants of the same gene), in entire gene (the traits
(a) genetic diversity i.e. at genetic level,
determining particular characteristics) or in
(b) species diversity i.e. at the level of species, and chromosomal structure. The amount of genetic
(c) ecosystem diversity i.e. at the level of variation (gene pool) present in an inter-breeding
ecosystem. A note on the above has been laid population is shaped or decided by the process of
down below- natural selection. Selection leads to certain genetic
attributes being preferred and results in changes in
(a) Genetic diversity the frequency of genes within this pool. This forms
the basis of adaptation among the living organisms.
Each species, varying from bacteria to higher plants and
India has high genetic diversity and is regarded as a
animals, stores an immense amount of genetic
Vavilov’s centre of high crop genetic diversity - so
information. For example, the number of genes is about named after the Russian agro-botanist N I Vavilov,
450-700 in mycoplasma, 4000 in bacteria (eg. Escherichia who identified eight such centres of origin of
coli), 13,000 in Fruit-fly (Drosophila melanogaster); 32,000 cultivated plants around the world in the 1950s.
- 50,000 in rice (Oryza sativa); and 35,000 to 45,000 in
human beings (Homo sapiens sapiens). This variation of (b) Species diversity
genes, not only of numbers but of structure also, is of great Species diversity refers to the variety of species within a
value as it enables a population to adapt to its environment geographical area. Species diversity can be measured in
and to respond to the process of natural selection. If a terms of:
A manish Singh Sir’s Initiative ENVIRONMENT
(a) Species richness - refers to the number of wetlands and tropical rainforests, from coral reefs to the
various species in a defined area. deep sea. Each of these comprises a great variety of
(b) Species abundance - refers to the relative habitats and interactions between and within biotic and
numbers among species. For example, the abiotic components. The most diversity-rich are western-
number of species of plants, animals and ghats and the north-eastern region. A very large number
microorganisms may be more in an area than of species found in these ecosystems are endemic or found
that recorded in another area. in these areas only in India i.e. they are found nowhere
else except in India, The endemics are concentrated mainly
(c) Taxonomic or phylogenetic diversity - refers to
in north-east, western-ghats, north-west Himalaya, and
the genetic relationships between different
Andaman and Nicobar Islands. About 33% of the flowering
groups of species.
plants recorded in India are endemic to our country. Indian
Kinds of species that are present in an area is also region is also notable for endemic fauna. For example, out
important. When taxonomically unrelated species are of recorded vertebrates, 53% freshwater fish, 60%
present in an area, the area represents greater species amphibians, 36% reptiles and 10% mammalian fauna are
diversity as compared to an area represented by endemic.
taxonomically related species.
At the global level, an estimated 1.7 million species HOT SPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY
of living organisms have been described to date and many
more are yet to be discovered. It has been currently Biodiversity is not uniformly distributed across the
estimated that the total number of species may vary from geographical regions of the earth. Certain regions of the
5-50 millions. Species diversity is not evenly distributed world are very rich in biodiversity. We call such areas as
across the globe. The overall richness of species is “mega diversity zones”. We also refer to them as “hot-
concentrated in equatorial regions and tends to decrease spots”. For example, India accounts for only 2.4 % of the
as one moves from equatorial to polar regions. In addition, land area of the world; but it contributes approximately
biodiversity in land ecosystems generally decreases with 8% species to the global diversity due to existence of such
increasing altitude. The other factors that influence pockets. Norman Myers, a British Ecologist, developed the
biodiversity are amount of rainfall and nutrient level in concept of hot spots in 1988 to designate priority areas
soil. In marine ecosystems, species richness tends to be for in situ conservation. According to him, the hot spots
much higher in continental shelves. India is a country of are the richest and the most threatened reservoirs of
vast diversity and it is among the 12 “mega-diversity” biodiversity on the earth. The criteria for determining a
countries in the world. hot spot are:
(i) The area should support >1500 endemic
(c) Ecosystem diversity
species,
It refers to the presence of different types of ecosystems.
(ii) It must have lost over 70 % of the original
For instance, the tropical south India with rich species
habitat
diversity will have altogether different structure compared
to the desert ecosystem which has far less number of plant Twenty-five biodiversity hot spots have been
and animal species. Likewise, the marine ecosystem identified in the world. These hot spots are characterized
although has many types of fishes, yet it differs from the by posing exceptionally high biodiversity. For example the
freshwater ecosystem of rivers and lakes in terms of its total area of these 25 hot spots cover 1.4% of the total
characteristics. So such variations at ecosystem level are land area, support 44% of plant and 35% terrestrial
termed as ecosystem diversity. vertebrates. Among the 25 hot spots of the world, 2 are
l As stated above, ecosystem diversity encompasses found in India namely western ghats and the eastern
the broad differences between ecosystem, and the Himalayas. These two areas of the country are
diversity of the habitats and ecological processes occurring exceptionally rich in flowering plants, reptiles, amphibians,
within each ecosystem type, India has very diverse butterflies and some species of mammals.
terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems ranging from ice-capped The eastern Himalayan hot spot extends to the north
Himalayas to deserts, from arid scrub to grassland to - eastern India and Bhutan. The temperate forests are

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found at an altitude of 1780 to 3500 m. Many deep and topography and microclimatic regimes, some areas within
semi- isolated valleys are exceptionally rich in endemic the region are considered to be active zones of speciation.
plant species. The Western Ghat region lies parallel to the The region has 490 arborescent taxa, of which as many as
western coast of Indian peninsula for almost 1600 km, in 308 are endemic.
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. These About 1,500 endemic species of dicotyledonous plants are
forests at low elevation (500 m above mean sea level) are reported from the Western Ghats. 245 species of orchids
mostly evergreen, while those at 500- 1500 m height are belonging to 75 genera are found here, of which 112
generally semi-evergreen forests. species in ten genera are endemic to the region. As regards
the fauna, as many as 313 species of vertebrates belonging
HOT SPOTS OF INDIA to 22 genera are endemic. The extent of endemism is high
India has two identified biodiversity hot spots. These are amongst amphibian and reptile species. There occur 117
the Eastern Himalayas and the Western Ghats. Eastern species of amphibians in the region, of which 89 species
Himalaya (76 per cent) are endemic. Of the 165 species of reptiles
Phyto-geographically, the Eastern Himalaya forms a found in Western Ghats, 88 species are endemic. Many of
distinct floral region and comprises of Nepal, Bhutan, the endemic and other species are listed as threatened.
states of East and North-East India, and a contiguous sector
of Yunnan province in South-Western China. In the whole
of Eastern Himalaya, there are an estimated 9,000 plant WHY IS BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
species, out of which 3,500 (i.e. 39 per cent) are endemic. IMPORTANT
The area has long been recognised as a rich centre of Humans depend for their sustenance, health, wellbeing
primitive flowering plants and is popularly known as the
and cultural growth on nature. Biotic resources provide
cradle of Speciation. Species of several families of
food, fruit, seed, fodder, medicines and a host of other
monocotyledons, Orchidaceae, Zingiberaceae and
goods and services. The enormous diversity of life is of
Arecaceae are found in the area. Gymnosperms and
immense value, imparting resilience to ecosystems and
Pteridophytes (ferns) are also well represented here.
natural processes. Biodiversity also has enormous social
The area is also rich in wild relatives of plants of economic
and cultural importance.
significance e.g, rice, banana, citrus, ginger, chilli, jute and
sugarcane. It is also regarded as the centre of origin and The value of biological diversity
diversification of five palms of commercial importance,
namelycoconut, arecariut, palmyra palm, sugar palm and The various benefits of biological diversity can be grouped
wild date palm. Tea (Thea sinensis) has been cultivated in under three categories: (a) ecosystem services, (b)
this region for the last 4,000 years. biological resources, and( c) social benefits. A brief note
on the above thus follows-
As regards faunal diversity, 63 per cent of the genera of
land mammals in India are found in this region. During
(a) Ecosystem services
the last four decades, two new mammals have been
discovered from the region - Golden Langur from Assam Living organisms provide many ecological services free of
Bhutan region, and Namdapha Flying Squirrel from cost that are responsible for maintaining ecosystem health.
Arunachal Pradesh, indicating the species richness of the Thus biodiversity is essential for the maintenance and
region. sustainable utilization of goods and services from
From Namdapha National Park itself, a new genus of ecological system as well as from individual species.
mammal, a new subspecies of a bird, six new amphibians  Protection of water resources: Natural vegetation
species, four new species of fish, at least 15 new species cover helps in maintaining hydrological cycles,
of beetles and six new species of flies have been regulating and stabilizing water run-off and acting
discovered. as a buffer against extreme events such as floods and
WESTERN GHATS droughts. Vegetation removal results in siltation of
The Western Ghats region is considered to be one of the dams and waterways. Wetlands and forests act as
most important bio-geographic zones of India, as it is one water purifying systems, while mangroves trap silt
of the riches centres of endemism. Due to varied thereby reducing impacts on marine ecosystems.

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A manish Singh Sir’s Initiative ENVIRONMENT
 Soil protection: Biological diversity helps in the Without ecological services provided by biodiversity
conservation of soil and retention of moisture and it would not be possible to get food, pure air to
nutrients. Clearing large areas of vegetation cover breathe and would be submerged in the waste
has been often seen to accelerate soil erosion, reduce produced.
its productivity and often result in flash floods. Root
systems allows penetration of water to the sub soil (b) Biological resources of economic importance
layer. Root system also brings mineral nutrients to  Food, fibre, medicines, fuel wood and ornamental
the surface by nutrient uptake. plants: Five thousand plant species are known to have
 Nutrient storage and cycling: Ecosystem perform the been used as food by humans. Presently about 20
vital function of recycling nutrients found in the species feed the majority of the world’s population
atmosphere as well as in the soil. Plants are able to and just 3 or 4 only are the major staple crops to
take up nutrients, and these nutrients then can form majority of population in the world.
the basis of food chains, to be used by a wide range
A large number of plants and animals materials are
of life forms. Nutrients in the soil, in turn, is
used for the treatment of various ailments. The usage
replenished by dead or waste matter which is
of medicinal plants in India has an ancient history,
transformed by micro-organisms; this may then feed
dating back to the pre-vedic culture, at least 4000
others such as earthworms which also mix and aerate
years B.C. therapeutic values of herbal medicines led
the soil and make nutrients more readily available.
to evolution of Ayurveda which means “science of
 Pollution reduction: Ecosystems and ecological life”. It is estimated that at least 70 % of the country’s
processes play an important role in maintenance of population rely on herbal medicines and over 7000
gaseous composition of the atmosphere, breakdown species of plants are used for medicinal purposes.
of wastes and removal of pollutants. Some
Wood is a basic commodity used worldwide for
ecosystems, especially wetlands have the ability to
making furniture and for building purposes. Fire
breaking down and absorb pollutants. Natural and
wood is the primary source of fuel widely used in
artificial wetlands are being used to filter effluents
third world countries. Wood and bamboo are used
to remove nutrients, heavy metals, suspended solids;
for making paper. Plants are the traditional source
reduce the BOD (Biological Oxygen Demand) and
of fibre such as coir, hemp, flax, cotton Jute.
destroy harmful micro-organisms. Excessive
quantities of pollutants, however, can be detrimental  Breeding material for crop improvement: Wild
to the integrity of ecosystems and their biota. relatives of cultivated crop plants contain valuable
genes that are of immense genetic value in crop
 Climate stability: Vegetation influences climate at
improvement programmes. Genetic material or
macro as well as micro levels. Growing evidence
genes of wild crop plants are used to develop new
suggests that undisturbed forests help to maintain
varieties of cultivated crop plants for restructuring
the rainfall in the vicinity by recycling water vapor at
of the existing ones for improving yield or resistance
a steady rate back into the atmosphere. Vegetation
of crops plants. For example: rice grown in Asia is
also exerts moderating influence on micro climate.
Cooling effect of vegetation is a common experience protected from four main diseases by genes
which makes living comfortable. Some organisms are contributed by a single wild rice variety.
dependent on such microclimates for their existence.  Future resources: There is a clear relationship
 Maintenance of ecological processes: Different between the conservation of biological diversity and
species of birds and predators help to control insect the discovery of new biological resources. The
pests, thus reduce the need and cost of artificial relatively few developed plant species currently
control measures. Birds and nectar-loving insects cultivated have had a large amount of research and
which roost and breed in natural habitats are selective breeding applied to them. Many presently
important pollinating agents of crop and wild plants. under-utilised food crops have the potential to
Some habitats protect crucial life stages of wildlife become important crops in the future. Knowledge
populations such as spawning areas in mangroves and of the uses of wild plants by the local people is often
wetlands. a source for ideas on developing new plant products.

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 ENVIRONMENT An effort of Team EG
(c) Social benefits facing a very high risk of extinction
 Recreation: Forests, wildlife, national parks and in the wild in near future.
sanctuaries, garden and aquaria have high Vulnerable A taxon is vulnerable when it is not
entertainment and recreation value. Ecotourism, critically endangered or
photography, painting, film making and literary endangered but is facing high risk
activities are closely related. of extinction in the wild in the
medium term future.
 Cultural values: Plants and animals are important
Lower risk A taxon is lower risk when it has
part of the cultural life of humans. Human cultures
been evaluated and does not
have co-evolved with their environment and
satisfy the criteria for critically
biological diversity can be impart a distinct cultural
endangered, endangered or
identity to different communities.
vulnerable.
The natural environment serves the inspirational,
Data deficient A taxon is data deficient when
aesthetic, spiritual and educational needs of the people, there is inadequate information to
of all cultures. In a majority of Indian villages and towns, make any direct or indirect
plants like Tulsi (Ocimum sanctum), Peepal (Ficus religiosa), assessment of its risk of
Khejri (Prosopis cineraria) are planted and considered extinction.
sacred and worshipped.
Not evaluated A taxon is not evaluated when it
has not yet been assessed against
Research, Education and Monitoring
the above criteria.
There is still much to learn on how to get better use from
biological resources, how to maintain the genetic base of Status of threatened species
harvested biological resources, and how to rehabilitate The IUCN Red List is an authentic source of information
degraded ecosystems. Natural areas provide excellent living for this purpose. The 2016 Red List is the latest update. It
laboratories for such studies, for comparison with other uses a set of criteria, relevant to all species and all regions
areas under systems of use and for valuable research in of the world, to evaluate the extinction risk of species. The
ecology and evolution. 2000 Red List contains assessment of more than 18,000
International Union for the Conservation of Nature species; 11,000 of which are threatened (5,485 animals
and Natural Resources, IUCN has recognized eight Red List and 5611 plants). Out of these, 1,939 are listed as critically
categories according to the conservation status of species. endangered (925 animals, and 1,014 plants). According to
the Red List, in India, 77 plant species are critically
THE IUCN THREAT CATEGORIES
endangered., 172 endangered and 139 vulnerable.
List Category Definition Amongst animals, 75 are critically endangered, 202
Extinct A taxon is extinct when there is no endangered and 385 Vulnerable. A few examples of these
reasonable doubt that the last plant and animals are given below:
individual has died.
Extinct in the wild A taxon is extinct in the wild when EXAMPLES OF THREATENED SPECIES IN INDIA
exhaustive surveys in known and/ Category Plant species Animal species
or expected habitats have failed
Critically Berberis nilghiriensis Sus salvanius,
to record an individual.
endangered (Pigmy hog)
Critically endangered A taxon is critically endangered
when it is facing high risk of Endangered Bentinckta nicobarica Allurus fulgens,
extinction in the wild in (Red Panda)
immediate future. Vulnerable Cupressus Antilope
Endangered A taxon is endangered when it is cashmeriana cervicapra,
not critically endangered but is (Black buck)

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CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY are found here. With 96 national parks and over 500
wildlife sanctuaries, the range and diversity of India’s
Conservation is the planned management of natural wildlife heritage is unique. Some of the main sanctuaries
resources, to retain the balance in nature and retain the
in India are: The Jim Corbett Tiger Reserve- Uttaranchal,
diversity. It also includes wise use of natural resources in
Kanha National Park, Madhya Pradesh, Bandhavgarh
such a way that the needs of present generation are met
National Park- Madhya Pradesh, Ranthambhor National
and at the same time leaving enough for the future
Parfc-Sawai Madhopur, Gir National Park-Sasangir
generations. Conservation of biodiversity is important to:
(Gujarat) etc.
 prevent the loss of genetic diversity of a species,
Wildlife lovers eager to see magnificent Bird
 save a species from becoming extinct, and Sanctuary at Bharatpur, Rajasthan as it is the second habitat
 protect ecosystems damage and degradation. in the world that is visited by the Siberian Cranes in winter
and it provides a vast breeding area for the native water
Conservation Strategies birds, Great Indian bustard is found in the Indian deserts.
Conservation efforts can be grouped into the following two In western Himalayas, one can see birds like Himalayan
categories: monal pheasant, western tragopanm koklass, white crested
1. In-situ (on-site) conservation includes the protection khalij pheasant, griffon vultures, lammergiers, choughs,
ravens. In the Andaman and Nicobar region, about 250
of plants and animals within their natural habitats or
species and subspecies of birds are found, such as rare
in protected areas. Protected areas are land or sea
Narcondum horn bill, Nicobar pigeon and megapode.
dedicated to protect and maintain biodiversity.
While the national parks and sanctuaries in South India,
2. Ex-situ (off-site) conservation of plants and animals too. For e.g. Madumalai in Tamil Nadu and Bandipur Tiger
outside their natural habitats. These include botanical Reserve and Nagahole National Park in Karnataka are
gardens, zoo, gene banks, seek bank, tissue culture important for conservation.
and cryopreservation. Many National Parks and Sanctuaries have been
established to preserve wildlife in their natural
In-situ methods
environment. Some of them are given below along with
Protection of habitat important species found there.

The main strategy for conservation of species is the  Kaziranga sanctuary (Assam) - One-horned rhinoceros
protection of habitats in representative ecosystems.  Manas sanctuary (Assam) - Wild water buffaloes.
Currently, India has ninety six National Parks, five hundred  Gir forest (Gujarat) - Lions, chital, sambar, wild bears
Wildlife Sanctuaries, thirteen Biosphere Reserves, twenty  Kelameru bird sanctuary (Andhra Pradesh) - Pelicans
seven Tiger Reserves and eleven Elephant Reserves and marine birds
covering an area of 15.67 million hectares or 4.7 % of the  Dachigam sanctuary (Jammu and Kashmir) - Kashmir
geographical area of the country. Twenty one wetlands, stags, Himalayan thar, wild goats, sheep, antelopes.
thirty mangrove areas and four coral reef areas have been  Bandipur sanctuary (Karnataka) - Indian bison,
identified for intensive conservation and management elephants, langurs
purposes by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt.  Periyar sanctuary (Kerala) - Elephants, barking deer,
of India. sambhar
 Kanha National Park (Madhya Pradesh) - Tiger,
National Parks and Sanctuaries leopards, wild dogs
India is unique in the richness and diversity of its vegetation  Simlipal National Park (Orissa) - Mangroves, marine
and wildlife. India’s national parks and wildlife sanctuaries turtles lay eggs
(including bird sanctuaries) are situated Ladakh in  Bharatpur bird sanctuary (Rajasthan) - Ducks, herons
Himalayas to Southern tip of Tamil Nadu with its rich bio-  Corbett National Park (Uttaranchal) -Tigers, barking
diversity and heritage. Wildlife sanctuaries in India attract deer, sambar, wild bear, rhesus monkey.
people from all over the world as the rarest of rare species  Jaladpara sanctuary (West Bengal) - Rhinoceros

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Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) India in Cryopreservation is the storage of material at ultra low
association with other NGO partners and tribal people, is temperature of liquid nitrogen (-1960C) and essentially
making every possible effort to develop new models of involves suspension of all metabolic processes and
wildlife conservation to preserve India’s most treasured activities. Cryopreservation has been successfully applied
fauna and to protect the environment. to meristems, zygotic and somatic embryos, pollen,
protoplasts cells and suspension cultures of a number of
Ex-situ Conservation plant species.
Botanical gardens, zoos, etc Conservation at molecular level (DNA level)
To complement in-situ conservation efforts, ex-situ
In addition to above, germplasm conservation at molecular
conservation is being undertaken through setting up level is now feasible and attracting attention. Cloned DNA
botanic gardens, zoos, medicinal plant parks, etc by various and material having DNA in its native state can all be used
agencies. The Indian Botanical Garden in Howrah (West for genetic conservation.
Bengal) is over 200 years old. Other important botanical
Furthermore, non-viable material representing
gardens are in Ooty, Bangalore and Lucknow. The most
valuable genotypes stored in gene banks can all be used
recent one is The Botanical Garden of Indian Republic
as sources of DNA libraries from where a relevant gene or
established at NOIDA, near Delhi in April, 2002. The main
a combination of genes can be recovered.
objectives of this garden are:
 ex-situ conservation and propagation of important Legal measures
threatened plant species, Market demand for some body parts like bones of tiger,
 serve as a Centre of Excellence for conservation, rhino horns, furs, ivory, skins, musk, peacock feathers, etc
research and training, results in killing the wild animals.
 build public awareness through education on plant The Wildlife Protection Act (1972) contain provisions
diversity and need for conservation. for penalties or punishment to prevent poaching and illegal
A number of zoos have been developed in the trade. India is also a signatory to the Convention on
country. These zoological parks have been looked upon International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna
essentially as centres of education about animal species and Flora (CITES). The Convention entered into force on
and recreation. They have also played an important role 1st July, 1975. In addition to this, India is also a signatory
in the conservation of endangered animal species such as to Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), which it signed
the Manipur Thamin Deer (Cerus eldi eldi) and the White on 29th December, 1993 at Rio de Janeiro during the Earth
winged Wood Duck (Cairina scutulata). Notable successful Summit.
examples of captive breeding are those of Gangetic gharial The Convention has three key objectives:
(Gavialis gangeticus), turtles and the white tiger. 1. Conservation of biological diversity,
2. Sustainable use of biodiversity and
Gene Banks 3. Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising
Ex-situ collection and preservation of genetic resources is out of the utilization of genetic resources.
done through gene banks and seed banks. The National The CITES and the CBD are international initiatives.
Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), New Delhi Government of India have also passed the Biological
preserves seeds of wild relatives of crop plants as well as Diversity Act, 2002.
cultivated varieties; the National Bureau of Animal Genetic
Resources at Karnal, Haryana maintains the genetic Aichi Biodiversity Targets
material for domesticated animals, and the National Strategic Goal A: Address the underlying causes of
Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources, Lucknow for fishes. biodiversity loss by mainstreaming biodiversity across
government and society.
Cryopreservation Target 1: By 2020, at the latest, people are aware of
Cryopreservation (“freeze preservation”) is particularly the values of biodiversity and the steps they can take to
useful for conserving vegetative propagated crops. conserve and use it sustainably.
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A manish Singh Sir’s Initiative ENVIRONMENT
Target 2: By 2020, at the latest, biodiversity values Strategic Goal C: To improve the status of
have been integrated into national and local development biodiversity by safeguarding ecosystems, species and
and poverty reduction strategies and planning processes, genetic diversity
and are being incorporated into national accounting, as Target 11: By 2020, at least 17 per cent of terrestrial
appropriate and reporting systems. and inland water and 10 per cent of coastal and marine
Target 3: By 2020, at the latest, incentives, including areas, especially areas of particular importance for
subsidies, harmful to biodiversity are eliminated, phased biodiversity and ecosystem services, are conserved through
out or reformed in order to minimize or avoid negative effectively and equitably managed, ecologically
impacts and positive incentives for the conservation and representative and well connected systems of protected
sustainable use of biodiversity are developed and applied, areas and other effective area-based conservation
consistent and in harmony with the Convention, and other measures and integrated into the wider landscapes and
relevant international obligations, taking into account seascapes.
national socio-economic conditions.
Target 12: By 2020, the extinction of known
Target 4: By 2020, at the latest, governments, threatened species has been prevented and their
business and stakeholders at all levels have taken steps to conservation status, particularly of those most in decline,
achieve or have implemented plans for sustainable has been improved and sustained. Target 13: By 2020, the
production and consumption, and have kept the impacts
genetic diversity of cultivated plants and farmed and
of use of natural resources well within safe ecological limits.
domesticated animals and of wild relatives, including other
Strategic Goal B: Reduce the direct pressures on socio-economically as well as culturally valuable species,
biodiversity and promote sustainable use. is maintained and strategies have been developed and
Target 5: By 2020, the rate of loss of all natural implemented for minimizing genetic erosion and
habitats, including forests, is at least halved and where safeguarding their genetic diversity.
feasible brought close to zero and degradation and Strategic Goal D: Enhance the benefits to all from
fragmentation is significantly reduced. biodiversity and ecosystem services
Target 6: By 2020, all fish, and invertebrate stocks,
Target 14: By 2020, ecosystems that provide essential
and aquatic plants are managed and harvested sustainably,
services, including services related to water and contribute
legally and applying ecosystem based approaches, so that
to health, livelihoods and well-being, are restored and
overfishing is avoided, recovery plans and measures are in
safeguarded, taking into account the needs of women,
place for all depleted species, fisheries have no significant
indigenous and local communities and the poor and
adverse impacts on threatened species and vulnerable
vulnerable. Target 15: By 2020, ecosystem resilience and
ecosystems and the impacts of fisheries on stocks, species
and ecosystems are within safe ecological limits. the contribution of biodiversity to carbon stocks has been
enhanced, through conservation and restoration, including
Target 7: By 2020, areas under agriculture,
restoration of at least 15 per cent of degraded ecosystems,
aquaculture and forestry are managed sustainably,
thereby contributing to climate change mitigation and
ensuring conservation of biodiversity.
adaptation and to combating desertification.
Target 8: By 2020, pollution, including from excess
Target 16: By 2015, the Nagoya Protocol on Access
nutrients, has been brought to levels that are not
detrimental to ecosystem function and biodiversity. to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing
of Benefits Arising from their Utilization is in force and
Target 9: By 2020, invasive alien species and pathways
operational, consistent with national legislation.
are identified and prioritized, priority species are controlled
or eradicated, and measures are in place to manage Strategic Goal E: Enhance implementation through
pathways to prevent their introduction and establishment. participatory planning, knowledge management and
capacity building
Target 10: By 2015, the multiple anthropogenic
pressures on coral reefs and other vulnerable ecosystems Target 17: By 2015, each Party has developed,
impacted by climate change or ocean acidification are adopted as a policy instrument and has commenced
minimized, so as to maintain their integrity and implementing an effective, participatory and updated
functioning. national biodiversity strategy and action plan.

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Target 18: By 2020, the traditional knowledge, where the resource has been accessed, in consultation with
innovations and practices of indigenous and local local self government.
communities relevant for the conservation and sustainable World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and World
use of biodiversity, and their customary use of biological Conservation Union supports projects to promote
resources, are respected, subject to national legislation and conservation and appropriate development of Biosphere
relevant international obligations and fully integrated and Reserves.
reflected in the implementation of the Convention with
the full and effective participation of indigenous and local Causes for Loss of Biodiversity
communities, at all relevant levels.  Degradation and destruction of habitats due to
Target 19: By 2020, knowledge, the science base and colonization and clearing of forest areas for
technologies, relating to biodiversity, its values, settlement or agricultural expansion, commercial
functioning, status and trends and the expansion, hydel schemes, fire, human and livestock
consequences of its loss, are improved, widely shared pressure etc.
and transferred and applied.  Hunting and over exploitation, mainly for commercial
Target 20: By 2020, at the latest, the mobilization of (and often illegal) purposes.
financial resources for effectively implementing the  Introduction of exotic species-accidentally or
Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020 from all sources deliberately-that threaten native flora and fauna
and in accordance with the consolidated and agreed directly by predation or by competition and also
process in the Strategy for Resource Mobilization, should indirectly by altering the natural habitat or
increase substantially from the current levels. This target introducing diseases. Pollution and poisoning stress
will be subject to changes contingent to resource needs on ecosystem.
assessments to be developed and reported by Parties.  Due to global warming suitable climate for given
species is changed putting pressure on species with
Biological Diversity Act, 2002 regard to their adaptability thus making them
This Act provides for setting up of a National Biodiversity vulnerable to extinction.
Authority (NBA), State Biodiversity Boards (SBB) and  Improper use of agro-chemicals and pesticides,
Biodiversity Management Committees (BMC) in local increase in human population, inequitable land
bodies. All foreign nationals organizations require prior distribution and economic and political policies and
approval of NBA for obtaining biological resources and/or constraints.
associated knowledge for any use.
Similarly, Indian nationals or organizations will Biodiversity Profile of India
require to give prior intimation to the concerned SBB about
India is one of the 17 identified mega diverse countries of
any biological resources being imported for commercial
the world. With only 2.4 per cent of the total land area of
use. The SBB may prohibit the import if found to violate the world, the known biological diversity of India
the objectives of conservation, sustainable use and benefit contributes 8 per cent to the known global biological
sharing. However, local people and communities of the diversity. It has been estimated that at least 10 per cent of
area, including Vaids and Hakims will have free access to the country’s recorded wild flora, and possibly the same
use biological resources within the country for their own percentage of its wild fauna, are on the threatened list,
use, medicinal purposes and research. many of them on the verge of extinction.
While granting approvals, NBA will impose terms and India has two biodiversity hot spots, namely:
conditions to secure equitable sharing of benefits. There 1. The Eastern Himalayas
is a enabling provision for setting up a framework for
2. The Western Ghats
protecting traditional knowledge. The monetary benefits,
fees and royalties, as a result of approvals by NBA are to And, it is composed of diverse ecological habitats:
be deposited in National Biodiversity Fund which will be 1. Forests
used for conservation and development of areas from 2. Grasslands
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A manish Singh Sir’s Initiative ENVIRONMENT
3. Wetlands (Macaca silenus), Grizzled Giant Squirrel (Ratufa
4. Coastal and Marine ecosystems macroura), Malabar Civet (Viverricula megaspila),
Nilgiri Tahr (Hemitragus bylocrius) and Malabar Grey
5. Desert ecosystems
Hornbill (Ocycerous griseus). The Travancore Tortoise
India, with varied terrain, topography, land use,
(Indotestudo forstem) and Cane turtle (Heosemys
geographic and climatic factors, can be divided into ten
silvatica) are two endangered taxa restricted to a
recognizable biogeographic zones. These zones encompass
small area in central Western Ghats.
a variety of ecosystems - mountains, plateaus, rivers,
forests, deserts, wetlands, lakes, mangroves, coral reefs,  Deccan Plateau, constituting 42 per cent of the total
coasts and islands. geographical area, is a semi-arid region that falls in
the rain shadow area of the Western Ghats. This bio-
 Trans-Himalayan Region, constituting 5.6 per cent
geographic zone of peninsular India is by far the most
of the total geographical area, includes the high
altitude, cold and arid mountain areas of Ladakh, extensive zone, covering India’s finest forests,
Jammu & Kashmir, North Sikkim, Lahaul and Spiti particularly in the States of Madhya Pradesh,
areas of Himachal Pradesh. This zone has sparse Maharashtra and Orissa.
alpine steppe vegetation that harbours several  Gangetic Plain, constituting 10.8 per cent of the total
endemic species and is a favourable habitat for the geographical area, is a flat alluvial region lying to the
biggest populations of wild sheep and goat in the North and South of the Ganga River and its major
world and other rare fauna that includes Snow tributaries and in the foothills of the Himalayas. The
Leopard (Uncia uncia) and the migratory Blacknecked Gangetic plain is topographically homogenous for
Crane (Grus nigricollis). hundreds of kilometers. This zone gains considerable
 Himalayan Zone, in the far North, constituting 6.4 ecological significance in the context of increasing
per cent of the total geographical area includes some industrialization and pollution and the consequent
of the highest peaks in the world and makes India environmental degradation and deforestation.
one of the richest areas in terms of habitats and
 North-East Region, constituting 5.2 per cent of the
species. The steep slopes, unconsolidated soils and
total geographical area, represents the transition
intense rainfall render the zone extremely fragile.
zone between the Indian, Indo-Malayan and Indo-
 Indian Desert Zone, constituting 6.6 per cent of the Chinese bio-geographical regions as well as being a
total geographical area, includes the Thar and the meeting point of the Himalayan mountains and
Kutch deserts and has large expanses of grassland
peninsular India, The North-East is thus the
that supports several endangered species of
biogeographical ‘gateway’ for much of India’s fauna
mammals such as Wolf (Canis lupus), Caracal (Felis
and flora and also a biodiversity hotspot.
caracal), Desert Cat (Felis libyca) and birds of
conservation interest. The country’s extensive Coasts, constituting 2.5 per
cent of the total geographical area with sandy beaches,
 Semi-arid Region, constituting 16.6 per cent of the
mangroves, mud flats, coral reefs and marine angiosperm
total geographical area, is a transition zone between
pastures make them the wealth and health zones of India.
the desert and the dense forests of Western Ghats.
The coastline from Gujarat to Sunderbans is estimated to
Peninsular India has two large regions, which are
climatically semi-arid. This semi-arid region also has be 5,423 km long, A total of 25 islets constitute the
several artificial and natural lakes and marshy lands. Lakshadweep, which are of coral origin, and have a typical
The dominant grass and palatable shrub layer in this reef lagoon system, rich in biodiversity.
zone supports the highest wildlife biomass. Andaman and Nicobar Islands, constituting 0.3 per
 The Western Ghats harbours viable populations of cent of the total geographical area are one of the three
most of the vertebrate species found in peninsular tropical moist evergreen forests zones in India. The islands
India, besides an endemic faunal element of its own. house an array of flora and fauna not found elsewhere.
Significant species endemic to this region include The elongated North-South oriented groups of 348
Nilgiri Langur (Presbytis jobni), Lion Tailed Macaque Andaman Islands have a biogeographical affinity with

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 ENVIRONMENT An effort of Team EG
Myanmar. The Nicobar Islands, lying only 90 kms away from COUNTRIES WITH LARGE NUMBERS OF
Sumatra have much stronger Indonesian and South-East NATURAL HERITAGE SITES
Asian elements. These islands are centres of high
S. No. Country No. of Sites Example
endemism and contain some of India’s finest evergreen
1 Australia 12 Great Barrier Reef
forests and support a wide diversity of corals.
2 US 12 Ye l l o ws to n e
Wetlands occur in various geographical regions such National Park
as the cold arid zones of Ladakh, warm arid zones of
3 China 10 Sichuan Giant
Rajasthan, tropical monsoonic Central India, North Eastern
Panda Sanctuaries
region, South peninsular region and the coastal wetlands.
4 Russia 10 Lake Baikal
5 Canada 9 Canadian Rocky
WHAT ARE UNESCO WORLD Mountains
HERITAGE SITES? 6 India 7 Western Ghats

In 1972, UNESCO adopted the Convention Concerning the

Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. This What are the international agreements and initia-
Convention seeks to encourage the identification, tives related to biodiversity conservation?
protection, and preservation of cultural and natural Several international agreements and global initiatives are
heritage around the world, considered to be of outstanding directly or indirectly related to biodiversity conservation.
value to humanity. The following are the major ones:

UNESCO’s World Heritage Mission is to: Convention on International Trade in Endangered

 Encourage countries to sign the World Heritage Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)
Convention and to ensure the protection of their This Convention has been in force since 1975, and as of
natural and cultural heritage. April 2016, 182 countries had signed it. Even though
 Encourage States Parties to the Convention to enforcement is difficult, CITES has helped reduce trade of
nominate sites within their national territory for mam- threatened species including elephants, crocodiles,
inclusion on the World Heritage List. and chimpanzees.
 Encourage States Parties to establish management
CITES : A SUCCESS STORY
plans and set up reporting systems on the state of
conservation of their World Heritage sites. In the 1980s, the African elephant species was in big
danger, since the animals were being killed in large
 Help States Parties safeguard World Heritage
numbers for their ivory. In 1989, it was declared an
properties by providing technical assistance and endangered species. By 2000, however, the elephant
professional training. population had recovered in Namibia, Botswana; and
 Provide emergency assistance for World Heritage Zimbabwe. How did it happen? That was primarily due to
sites in immediate danger. the UN Convention on International Trade in Endangered
 Support States Parties’ public awareness-building Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), which is an
international agreement for ensuring that international
activities for World Heritage § conservation.
trade in specimens of wild, animals and plants does not
 Encourage participation of the local population in the threaten their survival. In essence, CITES bans the hunting,
preservation of their cultural and natural heritage. capturing, and selling of endangered, or threatened
 Encourage international co-operation in the species.
conservation of our world’s cultural and natural Annually, international wildlife trade is estimated to be
heritage. worth billions of dollars and to include hundreds of millions
Out of the more than 1000 Heritage sites, 197 are of plant and animal specimens. The trade is diverse,
nature sites. These are mostly protected areas that ranging from live animals and plants to a vast array of
conserve biodiversity. wildlife products derived from them, including food

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A manish Singh Sir’s Initiative ENVIRONMENT
products, exotic leather goods, wooden musical Returning to the African elephant case, the recovery of
instruments, timber, tourist curios, and medicines. Levels the population is also causing a problem. In some places,
of exploitation of some animal and plant species are high the area is not enough for the large herds. They uproot
and the trade in them, together with other factors, such many small trees, which in turn affect many other species.
as habitat loss, is capable :of heavily depleting their The local people want to hunt some of the elephants to
populations and even bringing some species close to keep the numbers down and to get economic benefits. In
extinction. Many wildlife species in trade are not 1997, CITES moved the African elephant to a less
endangered, but the existence of an agreement to ensure
restrictive, but a potentially threatened list, allowing the
the sustainability of the trade is important in order to
sale of stock-piled ivory to Japan.
safeguard these resources for the future.
Any ban on hunting and trading can only be a short-term
Because the trade in wild animals and plants crosses
measure. The better way is to educate consumers to stop
borders between countries, the effort to regulate it
requires international co-operation to safeguard certain buying the illegal products. If the prices and the market
species from over-exploitation. CITES was Conceived in the decline, the illegal trade will also stop.
spirit of such co-operation. Today, it accords varying
degrees of protection to roughly 5600 species of animals Uniqueness of Indian Biodiversity and
and 30,000 species of plants, whether they are traded as Associated Regional Specificity
live specimens, fur coats or dried herbs.
India is uniquely rich in all aspects of biodiversity including
CITES works by subjecting international trade in specimens ecosystem, species and genetic biodiversity. For any one
of selected species to certain controls. All import, export,
country in the world, it has perhaps the largest array of
re-export and introduction from the sea of species covered
environmental situations by virtue of its tropical location,
by the Convention have to be authorized through a
licensing system. Each Party to the Convention must varied physical features and climate types. India has the
designate one or more Management Authorities in charge widest variety of ecosystems. With only 2.4% of the land
of administering that licensing system, and one or more area, India accounts for 7-8 % of the recorded species of
Scientific Authorities to advise them on the effects of trade the world. More than 45000 species of plants and 81,000
on the status of the species. species of animals are found hi India. India is also one of
The species covered by CITES are listed in three the eight primary centers of origin of cultivated plants and
Appendices, according to the degree of protection they has a rich agricultural biodiversity.
need:
The trans-Himalayan region with its sparse vegetation
 Appendix I: Species threatened with extinction. Trade
has the richest wild sheep and goat community in the
in specimens of these species is permitted only in
exceptional circumstances. world. The snow leopard (Panthera unciaj and Black-necked
Crane (Grus nigricollis) are found here. The Great Indian
 Appendix II: Species not necessarily threatened with
extinction, but in which trade must be controlled in Bustard (Ardeotis nigriceps) which is highly endangered
order to avoid utilization incompatible with their bird, is found in (Gujrat) region, rich in extensive grasslands.
survival. North-east India is one of the richest regions of
 Appendix III: Species that ore protected in at least biodiversity in the country. It is especially rich in orchids,
one country, which has asked other CITES Parties for bamboos, ferns, citrus, banana, mango and jute.
assistance in controlling the trade.
India is also rich in coral reefs. Major reef formations
Under the Convention, each country is bound to pass laws
in Indian seas occur in the Gulf of Mannar, Palk Bay, Gulf
according to the CITES guidelines and many countries have
of Kutch, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the
done so. Enforcement of the laws is, however, lax in many
countries and even when a violator is caught, the penalties Lakshadweep. The threat to mangroves trees (growing in
are mild. Further, a member country can exempt itself from marshy lands) and coral reefs comes from the biotic
protecting any of the listed species. Trade in endangered pressure such as extraction for market demands, fishing,
species still goes on, especially in countries that have not land-use changes in surrounding areas, and from pollution
joined CITES. of water etc.

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BIOMES National Wetland Conservation Programme
(Nwcp)
Wetlands The programme was initiated in 1987 with the following
Wetlands in India are distributed in different geographical objectives:-
regions, ranging from the Himalaya to the Deccan plateau. 1. to lay down policy guidelines for conservation and
The variability in climatic conditions and topography is management of wetlands in the country;
responsible for significant diversity. Based on their origin, 2. to provide financial assistance for undertaking
vegetation, nutrient status and thermal characteristics, intensive conservation measures in the identified
they are classified into following different types: wetlands;
 Glaciatic Wetlands (e.g., Tsomoriri in Jammu and 3. to monitor implementation of the Programme; and
Kashmir, Chandertal in Himachal Pradesh)
4. to prepare an inventory of Indian wetlands.
 Tectonic Wetlands (e.g., Nilnag in Jammu ;and
Kashmir, Khajjiar in Himachal Pradesh, and Nainital Central Wetlands Regulatory Authority
and Bhimtal in Uttaranchal)
(CWRA)
 Oxbow Wetlands (e.g., Dal Lake, Wular Lake in Jammu
and Kashmir and Loktak Lake in Manipur and some Central Government notified the Wetlands (Conservation
of the wetlands in the river plains of Brahmaputra and Management) Rules - 2010 vide notification no. GSR-
and Indo- Gangetic region. Deeper Beel in Assam, 951(E) dated 4th December, 2010. As per the provision
Kabar in Bihar, Surahtal in Uttar Pradesh) under Rule 5 of these wetlands rules, Central Wetlands
 Lagoons (e.g., Chilika in Orissa) Regulatory Authority (CWRA) has been constituted under
 Crater Wetlands (Lonar lake in Maharashtra) the chairmanship of Secretary (E&F).
 Salt Water Wetlands (e.g., Pangong Tso in Jammu and The main functions of CWRA are:
Kashmir and Sambhar in Rajasthan) 1. Appraise proposals for identification of new
 Urban Wetlands (e.g., Dal Lake in Jammu and wetlands.
Kashmir, Nainital in Uttaranchal and Bhoj in Madhya 2. To enforce the provisions contained under these rules
Pradesh) along with other laws in force;
 Ponds/Tanks, Man-made Wetlands (e.g., Harike in 3. Grant clearances or identify the areas for the grant
Punjab and Pong Dam in Himachal Pradesh)
of clearance for regulated activities in the wetlands
 Reservoirs (e.g., Idukki, Hirakud dam, Bhakra-Nangal under jurisdictions;
dam)
4. Issue whatever directions, from time to time
 Mangroves (e.g., Bhitarkanika in Orissa)
necessary for the conservation, preservation and wise
 Coral reefs (e.g., Lakshadweep)
use of wetlands to the State Governments.
 Others - Creeks (Thane Creek in Maharashtra),
5. Review the list of wetlands and the details of
seagrasses, estuaries, thermal springs are some other
prohibited and regulated activities under the rules
types of wetlands in the country.
and the mode and methodology for execution.
There are in all 104 identified wetlands under the
National Wetland Conservation & Management 6. An Expert Group on Wetlands (EGOW) has also been
Programme (NWCMP). set up for examining management action plans of
newly identified wetland and also identification of
Ramsar Convention new wetlands for the conservation and management.
India is a signatory to the Ramsar Convention and plays an Functions of the Group are:
important role in conservation and wise use of wetlands. 7. Identification of new wetlands for conservation under
On the basis of the country’s initiatives in the field of NWCP.
wetland conservation, India was nominated as a member 8. In-depth examination of Management Action Plans
of the Standing Committee from 1993-1996 and from 1999- of the newly identified wetland as per guidelines
2002. prescribed by the GOI.
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A manish Singh Sir’s Initiative ENVIRONMENT
9. Suggest amendments to guidelines, if any, for rainforests as well as tropical monsoon forests. The tropical
identification of new wetlands, for formulation of evergreen rain forests are only slightly less grand in stature
Management Action Plan and for identification of and rich in species than on the mainland. The dominant
priority areas of research. species is Dipterocarpus grandiflorus in hilly areas, while
Over the years, based on the recommendations of Dipterocarpus kerrii is dominant on some islands in the
National Wetlands Committee, 115 wetlands have been southern parts of the archipelago. The monsoon forests
identified so far for conservation under the National of the Andamans are dominated by Pterocarpus
Wetland Conservation Programme. dalbergioides and Terminalia spp.

Forests How do our laws protect the rights of forest

India possesses a distinct identity, not only because of its communities?
geography, history and culture but also because of the great Indian laws and policies do have provisions for recognizing
diversity of its natural ecosystems. The panorama of Indian the rights of forest dwellers and for involving them in forest
forests ranges from evergreen tropical rain forests in the conservation:
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Western Ghats, and the  The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972: Provisions for
North- Eastern States, to dry alpine scrub high in the establishment of community-oriented protected
Himalayas to the north. Between the two extremes, the
areas, either on government land (Conservation
country has semi-evergreen rain forests, deciduous
Reserve) or on land owned by individuals or
monsoon forests, thorn forests, subtropical pine forests in
communities (Community Reserve).
the lower mountain zone and temperate mountain forests.
 The Forest Conservation Act, 1980: Provision for
The main areas of tropical forest are found in the
formation of village forests.
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Western Ghats which
fringe the Arabian Sea coastline of peninsular India and  National Forest Policy, 1988: Recognition of people’s
the greater Assam region in the North-East. Small remnants need to access forests and resources for their
of rain forest are found in Orissa state. Semi-evergreen livelihoods and mandatory involvement of local
rain forest is more extensive than the evergreen formation, people in the management of forest.
partly because evergreen forests tend to degrade to semi-  The Biological Diversity Act, 2002: Provision to form
evergreen with human interference. Biodiversity Management Committees at the village
 The tropical vegetation of North-East India (which level for the management, protection, and
includes the states of Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, documentation of local biodiversity.
Mizoram, Tripura and Meghalaya as well as the plain  The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest
regions of Arunachal Pradesh) typically occurs at
Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006:
elevations up to 900 m. It embraces evergreen and
Communities can create local institutions, rules and
semi-evergreen rain forests, moist deciduous
regulations for protection of forests that they have
monsoon forests, riparian forests, swamps and
been traditionally conserving.
grasslands. Evergreen rain forests are found in the
Assam Valley, the foothills of the eastern Himalaya The implementation of these provisions however, has
and the lower parts of the Naga Hills, Meghalaya, not been satisfactory. To some extent, communities living
Mizoram and Manipur where the annual rainfall in or near the forests are being involved in conservation
exceeds 2,300 mm. In the Assam Valley, the giant through Joint Forest Management (JFM) and social forestry.
Dipterocarpus macrocarpus and Shorea assamica
occur singly, occasionally attaining a girth of up to 7 What is joint forest management?
m and a height of up to 50 m. The monsoon forests Recognizing the important role of local communities in
are mainly moist Sal (Shorea robusta) forests, which forest conservation, the Government of India introduced
occur widely in this region . (in the 1980s) the concept of Joint Forest Management
The Andaman and Nicobar islands have tropical (JFM), for working closely with the local user communities
evergreen rain forests and tropical semi-evergreen in the protection and management of forest resources.
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 ENVIRONMENT An effort of Team EG
In JFM, the local communities are involved in the The Court also directed the government to constitute the
planning of the conservation programme. The people have Compensatory Afforestation Management and Planning
controlled access to the forest areas and are permitted to Authority (CAMPA) and also set up a Compensatory
harvest the resources in a sustainable manner. In return, Afforestation Fund (CAF). All the money collected from
they act as the guardians of the forest. users who apply for such conversion was to be deposited
in CAF and used for afforestation.
What is social forestry? By 2015, ?38,000 crores had been collected but no fund
Social forestry refers to the planting of trees often with could be established due to lack of parliamentary approval
the involvement of local communities on unused and fallow (compare this amount with the entire annual budget of
land, degraded government forest areas, in and around the Ministry of Environment and Forests which is just Rs.
agricultural fields, along railway lines, roadsides, rivers and 2000 crores).
canal banks, in village common land, government Meanwhile, in 2013, the Comptroller and Auditor-General
wasteland and panchayat land. of India (CAG) unearthed large-scale misuse of these funds.
The misuse had happened despite the supervision of the
Social forestry was first introduced in India in 1976.
permanent expert panel of the Supreme Court, the
Eucalyptus was chosen for the majority of social forestry
Centrally Empowered Committee on Forestry Issues. The
projects because it survives on difficult sites and
CAG found funds had not been audited for years and there
outperforms indigenous species in growth producing wood was absolutely no system of reviewing how effectively the
very rapidly. However, it has had some adverse ecological money collected by it had been spent in afforestation.
impacts on soil nutrients, water hydrology, biodiversity and
In 2015, the government introduced the Compensatory
wildlife. Afforestation Fund (CAF) Bill in Parliament. The Bill seeks
Properly implemented (with the right choice of to provide safety, security and transparency in utilization
trees), social forestry would provide sustainable livelihoods of the CAMPA funds, which currently are being kept in
for the rural poor. We can use innovative methods like nationalized banks and are being managed by an ad-hoc
providing fuel wood for the poor in return for their body.
contribution in planting and protecting forests. Apart from Among other things the Bill provided for:
JFM and social forestry the traditional sacred groves of  Establishment of the National CAF and the State CAFs
India have played an important role in community to credit amounts collected by State Governments to
participation and conservation of biodiversity. compensate loss of forest land diverted for non-forest
purpose.
What is the Compensatory Afforestation
 Constitution of a National Authority to manage and
Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA)?
utilize amounts credited to the National CAF.
According to the Forest (Conservation) Act of 1980,
whenever a projects, seeks to convert forest land for non-
Marine Environment
forest use, the equivalent non-forest land has to be
identified for compensatory afforestation. Funds for the The near shore coastal waters of India are extremely rich
compensator Afforestation were to be collected from the fishing areas. The total commercial marine catch for India
project proponent. The objective was to promote has stabilized over the last ten years at between 1.4 and
forestation and regeneration activities as a way of 1.6 million tonnes, with fishes from the clupeoid group,
compensating for forest land diverted to non- forest uses. e.g. Sardines (Sardinella sp.), Indian Shad (Hilsa sp.) and
The large fund could have been used to create productive Whitebait (Stolephorus sp.) accounting for approximately
forests and huge employment opportunities. Over the
30 per cent of all landings.
years, funds were collected but afforestation did not take
place. The Indian reef area is estimated to be 2,375 km2.
In 2002, the Supreme Court imposed an additional Net Coral reefs occur along only a few sections of the mainland,
Present Value of the forests on a fixed slab basis over the principally the Gulf of Kutch, off the southern mainland
existing charges. While forestry is a state subject, the court coast, and around a number of islands opposite Sri Lanka.
rejected the contention that the funds should be collected This general absence is largely due to the presence of major
and transferred back to the states where the forest land river systems and the sedimentary regime on the
was to be turned into industrial sites. continental shelf. Elsewhere, corals are also found in

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A manish Singh Sir’s Initiative ENVIRONMENT
Andaman & Nicobar and Lakshadweep island groups, MANGROVES FOR FUTURE (MFF)
although their diversity is reported to be lower than in INDIA’S INITIATIVE
South-East India.
It is a strategy for promoting investment in Coastal
Indian coral reefs have a wide range of resources Ecosystem Conservation” is being coordinated by the
which are of commercial value. Exploitation of corals, coral International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
debris and coral sands is widespread in the Gulf of Mannar covering, initially, eight countries (including India) in
and Gulf of Kutch reefs, while ornamental shells, chanks South Asia, South East Asia and Western Indian Ocean.
and pearl oysters are the basis of an important reef industry The project involves collaboration between multiple
in the south of India. Sea fans and seaweeds are exported partners, including government agencies, NGOs,
for decorative purposes, and there is a spiny lobster fishing Research Institutes, UN agencies and other multilateral
industry along the South-East coast, notably at Tuticorin, bodies.
Madras and Mandapam. Commercial exploitation of
Mangroves mapping was done in 2005, utilizing their
aquarium fishes from Indian coral reefs has gained
unique reflectance characteristics. In the assessment,
importance only recently and as yet no organized effort
mangrove cover has also been categorized into very dense
has been made to exploit these resources. Reef fisheries
mangrove (canopy density of more than 70 per cent),
are generally at the subsistence level and yields are not
moderately dense mangrove (canopy density between 40-
recorded.
70 per cent) and open mangrove (canopy density between
Mangroves 10-40 per cent).

Mangroves are salt-tolerant forest ecosystems found Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
mainly in tropical and sub-tropical inter-tidal regions of
Medicinal and aromatic plants have been used in the
the world. They comprise of trees or shrubs that have the
country for a long time for their medicinal properties.
common trait of growing in shallow and muddy salt water
About 2,000 native plant species have curative properties
or brackish waters, especially along quiet shorelines and
and 1,300 species are known for their aroma and flavor.
in estuaries. They exhibit a remarkable capacity for
For the Indian systems of medicine, popularly known as
saltwater tolerance. Mangrove forests are one of the most
Ayurveda, Unani and Siddha, herbal drugs are in great
productive and biodiverse wetlands on earth. Yet, these
demand in the country. There is already a spurt in demand
unique coastal tropical forests are among the most
for plant-based drugs and lately, many such species of
threatened habitats in the world.
medicinal values are being brought under systematic
Five species of marine turtle occur in Indian waters -
cultivation. India has been considered a treasure house of
Green turtle (Chelonia mydas), Loggerhead (Caretta
valuable medicinal and aromatic plant species.
caretta), Olive Ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea), Hawksbill
(Eretmochelys imbricata) and Leatherback (Dermochelys The Ministry of Environment and Forests,
coriacea). Government of India has identified and documented over
9,500 plant species considering their importance in the
Status of Mangroves in India pharmaceutical industry.
Mangroves in India account for about five per cent of the Out of these, about 65 species have large and
world’s mangrove vegetation and are spread over an area consistent demand in world trade. India, however,
of about 4,500 km2 along the coastal States/UTs of the produces only limited quantities of these. In terms of
country. Sunderbans in West Bengal accounts for a little market share in production value, India holds only the sixth
less than half of the total area under mangroves in India. place with a mere 7 per cent share.
The Forest Survey of India has been assessing the On the contrary, we still import about ten types of
vegetation cover of the country, including mangroves using essential oils to the tune of 8,000 tonnes per annum. Indian
remote sensing since 1983. West Bengal has the maximum exports are thus guided by what may be termed as a
mangrove cover in the country, followed by Gujarat and trader’s vision rather than by a knowledge products
Andaman & Nicobar Islands. vision.
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Sacred groves collection, investigation, and prosecution, to deal
India has over 19,000 sacred groves. Sacred groves are with wildlife crime.
initiatives of communities for conserving biodiversity based  Ensure that human activities on the fringe areas of
on their religious beliefs but of late, these are being PAs do not degrade the habitat or otherwise
degraded or converted to plantations. Since there are significantly disturb wildlife.
several medicinal plants and wild relatives of crop plants
occurring naturally in these areas, the sacred groves need 2. The National Forest Policy, 1988
to be conserved. The National Forest Policy, 1988, and the Indian Forest Act,
as well as the regulations under it, provide a
comprehensive basis for forest conservation. The National
GOVERNMENT INITIATIVE TO
Forest Commission, set up in 2003, is reviewing the policy,
CONSERVE BIO-DIVERSITY legislative and institutional basis of forest management.
The Govt. of India has responded to the above pressures Nevertheless, it is necessary, considering some of the
with the following measures: underlying causes of forest loss, to take some further steps.
These include the following:
1. Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972  Legal recognition of the traditional entitlements of
In respect of Wildlife Conservation, the actions which were forest dependant communities, taking into
to be pursued were expanding the Protected Area (PA) consideration the provisions of the Panchayat
network of the country; Revisiting the norms, criteria and (Extension to the Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996 (PESA).
needs of data for placing particular species in different This would remedy a serious historical injustice,
schedules of the Wildlife Protection Act; Formulating and secure their livelihoods, reduce possibilities of
implement programmes for conservation of endangered conflict with the Forest Departments, and provide
species outside protected areas, while reducing the scope long-term incentives to these communities to
for man-animal conflict; Empowering building capacities, conserve the forests.
and facilitate access to finance and technology for local  Formulate innovative strategy to increase forest and
people, in particular tribals, who are relocated from PAs, tree cover from 23.69 per cent in 2003 to 33 per cent
or live in the fringe areas, for provision of eco-tourism of the country ’s land area by 2012, through
services in the PAs. afforestation of degraded forest land, wastelands,
Apart from the above, it was also decided to adopt and tree cover on private or revenue lands.
the following steps:  Formulate appropriate methodology for reckoning
 Paralleling multi-stakeholder partnerships for and restoring the environmental values of forests,
afforestation, formulate and implement similar which are unavoidably diverted to other uses.
partnerships for enhancement of wildlife habitat in  Formulate and implement a ‘Code of Best
Conservation Reserves and Community Reserves, to Management Practices’ for dense natural forests, to
derive both environmental and eco-tourism benefits. realize the objectives and principles of National
 Promote site-specific eco-development programmes Environment Policy. Forests of high indigenous
in fringe areas of PAs, to restore livelihoods and access genetic diversity should be treated as entities with
to forest produce by local communities, owing to incomparable value.
access restrictions in PAs.  Promote plantation of only such species as are
 Strengthen capacities and implement measures for conducive to the conservation and sustainability of
captive breeding and release into the wild, identified given ecosystems.
endangered species.  It is essential that women play a greater role in the
 Review and tighten the provisions of relevant management of natural resources. While they have
legislation to, enhance their deterrence. Further, to bear the burden of natural resource degradation,
strengthen institutional measures and capacities of they have little control over the management of these
enforcement authorities, with respect to intelligence resources. Relevant provisions of the National Policy

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A manish Singh Sir’s Initiative ENVIRONMENT
for the Empowerment of Women provide a comes from forests managed in accordance with strict
framework for incorporating elements of proposed environmental and social standards.
actions.
6. Coastal Management Zone Draft
3. Biological Diversity Act, 2002 Notification, 2008
To regulate access to genetic resources and associated Ministry of Environment and Forests issued the Coastal
sharing arrangements, apart from developing policies and Regulation Zone Notification in 1991, under which coastal
programmes on long term conservation and protection of stretches were declared Coastal Regulation Zones (CRZ)
biological resources and associated knowledge, the and restrictions were imposed on the setting up and
Biological Diversity Act, 2002 was promulgated. The expansion of industries, operations and processes in the
National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) set up at Chennai said Zones for its protection.
on 1st October 2003 as per the provisions of the Biological
Diversity Act, 2002 is mandated to facilitate 7. Ex-situ Conservation
implementation of the Act. Attention has been paid to ex-situ conservation measures
also as they complement in-situ conservation measures
4. National Biodiversity Action Plan (NBAP) and are even otherwise important. There are about 70
The Union Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF), botanical gardens, including 33 University botanical
the nodal agency for implementing the provisions of gardens. Also, there are 275 centres of ex-situ wildlife
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in India, preservation in the form of zoos, deer parks, safari parks,
developed a strategy for biodiversity conservation at aquaria etc.
macro-level in 1999 and enacted the Biological Diversity A Central Zoo Authority supports, oversees, monitors
Act in 2002, followed by the Rules thereunder in 2004. and coordinates the development and management of
The objectives of the NBAP are founded in the zoos in the country. A scheme entitled Assistance to
backdrop of the cardinal principles already set out in the Botanical Gardens provides one-time assistance to
NEP 2006. The most important of these principles is that botanical gardens to institute and strengthen measures for
human beings are at the centre of sustainable development ex-situ conservation of cultivated plants and domesticated
concerns. The other relevant principles on which the animals.
objectives are premised include the right to development,
precautionary approach, economic efficiency, entities with 8. In-situ conservation
‘incomparable value’, equity, public trust doctrine, Approximately, 4.83 per cent of the total geographical area
decentralization, integration, preventive actions, and of the country has been earmarked for extensive in-situ
environmental offsetting. conservation of habitats and ecosystems through a
protected area network of 103 National Parks and 537
5. Forest Certification Wildlife Sanctuaries. The results of this network have been
Forest certification has emerged as one of the market significant in restoring viable populations of large mammals
mechanisms to address environmental concerns of the such as tigers, lions, rhinoceros, crocodiles and elephants.
green consumers on one hand and help promote To conserve the representative ecosystems, the
sustainable forest management on the other. Forest Biosphere Reserve Programme is being implemented. In
certification also contributes to the promotion of all, 15 biodiversity rich areas of the country have been
economically viable, environmentally appropriate and designated as Biosphere Reserves. Programmes have also
socially beneficial management of forests as defined by been launched for scientific management and wise use of
the Helsinki criteria. Forest certificatiea was launched over fragile ecosystems.
a decade ago to help protect forests from destructive
logging practices. 9. International Conventions and India
Like the ‘organically grown’ label on produce, forest The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, the first international
certification was intended as a seal of approval, a means regulatory framework for safe transfer, handling and use
of notifying consumers that a wood or paper product of living Modified Organisms (LMOs) was negotiated under

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 ENVIRONMENT An effort of Team EG
the aegis of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). thereof. BRs are designated to deal with one of the most
The Protocol was adopted on 29th January 2000. important questions of reconciling the conservation of
India has acceded to the Biosafety Protocol on 17th biodiversity, the quest for economic and social
January 2003. The Protocol has come into force on 11th development and maintenance of associated cultural
September 2003. As of date 162 countries are Party to the values. BRs are thus special environments for both people
CPB. Five meetings of the Conference of Parties serving as and the nature and are living examples of how human
Members of the Parties to the Cartagena Protocol (COP- beings and nature can co-exist while respecting each
MOP) on Biosafety have been held so far. The Sixth meeting others’ needs.
of COP-MOP was hosted by India at Hyderabad from lst- These areas are internationally recognized within the
5th October, 2012. The main objective of the Protocol is framework of UNESCO’s Man and Biosphere (MAB)
to contribute to ensuring an adequate level of protection programme, after receiving consent of the participating
in the field of the safe transfer, handling and use of LMOs country. The world’s major ecosystem types and landscapes
resulting from modern biotechnology that may have are represented in this network.
adverse effect on the conservation and sustainable use
biological diversity, taking into account risk to human CHARACTERISTICS OF BIOSPHERE RESERVES
health. The characteristic features of Biosphere Reserves are:
 Each Biosphere Reserves are protected areas of land
BIOSPHERE RESERVES and/or coastal environments wherein people are an
integral component of the system. Together, they
The idea of Biosphere Reserves’ was initiated by UNESCO constitute a world wide network linked by
in 1973-74 under its Man and Biosphere (MAB) International understanding for exchange of scientific
Programme. The MAB, launched in 1970 by UNESCO, is a information.
broad based ecological programme aimed to develop  The network of BRs include significant examples of
within the natural and social sciences a basis for the rational biomes throughout the world.
use and conservation of the resources of the biosphere  Each BR includes one or more of the following
categories:-
and for the improvement of the relationship between man
and the environment; to predict the consequences of (i) BRs are representative examples of natural
biomes.
today’s actions on tomorrows world and thereby to
increase man’s ability to manage efficiently the natural (ii) BRs conserve unique communities of biodiversity
or areas with unusual natural features of
resources of the biosphere. The approach emphasizes the
exceptional interest. It is recognized that these
importance of the structure and functioning of ecological
representative areas may also contain unique
systems and their mode of reaction when exposed to
features of landscapes, ecosystems and genetic
human intervention including impact of man on the variations e.g. one population of a globally rare
environment and vice-versa. MAB is primarily a species; their representativeness and uniqueness
programme of research and training and seeks scientific may both be characteristics of an area.
information to find solution of concrete practical problems (iii) BRs have examples of harmonious landscapes
of management and conservation. MAB’s field projects and resulting from traditional patterns of land-use.
Biosphere reserves constitute the main goal of the whole (iv) BRs have examples of modified or degraded
programme. The Indian National Man and Biosphere ecosystems capable of being restored to more
(MAB) Committee identifies and recommends potential natural conditions.
sites for designation as Biosphere Reserves, following the (v) BRs generally have a non-manipulative core area,
UNESCO’s guidelines and criteria. in combination with areas in which baseline
Biosphere Reserve (BR) is an international measurements, experimental and manipulative
designation by UNESCO for representative parts of natural research, education and training is carried out.
and cultural landscapes extending over large area of Where these areas are not contiguous, they can
terrestrial or coastal/marine ecosystems or a combination be associated in a cluster.

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A manish Singh Sir’s Initiative ENVIRONMENT
Functions of Biosphere Reserves Out of the 18 Biosphere Reserves designated
nationally, so far 10 viz., Nilgiri (Tamil Nadu, Kerala and
Conservation Karnataka), Gulf of Mannar (Tamil Nadu), Sunderbans
 To ensure the conservation of landscapes, (West Bengal), Nanda Devi, (Uttarakhand), Pachmarhi
ecosystems, species and genetic variations. (Madhya Pradesh), Similipal (Orissa) and Nokrek
 To encourage the traditional resource use systems; (Meghalaya) Great Nicobar Biosphere reserve, (Great
Nicobar) Achanakmar-Amarkantak biosphere reserve
 To understand the patterns and processes of
(Chattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh) Agasthyamala Biosphere
functioning of ecosystems;
reserve (Kerala, Tamilnadu) have been included in the
 To monitor the natural and human-caused changes World Network of Biosphere Reserves of UNESCO.
on spatial and temporal scales;
Convention on Biological Diversity
Development The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), one of the
 To promote, at the local level, economic development key agreements adopted during the Earth Summit held in
which is culturally, socially and ecologically Rio de Janeiro in 1992, is the first comprehensive global
sustainable. agreement which addresses all aspects relating to
 To develop the strategies leading to improvement and biodiversity. The CBD, which has near universal
management of natural resources; membership with 193 countries as its Parties, sets out
commitments for maintaining the world’s ecological
Logistics support underpinnings, while pursuing economic development.
The Convention, while reaffirming sovereign rights of
 To provide support for research, monitoring,
nations over their biological resources, establishes three
education and information exchange related to local,
main goals: the conservation of biological diversity, the
national and global issues of conservation and
sustainable use of its components, and the fair and
development equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the use of
 Sharing of knowledge generated by research through genetic resources. India is a signatory to the CBD, which
site specific training and education; reaffirms the sovereign rights of the States over their
 Development of community spirit in the Biological Resources.
management of natural resources.
Biological Diversity Act, 2002
Beneficiaries Taking cognizance of the International Convention on
Direct Beneficiaries of the Biosphere Reserves are the local Biodiversity (CBD), and to address the excessive pressure
people and the ecological resources and indirect on biodiversity, the Government of India has enacted
beneficiaries are scientists, government decision makers Biological Diversity Act, 2002 (BDA 2002). Accordingly, the
and the world community. national, state and local level mechanisms have been
provided for implementation of the Act. At the national
Activities Undertaken level, National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) has been
The programme was initiated in 1986 and till date, 18 sites established by Government of India in October, 2003 at
have been designated as Biosphere Reserves (BRs) in Chennai (Tamil Nadu) under Section (8) of the Biological
different parts of the country. Some potential sites have Diversity Act. The State Biodiversity Boards (SBB) have been
also been identified. The Ministry provides financial established by the State Governments and Biodiversity
assistance to the concerned State/UT Governments for Management Committees (BMC) constituted by the local
conservation and management of the designated bodies.
Biosphere Reserves. The Indian National Man and  The NBA is a body corporate established in
Biosphere (MAB) Committee constituted by the MoEF is accordance with the provisions of Sec.8 of the
the apex body to oversee the programme, provide policy Biological Diversity Act, 2002, at Chennai w.e.f. 1st
guidelines and review the programme. October 2003. It is an autonomous, statutory and

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 ENVIRONMENT An effort of Team EG
regulatory organization which is intended to the efforts of scientific and voluntary organizations
implement the provisions of Biological Diversity Act, resulting into a scientifically acceptable useful output. It
2002. was also felt that the process of red listing of species for
 Twenty-five States have so far set up the State the country should follow the framework of IUCN Regional
Biodiversity Boards (SBBs). The matter is being Guidelines and criteria.
pursued with Bihar, Maharashtra and Jammu &
INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS
Kashmir which have yet to set up SBBs. Fourteen
RELATED TO WILDLIFE
states viz. Arunachal Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh,
Gujarat, Rajasthan, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
Pradesh, Manipur, Sikkim, West Bengal, Tripura, Uttar of Wild Fauna & Flora (CITES)
Pradesh, Maharashtra and Assam have notified the  Signed in March 1973 to regulate international trade
state specific rules in accordance with the Section in endangered species of wildlife.
63(1) of the Act.  The convention has 25 Articles from definitions to the
manner in which the trade in species included in
Wildlife Conservation various Appendices of the convention could be
regulated.
Government of India provides technical and financial
 India signed the Convention in July 1976 which was
support to the State/UT Governments for wildlife Habitats,
ratified in Octoberl976.
Project Tiger, and Project Elephant, and also through
 All import, export, re-export and introduction from the
Central Sector Scheme - Strengthening of Wildlife Division
sea of species covered by the Convention has to be
and Consultancies for Special Tasks, and through Grants in
authorized through a licensing system.
Aid to the Central Zoo Authority and Wildlife Institute of
 The species covered by CITES are listed in three
India, Dehradun.
Appendices according to the degree of protection they
need.
National Board for Wildlife
 The Director, Wildlife Preservation has been
The National Board for Wildlife (NBWL) has been
designated as the CITES Management Authority for
constituted as per the provisions of the Wild Life India.
(Protection) Act, 1972 in 2003. The Board is Chaired by the
 The enforcement of the convention and the provisions
Hon’ble Prime Minister and has 47 members including of CITES is carried out by the Regional Deputy
Members of Parliament, Chief of the Army Staff, Member, Directors, Wildlife Preservation, who have been
Planning Commission, representatives of Non Government designated as the Assistant CITES Management
Organizations, eminent environmentalists/ Authority for India.
conservationists/ ecologists and other official members.  India had represented in the meeting of the Animals
The NBWL is reconstituted every three years. The NBWL Committee, Plants Committee and Standing
was last re-constituted vide notification dated 4th Committee of CITES.
September 2010. Till date five meetings of the Board have  India has initiated a Non Detrimental Finding (NDF)
been convened since its constitution. study of the Red Sanders (Pterocarpus santalinus)
Convention on Migratory Species (CMS)
Red Listing Process in India
 Also known as the ‘Bonn Convention’ , it is an inter-
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) governmental treaty, concluded under the aegis of the
Red List of Threatened Species is the world’s most United Nations Environment Programme, concerned
comprehensive inventory of the global conservation status with the conservation of wildlife and habitats on a
of plant and animal species. global scale.
In India, many organizations have been working  The Convention came into force in 1979,
independently on the red listing process focusing on  The Convention aims to conserve migratory species
specific areas of interest as islands of excellence. It was throughout their range,
felt that the Ministry of Environment and Forests should  India is a Party to the convention since 1st November,
provide necessary coordinating mechanism to integrate 1983

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A manish Singh Sir’s Initiative ENVIRONMENT
Agreements under CMS to which India is A Signatory  Identification, nomination & management of Natural
Siberian Crane MOU Heritage Sites are being handled by Ministry of
 The MOU aims at better conservation and protection Environment & Forests.
of the Siberian Cranes and their habitat  Sites of outstanding value to humanity that are to be
 India had signed the MOU on 13th December 1998. protected and preserved for posterity are considered
 Siberian Cranes are migratory visitors to India in winter. as World Heritage Sites.
 The species is included in the Schedule-I of the Wildlife  “natural heritage” consist of natural features
(Protection) Act, 1972 thereby according them full consisting of physical and biological formations or
protection. groups of such formations, which are of outstanding
 Their wintering habitats have been declared Protected universal value from aesthetic or scientific point of
Areas. view; geological and physiographical formations and
Marine Turtle MOU precisely delineated areas which constitute the
 The MOU aims at better conservation and habitat of threatened species of animals and plants
management of Marine Turtles and their habitats in of outstanding universal value from point of view of
the South East Asian Region. science or conservation; and/ or natural sites.
 India had signed the MOU on 20th February 2007.  Five natural sites declared as World Heritage Sites.
 Marine Turtles are migratory visitors to India, In addition, Valley of Flowers was included in the
especially along the East Coast of India. World Heritage list as an extension to the Nanda Devi
 Five species of Marine Turtles (including Olive Ridley National Park. The list of such sites are as given below:
Turtles) are included in the Schedule-I of the Wildlife
(Protection) Act, 1972 thereby according them full Natural World Heritage Sites in India
protection.  Kaziranga National Park (1985) Keoladeo National
 Their nesting habitats have been declared Protected Park (1985) Manas Wildlife Sanctuary (1985)
Areas.  Nanda Devi National Park (1988) & Valley of Flowers
Dugong MOU in 2005 as an extension of Nanda Devi
 The MOU aims at better conservation and
 Sundarbans National Park (1987)
management of Dugongs (Dugong dugon) and their
habitats throughout their Range. The Manas Wildlife Sanctuary was inscribed on the
World Heritage List in 1985 and was put on the “List of
 India had signed the MOU on 28th May 2008.
World Heritage- Sites in Danger” on account of the social
 Dugongs are found in the Indian waters, from Gujarat
problems in the area, in 1992. An improving political
to Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
situation in the 2000s and the signing of the Autonomous
 Dugongs are included in the Schedule-I of the Wildlife
Bodoland Territorial Council under the Bodo Accord (2003)
(Protection) Act, 1972 thereby according them full
brought back normalcy to the region, and began the
protection.
process of local communities’ involvement in pro-
 Their important habitats have been declared Protected
conservation activities.
Areas.
 India had organized an International Workshop on
Since then, conceited efforts from the local people,
Conservation of Dugongs during June 2011 in State Government and Central Government, has lead to
Tuticorin, Tamil Nadu. the World Heritage Committee to take a decision to remove
the site from the ‘List of danger’. Incidentally, this is the
only heritage site in danger list, out of 16 natural sites in
UNESCO-World Heritage Convention (WHC)
danger list in the world, that has been decided by the
 Aiming to list and conserve the world’s heritage sites UNESCO World Heritage Committee to be taken off the
(Cultural, Natural & Mixed) Danger List. This way, India’s prestige in the world
 The Convention was adopted by the United Nations conservation history has been substantially enhanced. The
Educational, Scientific & Cultural Organization international community has also appreciated the
(UNESCO) in 1972. India had signed the Convention concerted efforts of India and has noted that other
on 14th November, 1977. countries managing World Heritage Sites in Danger list

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 ENVIRONMENT An effort of Team EG
could learn a good lesson from the Indian experience to (a) Multi-pronged pressures on forests are exerted by
enhance the protection and management of their sites. increasing human population, cattle grazing, fuel and
fodder collection, industry and forest fires, etc. The
International Whaling Commission (IWC) remaining good forest cover is, therefore, estimated
It was set up under the International Convention for the to be just 11 per cent against the desirable 33 per
Regulation of Whaling. The main duty of the IWC is to keep cent of the total land area as per the National Forest
under review and revise as necessary the measures laid Policy.
down in the Schedule to the Convention which govern the (b) A two-pronged strategy to increase forest cover
conduct of whaling throughout the world. All the Cetacean essentially comprises of:
species (Whales, dolphins etc) have been included in  Improving canopy cover in the forest land.
Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 thereby
 Undertaking afforestation in non-forest and
giving them the highest degree of protection.
degraded lands, preferably contiguous to forest
India is a Party to the IWC since 9thMarch, 1981. India blocks.
has played a pro-active and prominent role in bringing
(c) Realizing the role of forests in controlling soil erosion,
about a moratorium on commercial whaling and has played
moderation of floods, recharging of ground aquifers,
a prominent role in supporting the Commission in its efforts
as habitat for wildlife, conservation of biodiversity
towards conservation of such species.
and gene pool, etc., programmes were launched as
Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun early as the Second Five Year Plan for extensive
Watershed Management, followed later by
Wildlife Institute of India (WO) was established in 1982 establishment of a Protected Areas Network, under
under the Ministry of Environment & Forests. Subsequently the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, comprising
it was granted autonomous status by Govt. of India in 1986. Biosphere Reserves, National Parks and Sanctuaries
The Institute has emerged as a premier training and - both terrestrial and aquatic.
research institution in the field of wildlife and protected
India is also a signatory to several International
area management in South and South East Asia. Its
Conventions like the Convention on International Trade in
mandate is to generate quality information and knowledge
Endangered Species, International Whaling Convention
products in wildlife science and mainstream it in capacity
(IWC), Convention on Migratory Species (CMS), World
building programmes for various target groups and provide
Heritage Convention (WHC), etc. India has recently taken
advisory support to Central and State Govt.
the lead in formation of the Global Tiger Forum.
Central Zoo Authority
PROJECT TIGER
The Central Zoo Authority (CZA) with its headquarters in
As per the recommendations of a special task-force of the
New Delhi was established in 1992 under the provisions
Indian Board of Wildlife, Project Tiger was launched in
of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 to oversee the
1973 with the following objectives:
functioning of zoos in the country with the view to enhance
 To ensure maintenance of the available population of
their role in conservation. Central Zoo Authority is a twelve-
tigers in India for scientific, economic, aesthetic,
Member body. Minister of State (1C), Environment &
cultural and ecological value.
Forests, Government of India is the ex- officio Chairman
of the Central Zoo Authority and Member Secretary,  To preserve, for all times, the areas of such biological
Central Zoo Authority is the Chief Executive Officer of the importance as a national heritage for the benefit,
Authority. education and enjoyment of the people.
All India Tiger Estimation (2010)
National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries The second round of country level assessment (2010)
The Wildlife Act provided for setting up National Parks and relating to status of tigers, co-predators and their prey was
Sanctuaries for wildlife conservation. The Government of released on 28th July, 2011. This is a sequel to the
India has pledged all efforts to conserve the natural preliminary findings released in March, this year. This study
heritage of the country and seeks not only to protect and reports a countrywide increase of 20% in tiger numbers
preserve what remains of wild fauna and flora, but also to in 2010 with an estimated number of 1706 (1520-1909).
augment this priceless national asset. The 2006 estimation was 1411 (1165 - 1657) tigers.

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 UPSC IAS
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UPSC IAS GURU TEAM
A manish Singh Sir’s Initiative ENVIRONMENT
Project Elephant linkages with other natural entities, human needs, and its
Project Elephant (PE) was launched by the Government of own attributes. The following actions could be considered:
India in the year 1991- 92 as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme (a) Set up a legally enforceable regulatory mechanism
with the following objectives : for identified valuable wetlands, to prevent their
(i) To protect elephants, their habitat & corridors degradation and enhance their conservation.
(ii) To address issues of man-animal conflict Develop a national inventory of such wetlands.
(iii) Welfare of domesticated elephants (b) Formulate conservation and prudent use strategies
Financial and technical support is being provided to for each significant catalogued wetland, with
major elephant bearing States in the country. Under the participation from local communities, and other
scheme, 100% financial assistance is provided to the relevant stakeholders.
concerned State Government for undertaking various
(c) Formulate and implement eco-tourism strategies for
activities for scientific management of elephant habitats.
identified wetlands through multi-stakeholder
Presently the Project is being implemented in 18 partnerships involving public agencies, local
States/UTs. There are 27 notified and five proposed
communities, and investors.
Elephant Reserves in the country, which are still to be
notified by the concerned State Governments, covering (d) Take explicit account of impact on wetlands of
approximately 60,000 sq. km. area. significant development projects during the
Main activities under the Project are as follows: environmental appraisal of such projects; in
 Ecological restoration of existing natural habitats and particular, the reduction in the economic value of
migratory routes of elephants; wetland environmental services should be explicitly
 Development of scientific and planned management factored into the cost-benefit analyses.
for conservation of elephant habitats and viable (e) Consider unique wetlands as entities with
population of Wild Asiatic elephants in India; ‘incomparable values’, in developing strategies for
 Promotion of measures for mitigation of man their protection.
elephant conflict in crucial habitats and moderating (f) Integrate wetland conservation, including
pressures of human and domestic stock activities in
conservation of village ponds and tanks, into sectoral
crucial elephant habitats;
development plans for poverty alleviation and
 Strengthening of measures for protection of Wild livelihood improvement, and link efforts for
elephants form poachers and unnatural causes of
conservation and sustainable use of wetlands with
death;
the ongoing rural infrastructure development and
 Research on Elephant management related issues;
employment generation programmes. Promote
 Public education and awareness programmes; traditional techniques and practices for conserving
 Eco-development village ponds.
 Veterinary care
Due to the effective implementation of the project, Animal Welfare
especially with respect to the protection of elephants, the The Animal Welfare Board of India (AWBI) (Plan) Scheme
elephant population in the country has risen over the years, relates to provision of assistance for the following type of
even as their habitat has been fragmented due to activities: Financial assistance to Animal Welfare
developmental activity.
Organisations for maintaining the stray animals in distress
and for their treatment. (Financial assistance based on the
POLICY SUGGESTIONS number of animals kept for their fodder, water, minor
treatment etc). Human Education Programmes for the
Wetland Conservation welfare of animals implemented by the AWBI as well as
For wetland conservation, a holistic view is necessary, support to AWOs for this purpose. Animal Welfare Division
which looks at each identified wetland in terms of its causal also handles following two schemes:

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 ENVIRONMENT An effort of Team EG
1. Committee for Purpose of Control & Supervision of major water sources in the country, through the
Experiments on Animals (CPCSEA): The main implementation of pollution abatement works, to the level
objective of the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act of designated best use. So far a total of 39 rivers have been
(PCA), 1960 is to prevent infliction of unnecessary covered under the programme. The rivers are: The
pain or suffering on animals. Accordingly, the pollution abatement works taken up so far under the NRCP
Committee for Purpose of Control and Supervision include:
of Experiments on Animals (CPCSEA) has been
 Interception and diversion works to capture the raw
constituted under provisions of Section 15 of this Act.
sewage flowing into the river through open drains
The Act provides for the duties and powers of the
and divert them for treatment.
CPCSEA, and also penalties, in event of contravention
of orders made, or conditions imposed by the  Setting up Sewage Treatment Plants for treating the
Committee. diverted sewage.
The mandate of the Committee is to ensure that  Construction of Low Cost Sanitation toilets to prevent
while conducting various types of experiments, in open defecation on river banks.
connection with medical research or education,  Construction of Electric crematoria and Improved
animals are not subjected to avoidable pain or Wood Crematoria to conserve the use of wood.
suffering.
 River Front Development works such as improvement
2. National Institute of Animal Welfare (NIAW): The
of bathing ghats.
National Institute of Animal Welfare (NIAW) has been
set up as a subordinate office of the Ministry of  Afforestation on the river banks, Public Participation
Environment and Forests. The objective of NIAW is & Awareness etc.
to impart training and education in Animal Welfare Measures for improving implementation: The
on a diversified basis comprising, among other things, following are among the measures taken to improve
animal management, their behavior and ethics. implementation of projects under NGRBA;
The aim is to create an enabling environment for  Standing Committee and Empowered Steering
fulfillment of the statutory requirements as laid down in
Committee: A Standing Committee of NGRBA has
the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960. NIAW has
been constituted with Union Finance Minister as
been conceptualized as an apex body in the field of animal
chairman to function on behalf of the Authority, take
welfare and its broad mandate covers the need to improve
animal welfare through education, research and public necessary decisions and periodically review and
outreach. assess implementation of Authority’s work
programme and prescribe measures to achieve its
Conservation of Water Bodies objectives. An Empowered Steering Committee (ESC)
A brief description of the agencies involved in conservation has been constituted for appraisal and sanction of
of water bodie and their mandate along with various project proposals on a Fast Track Mode.
programmes and schemes has been dealt below-  State River Conservation Authorities: To facilitate
better coordination and implementation of the
National River Conservation Directorate
conservation activities at the State level, Empowered
The National River Conservation Directorate (NRCD), State River Conservation Authorities (SRCAs) have
functioning under the Ministry of Environment and Forests been notified under Environment (Protection) Act,
is engaged in implementing the River and Lake Action Plans
1986 for all the five Ganga States.
under the National River Conservation Plan (NRCP) and
National Lake Conservation Plan (NLCP) by providing  National Mission for Clean Ganga: National Mission
financial assistance to the State Governments. for Clean Ganga (NMCG), a registered society has
been setup at the central level to plan and implement
National River Conservation Plan the NGRBA programme in coordination with the State
The objective of National River Conservation Plan (NRCP) Agencies concerned. The NMCG is headed by a
is to improve the water quality of the rivers, which are the Mission Director.

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A manish Singh Sir’s Initiative ENVIRONMENT
 Dedicated implementation institutions in States: National River Conservation Plan (Externally
States have been requested to set up dedicated Aided Projects)
entities for timely implementation and proper O&M
Yamuna Action Plan (YAP) - (Phase-I)
of NGRBA projects.
Yamuna Action Plan (YAP) Phase I was launched by the
 Memorandum of Agreements (MoA): Tripartite
Ministry to take up the pollution abatement works in
MoAs are being signed with the State Governments/ Yamuna river in the States Uttar Pradesh, Delhi & Haryana
Urban Local Bodies in respect of sanctioned projects. in April 1993 as a component of Ganga Action Plan Phase-
The MoAs provide for commitments by the Centre n with a loan assistance from Japan Bank for International
and States for funding of the projects, regular Cooperation (JBIC). This project has been completed at a
monitoring and review of implementation, total cost of Rs.682 crores and 269 out of the total 269
coordination by the State Governments with the ULBs schemes have been completed in February 2003.
and other agencies to ensure synergy with programs
like JNNURM/ UIDSSMT etc. Twenty nine MoAs have
Yamuna Action Plan (Phase-II)
been signed so far. Government of India, Ministry of Environment & Forests
have received financial assistance of Yen 13.33 billion from
 Independent appraisal of Detailed Project Reports:
the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) for
Reputed professional institutions have been
implementation of Yamuna Action Plan (YAP) Phase II,
appointed for appraisal of DPRs for works to be taken which is part of the National River Conservation Plan
up for sanction under NGRBA. (NRCP). The loan agreement between Government of
 Third Party Inspection: Third Party Inspection (TPI) Japan and Government of India has been signed on 31st
for projects has been introduced, covering all four March 2003.
stages in the life cycle of a project, namely Pre-
Yamuna Action Plan (Phase-III)
construction, Construction, Commissioning & trial
run and Post construction. The inputs of third party Yamuna Action Plan (YAP) Phase - III project shall be
inspection will be taken into consideration before implemented in Delhi with the assistance from Japan
International Cooperation Agency (JICA) at an estimated
release of funds.
cost of Rs. 1656 crore. The project cost will be shared
 Industrial Pollution: In order to effectively tackle the between the Government of India (Gol) and the
problem of industrial pollution, a dedicated cell is Government of NCT of Delhi on 85:15 basis.
being set up in CPCB for inspection and monitoring Under YAP-III, it is proposed to rehabilitate the
of industrial units discharging effluents into the river damaged trunk sewers to maximize the utilization of
Ganga. In the first instance, the cell will focus its available treatment capacity, rehabilitate and modernize
efforts on the critical stretch of about 500 kms from the STPs in three catchment areas of Delhi namely Qkhla,
Kannauj to Varanasi. Kondli and Rithala and to equip them with tertiary level
treatment facilities to achieve treated effluent quality of
National River Conservation Plan (NRCP) 10 mg/1 for Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) and Total
The schemes of GAP-n and other rivers of the country have Suspended Solids (TSS) so as to improve the water quality
now been merged under one Centrally Sponsored Scheme of river Yamuna.
of National River Conservation Plan based on 70:30 funding
National Ganga River Basin Authority
pattern and presently National River Conservation
(NGRBA)
Directorate (NRCD) is undertaking all river water pollution
abatement works under this head. At present, the National JICA assisted Ganga Action Plan (GAP) Project at
River Conservation Plan (NRCP) includes works in 190 Varanasi
towns along polluted stretches of 39 rivers spread over 20 Based on the project proposal/feasibility study prepared
states . under the JICA assisted development study, the GAP project

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 ENVIRONMENT An effort of Team EG
at Varanasi has been approved for funding by JBIC for entering the Lakes from the entire lake catchment
11.184 billion Yen. UP Jal Nigam is the project area.
implementing agency (PIA) for the sewerage component  In-situ measures of Lake cleaning such as De-silting,
while the non-sewerage component would be De-weeding, Bioremediation etc. depending upon
implemented by Varanasi Nagar Nigam. the site conditions.
 Catchments area treatment which may include
World Bank Assisted Project For Pollution Abatement
bunding, afforestation, storm water, drainage, fencing
Of River Ganga Under Ngrba
and shore line development etc.
A project with World Bank assistance for abatement of  Public awareness and public participation
pollution of river Ganga at an estimated cost of Rs.7000
 Other activities depending upon location specific
crore has been approved for implementation. The Bank
conditions including public interface.
will support the Government of India by providing technical
assistance and financing of US $ one billion. The share of Conservation of Mineral Resources
Government of India will be Rs.5100 crore and that of the
India is rich in mineral resources. It has fairly abundant
State Governments of Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
reserves of iron ore and mica and adequate supplies of
Jharkhand and West Bengal will be Rs. 1900 crore.
manganese ore, titanium, bauxite and coal. There is a
States will have dedicated Project Management deficiency of copper, lead, zinc and gold. The country earns
Group (PMG) under the State nodal Departments for foreign exchange from the export of minerals like iron ore,
planning, coordination, monitoring implementation and titanium, manganese ore, bauxite and granite. In all there
reporting of the projects taken up under the Programme. are over 3000 mines in India. About 8 lakh people are
To achieve the objective of Mission Clean Ganga as employed in the mining sector. It accounts for about 11%
resolved by NGRBA and to ensure that by the year 2020, of the country’s industrial output. Industrial development
no untreated municipal or industrial effluent will be of the country depends upon this sector.
allowed to be discharged into the river Ganga, and an
investment of Rs. 15000 crore was estimated. Classification of Minerals
Geologists classify minerals according to their chemical
Water Quality Management Plan for River Ganga composition and crystalline structure.
The water quality of river Ganga is being monitored since Generally minerals are classified into three categories
1986 from Rishikesh in Uttaranchal to Uluberia in West metallic, non-metallic and energy. Metallic minerals are
Bengal by institutions such as Pollution Control Research subdivided into ferrous (containing iron), non-ferrous
Institute, Hardwar, CPCB Zonal Office, Lucknow, Indian (containing metals other than iron) and precious Minerals
Institute of Technology (IIT), Kanpur, Patna University and occur in different types of rocks. Some are found in igneous
Bidhan Chandra Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Kalyani. As a result rocks, while others in sedimentary rocks. Almost all metals
of the projects completed under Ganga Action Plan,, the are found in the form of ore. The ore contains impurities
water quality of river Ganga has shown a general and therefore processing is required before use.
improvement despite tremendous population growth
along the river banks as compared to pre-GAP period. DISTRIBUTION OF MINERALS AND
National Lake Conservation Plan THEIR USE
The objective of the Scheme is to restore and conserve Iron Ore
the polluted lakes in urban and semi-urban areas of the It is the back bone of modern civilization. It is used for
country degraded due to waste water discharge into the manufacturing of machines, agricultural implements and
lake. The activities covered under NLCP include the items of general use. India shares about 20% of the world
following: reserve of iron ore. Most of the mines in the country are
 Prevention of pollution from point sources by in Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Odisha, Goa and Karnataka.
intercepting, diverting and treating the pollution load About half of the iron ore produced in the country is

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A manish Singh Sir’s Initiative ENVIRONMENT
exported primarily to Japan, Korea, European countries and use (about 75%) of limestone is in cement industry; rest is
gulf countries. used for smelting of iron and in chemical industries. Almost
all states have some quantities of limestone, but about
Manganese Ore three fourths of the country’s production comes from
It is used for making iron and steel and preparing alloys. It Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan,
is also used to manufacture bleaching powder, insecticides, Gujarat, Karnataka and Himachal Pradesh.
paints and batteries. About one-fifth of the world’s deposits
of manganese ore are found in India. The country stands Exploitation of the Mineral Wealth
second in the reserve of manganese ore in the world after Minerals often require quite a lot of processing to get the
Zimbabwe. The main reserves are in Karnataka, Orissa, desired metals from them. The steps involved are:
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Goa and Madhya (i) locating a supply of mineral
Pradesh produces more than half of the national total.
(ii) mining
Copper (ii) processing the mineral to get desired products.
It is used for making utensils, electric wire and alloys. Indian
Locating Minerals
copper ore contains less than 1% of copper (international
average is 2.5%) and hence its mining and smelting is costly Minerals could be sometimes located below the surface
affair. About 90% of the reserves are concentrated in of the Earth’s crust. They may be mixed with other
Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Jharkhand, Karnataka and materials that have almost no value. Thus geologists study
Andhra Pradesh, Production of copper in the country is of the surface of the earth carefully and prepare maps
less than the requirement, hence it is imported. showing mineral deposits. On-site inspections alongwith
aerial photography, remote sensing and global positioning
Lead systems gives additional information for the exploration
The ore of lead is known as galena. It is a soft and heavy and finding new locations where mineral deposits could
metal and is a bad conductor of heat. It is used in cable be found. Drilling may be used to collect samples below
covers, ammunitions, paints, glass and rubber making. Lead the surface. The ocean water contains vast quantities of
ore occur in Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. mineral, but most of these are too widely diffused to be of
India produces about 25% of its requirement and thus rest economic significance.
is imported from Australia, Canada and Myanmar. However, common salt, magnesium and bromine are
largely derived from ocean waters. The ocean beds, too,
Bauxite are rich in manganese nodules.
It is an ore from which aluminium is extracted. Aluminium Mining Depending upon the location of the ores, the
is a light metal used in the manufacturing of aeroplanes, following methods are adopted for their extraction:
utensils and other household goods. India has vast reserve
(i) Surface mining
of bauxite and occurs mainly in Jharkhand, Orissa, Gujarat,
Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh and Tamil (ii) Sub-surface mining Surface Mining
Nadu. This is adopted when the mineral is above or just
below the surface. The layers of rock and soil covering the
Mica mineral deposits are first scrapped off and discarded as
It has insulating properties and can withstand high voltage, spoils. The minerals are then removed using appropriate
hence its major use is in electrical and electronic industries. technology. The type of surface mining employed depends
Mica reserves occur in Jharkhand, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh upon the mineral and the topography of the mine. The
and Rajasthan. India produces about 60% of world’s following are the different methods are adopted in surface
production of mica. mining:
Open-pit and Strip Mining- Open-pit surface mining
Limestone is digging a large hole in the earth to get the minerals. The
It is found associated with rocks composed of calcium large pit is a quarry. Granite iron and copper ore and sand
carbonates or calcium or magnesium carbonates. Major are often mined with open pits.
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 ENVIRONMENT An effort of Team EG
Strip mining is digging a long trench to get the CONSERVATION OF MINERALS
minerals. A series of strips are dug. The strips are parallel
The human beings have a strong dependence upon
to each other. The soil and rock that are not extracted are
mineral deposits for the growth and development of the
put into the previous strip. Rows of dug-out materials,
nation. In this process the mineral resources are being
known as spoil banks, are created on the surface.
rapidly consumed. The geological processes of mineral
formation are so slow that the rates of replenishment are
Subsurface Mining
infinitely small in comparison to the present rates of
A subsurface mine is deep inside the earth to remove consumption. Mineral deposits of the country are thus,
minerals such as coal and valuable minerals like gold ore. valuable but short lived possessions. A serious effort has
The surface of earth may be disturbed very little. A mass to be made in order to use the mineral resources in a
of tunnels or shafts may be used to go into the deposits of planned and sustainable manner. Improved technologies
minerals. Thus these mines are also termed as deep shaft need to be constantly evolved to allow use of low grade
mines. This type of mining is more expensive and complex ores at low costs. Recycling of metallic scrap like steel,
than surface mining. The shafts may be dug straight down copper, aluminium, zinc, lead etc. should be encouraged
to the mineral ore or they may slope downward. The and facilitated by fixation of appropriate standards for
tunnels and benches are formed inside the earth so that classification and grading of scrap and adoption of fiscal
the ore can be extracted and transported out. Although measures. Similarly utilisation of low grade minerals,
the environment is not visibly harmed, there is always the mineral waste and rejects should also be encouraged
risk of roof collapse, explosion of gases, and disturbance through appropriate incentives.
to underground water movement.
 Purification: Various methods are used to purify the
Processing the Mineral metal from the ore. Smelting often involves some
purification.
Ore needs to be separated from material that does not
contain the desired metal. The processing needed varies Some minerals like limestone, sand, gravel and kaolin
with the mineral and its use. Common processing require less processing. No smelting or purification is
procedures include: needed.
 Grinding and crushing: Grinding and crushing are After processing a lot of solid waste materials, known
used to get materials into the desired sizes. Grading as Tailings, remain depending upon the yield of ore. For
may be used to separate the materials based on size. e.g. copper ore produces only about 1% copper. This means
that a ton of copper ore will result in nearly a ton of tailings.
 Sorting: Various ways may be used to separate
valuable metals from the ore. Water may be used to
Environment Impact of Mineral Use
‘float’ metal materials from the ore. One function of
sorting is to separate metal from ore. Locating minerals, mining and processing minerals affects
the environment. There is no way to get and use minerals
 Smelting: Smelting is heating ore so the metal
without some intrusion into the environment. Using good
separates from the undesirable material. The process
practices helps keep damage to the environment to a small
may also be used to cast the metal into the desired
extent.
products. Large furnaces are used in smelting. Most
smelting produces several products that can be used.
Mining Damage
Iron smelting usually produces silicon and
phosphorus. Copper smelting may produce sulfur and Mining can disrupt the earth’s natural landscape and forest
other materials. Both iron and copper smelting ecosystems. Forests are destroyed and wild animals are
produce slag. Since iron melts at 1,535°C, iron ore driven away. Several species may become extinct.
may be heated to 1,600°C. The iron is molten or Excavations makes the surface unsightly causing land
liquid-like. The melting points of other metals vary. degradation. The top soil may be removed and large areas
In liquid form, the metal separates from the gases excavated to expose minerals. These areas may collect
and solid materials. The metals with the lowest water and create polluted run-oft Sometimes these areas
melting points become liquid earlier and can be become breeding ground for mosquitoes. Large piles of
removed. tailings are sometimes left. Excavated land can erode and

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damage water quality. Mined areas may have substances The three main food sources are:
that react with water to form acid. Water that seeps or (i) Croplands that provide 76% of the total
runs out of mine may contain acid For example, iron ore foodgrains.
often has sulfur mixed in it Runoff from the mine will have
(ii) Rangelands that produce meat and milk from
a high acid content Streams and lakes may be damaged by
grazing livestock, accounting for 17% of total
the acid runoff. With other minerals toxic materials like
food.
lead from lead mine may enter the runoff.
(iii) Fisheries that supply the remaining 7%.
The land areas damaged by mining can be filled and
graded to a natural contour. Grasses and trees may be Food production is probably the most important
planted on the land. Often little top soil is available for natural resource issue facing the world today. Population
plants. Some mine sites may contain toxic substances that growth has necessitated a continuing expansion of
kill common vegetation. Special kinds of plants may be agricultural output. The expansion must take place in me
needed to grow in these places. context of severe constraints on the availability of
agricultural land and on the ability of natural
Waste Disposal biogeochemical cycling processes to supply agricultural
Tremendous amounts of solid waste materials may result inputs such as water and absorb waste products such as
from processing minerals. Often 80 percent or more of nitrogen. Thus we have to achieve almost a double
the ore may be waste after processing. The amount of agricultural output over the next half century through more
tailing produced is greater with low-grade ore. Large piles intensive use of existing lands while minimising the
of tailings may be seen at smelting plants. The tailings are environmental impacts of this intensification.
sometimes used as fill for low land areas.
World Food Problems
Some solid waste products from smelting are put to
good use. Slag is used as a source of phosphorus and The U.N. Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO)
calcium in fertilizer. Slag is also used in road paving and estimated that more than eight hundred million people
making lighter-weight concrete. lack access to the food needed for healthy, productive lives.
Most of these people live in the rural areas of the poorest
Emissions Control developing countries. The two region of the world with
Smoke, steam, particulates, and other materials may be the greatest food insecurity are South Asia, with an
released by mining. Some of these cause serious pollution estimated two hundred seventy million hungry people, and
problems. Sub-Saharan Africa, with an estimated one hundred and
Burning coal to heat minerals in smelting releases seventy five million (Sub-Saharan Africa includes all African
substances into the air. The minerals themselves also give countries located south of the Sahara Desert).
off gases in smelting. Sulfur, nitrogen, and carbon are The average human must consume enough food to
commonly released causing air pollution. These materials get approximately 2600 Kcal per day. (The average man
also find their way into the water and soil. It may result to requires 3000 Kcal per day whereas the average woman
acid rain, unproductive soil, and water without living requires 2200 Kcal per day). If a person consumes less
organisms. calorie than the required amount over an extended period,
The Clean Air Act and Clean Water Act regulate air his or her health and stamina decline, even to the point of
and water pollution. Mining and processing are covered death. People who receive fewer calories than needed are
in these Acts from the standpoint of what can be released undernourished. Worldwide, one hundred and eighty two
into the air and water.
million children under the age of five suffer from
Food Resources undernutrition and are seriously underweight for their age,
according to the World Heath Organization (WHO). This
The basic necessity for the survival of human beings is food.
accounts to almost one-third of all children under five in
The food humans eat are composed of several major types
developing countries.
of biological molecules necessary to maintain health:
carbohydrates, proteins and lipids. In addition to these, The total number of calories consumed is not the
humans require minerals, vitamins and water in their diet. only measure of good nutrition. People can receive enough

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calories in their diets but still be malnourished because is sparse. Many human studies show a correlation between
they are not receiving enough of specific, essential diets high in animal fat and red meat and certain kinds of
nutrients such as proteins, vitamin A, iodine or iron. For cancer (colon and prostate). Overnourthed is most
example, a person whose primary food is rice can obtain common among people in highly developed nations, such
enough calories, but a diet of rice lacks sufficient amounts as the United States, where the Pan American Health
of proteins, lipids, minerals, and vitamins to maintain Organization estimates that two out of three adults are
normal body functions. Adults suffering from malnutrition overweight, and nearly one in three is obese. Overnutrition
are more susceptible to disease and have less strength to is also emerging in some developing countries, particularly
function productively than those who are well fed. In in urban areas. As people in developing countries earn
addition to poor physical development and increased more money, their diets shift from primarily cereal grains
disease susceptibility, children who are malnourished do to more processed foods and livestock products.
not grow or develop normally. Because malnutrition affects
cognitive development, malnourished children do not Impacts Caused by Agriculture
perform as well in school as children who are well fed. Agricultural activities represent an enormous
Currently, WHO estimates that more than 3 billion people transformation of natural ecosystems occurring over very
worldwide the greatest number in history are large portions of the Earth’s surface. As such, they
malnourished. In addition, more than half the deaths in inevitably cause vast environmental impacts. These impacts
children less than 5 years old in developing countries are could be broadly classified into:
associated with malnutrition.  On-site impacts
The two most common diseases of malnutrition are  Off-site impacts
marasmus and kwashiorkor. Marasmus (from the Greek On-site impacts include soil erosion and range land
word marasmos, meaning ‘a washing away) is progressive degradation.
deterioration caused by a diet low in both total calories
Soil erosion on agricultural lands takes place through
and protein. Marasmus is most common among children
three major processes; overland flow (or run off), wind
in their first year of life particularly children of poor families and streambank erosion. Of these processes, overland flow
in developing nations. Symptoms include a pronounced erosion is the most visible and widespread, and in most
slowing of growth and extreme atrophy (wasting) of agricultural areas it is quantitatively the most important
muscles. It is possible to reverse the effect of marasmus Wind erosion occurs on exposed soil if strong winds blow
with an adequate diet. at times when the soil surface is relatively dry. Streambank
Kwashiorkor (a native word in Ghana meaning erosion is limited to fields that border streams, and though
‘displaced child’) is malnutrition resulting from protein locally significant it is not a major factor in soil erosion
deficiency. It is common among children in all poor areas worldwide.
of the world. The main symptoms include edema (fluid Rangeland Degradation Range, or grazing land,
retention and swelling); dry, brittle hair, apathy; stunted provides forage for limited numbers of domestic animals.
growth; and sometimes mental retardation. One of the Overgrazing occurs when the number of animals on these
most typical features of kwashiorkor is a pronounced lands exceeds carrying capacities. Several areas of the
swelling of abdomen. Kwashiorkor is treated by gradually world, notably the dry lands around the Mediterranean
restoring a balanced diet. Sea, have been long overgrazed, with resulting problems
of devegetation, erosion, and ultimately the threat of
People who eat food in excess of that required are desertification. Desertification is land degradation in
overnourished. Generally, a person suffering from dryland regions resulting mainly from adverse human
overnutrition has a diet high in saturated (animal) fats, impact. It occurs in parts of all the major semiarid regions
sugar, and salt. Overnutrition results in obesity, high blood of the world and affects some of these regions more than
pressure, and an increased likelihood of such disorders as others.
diabetes and heart disease. In nutrition experiments, The off-site impacts include water pollution from
overnutrition in rodents resulted in a higher incidence of agricultural run-off, air pollution from blowing dust or
cancer compared with rodents fed a calorie-restricted diet, dispersal of agricultural chemicals like fertilizers and
but evidence that links overnutrition to cancer in humans pesticides.
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TYPES OF AGRICULTURE their potential. These agricultural technologies were
Agriculture can be roughly divided into two types:
passed from highly developed nations to developing
nations.
 industrialized or modern
Using modern cultivation methods and the high-
 subsistence agriculture
yielding varieties of certain staple crops to produce more
Most farmers in highly developed countries and some in food per acre of cropland is known as the green revolution.
developing countries practice industrialized agriculture or
The two most important problems associated with higher
high-input agriculture. It relies on large inputs of capital
crop production are the high energy costs built into this
and energy, in the form of fossil fuels, to produce and run
form of agriculture alongwith the serious environment
machinery, irrigate crops and produce agrochemicals such
problems caused by the use of the commercial inorganic
as commercial inorganic fertilizers and pesticides. This type
fertilizers and pesticides.
of agriculture produces high yields enabling forests and
other natural areas to remain wild instead of being
Effects of Modern Agriculture
converted to agricultural land.
The practices of industrialised agriculture have resulted in
In the developing countries most fanners practice
subsistence agriculture, the production of enough food several environmental problems that impair the ability of
to feed oneself and one’s family with little left over to sell non-agricultural terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems to
or reserve for hard times. Subsistence agriculture, too, provide essential ecosystem’ services.
requires a large input of energy, but from humans and The agricultural use of fossil fuels and pesticides
draft animals rather than from fossil fuels. produces air pollution. Untreated animal wastes and
Shifting cultivation is a form of subsistence agriculture in agricultural chemicals such as fertilizers and pesticides
which short periods of cultivation are followed by longer cause water pollution that reduces biological diversity,
periods of fallow (land left Shifting cultivation supports harms fisheries etc. The agricultural practices are one of
relatively small populations. Slash-and-bum agriculture is the major cause of surface water pollution in India. Nitrates
one of several distinct types of shifting cultivation that from animal wastes and commercial inorganic fertilizers
involves clearing small patches of tropical forests to plant are probably the most widespread groundwater
crops. Because tropical soils lose their productivity quickly contaminant in agricultural areas.
when they are cultivated, farmer using slash- and-burn
agriculture must move from one area to another every Fertilizers and Pesticides
three years or so, thus this agriculture is land-intensive.
Average yields of grains worldwide more than doubled
Nomadic herding in which livestock is supported by land between 1960 and 1990, owing mostly to increases in the
too arid for successful crop growth, is another type of land- use of fertilizers. Fertilizer use increased over four times
intensive subsistence agriculture. in that same 30-year period. One of the main reasons for
Intercropping is another form of intensive subsistence this prominence is the development of high-yielding plant
agriculture that involves growing a variety of plants varieties that require large inputs of fertilizer to realize
simultaneously on same field. their potential. In addition, fertilizers may make production
possible on otherwise marginal land.
The Green Revolution The three most important nutrients required by
By the middle of the 20th century, serious food shortages plants are nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. Nitrogen
occurred in many developing countries including India. It is ultimately derived from the atmosphere, but it is made
was widely recognized that additional food supplies were available to plants by nitrogen-fixing bacteria. It is the
needed to feed their growing populations. The nutrient that is most often deficient and that is most widely
development and introduction during the 1960’s of high applied to crops. Additions in amounts of 45 to 90 pounds/
yielding varieties of wheat and rice gave the chance to acre (50 to 100 kg/ha) may increase yields from 1.5 to 3
provide the people with adequate supplies of food. But times, depending on plant variety and inherent soil fertility.
the yielding varieties required intensive cultivation Natural gas is an important raw material in the
methods, including the use of commercial inorganic manufacture of most nitrogen fertilizers. The most
fertilizers, pesticides and mechanized machinery, to realise commonly used forms are ammonia (NH 3) and urea

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 ENVIRONMENT An effort of Team EG
(CH4N2O). Phosphorus is usually present in small quantities used most intensively on corn and soybeans. Most fruits
in soils, but it is often found in relatively unusable forms. and vegetables are susceptible to damage by insects, fungi,
It is usually applied as superphosphate or as phosphoric and other pests, and various pesticides are used depending
acid, which are manufactured from phosphate rock on specific circumstances.
deposits. In soils, potassium generally is found in larger One of the consequences of indiscriminate use of
quantities than phosphorus because it is a more abundant pesticide is the adverse health impact on society in general
constituent of most rocks. Plants also demand it in large and vulnerable population like children in particular. Some
quantities, and in many areas potassium fertilization is of the well-known health effects of pesticide exposure
important. In some areas, local soil conditions or the include acute poisoning, cancer, neurological effects,
particular needs of plants require that other fertilizers be reproductive and developmental harm. The major causes
added, with lime (a source of calcium and magnesium as of concern are bio-accumulation of pesticides and time
well as a regulator of soil pH) being the most common. period that it takes to express the negative health
Organic fertilizers (primarily manure) have consequences.
historically been the most important source of nutrients,
especially nitrogen. Organic fertilizers also help maintain Sustainable Agriculture
good soil structure and water-holding capacity by keeping In every agricultural region of the world, negative impacts
soil organic matter content high. In the wealthy nations, of agriculture are being felt. The effects of soil degradation
inorganic fertilizers are now more important, but in the and agricultural pollution are more severe in some areas
developing nations manure is still a common fertilizer. In than in others, but there is universal recognition that while
most areas, manure supplies are quite limited, and manure food production must increase to meet the needs of a
is more difficult to apply than other farms of fertilizer. growing population, the productive capacity of agricultural
Manure is low in nutrient content relative to synthetic lands must be preserved and nurtured. Farm practices that
fertilizer and is not capable of providing the large inputs seek to balance production and preservation are known
of nutrients demanded by high-yielding crop varieties. as sustainable agriculture,
Increasingly, therefore, inorganic sources of nutrients have
Although it is difficult to define precisely which
been replacing organic sources.
farming techniques constitute sustainable agriculture, they
Pesticides is a general term referring to any of the generally involve intensive soil conservation measures and
number of chemical agents used to control organisms
minimal use of pesticides and inorganic fertilizers. At the
harmful to plants, including insects, fungi, and some types
present time, the number of framers using these methods
of worms. Pesticides include insecticides, rodenticides,
is relatively small, mostly in specialized crops such as fruits
fungicides and others. Herbicides are used to control
and vegetables. But the number of farmers producing
weeds. The use of pesticides and herbicides has accounted
grain, meat, and dairy products using sustainable methods
for a large part of recent increases in crop yields. Thousands
is increasing, and this trend is likely to continue as long as
of different kinds of pesticides and herbicides are in use,
the costs of chemical inputs remain high and the need to
and the vast majority are complex organic compounds
maximize yield per acre is low.
manufactured using petroleum as an important raw
material. Among insecticides, organochlorines, One key feature of the drive toward sustainable
organophosphates, and carbamates are important types. agriculture is the reduced use of farm chemicals, especially
pesticides. Pesticides have been a boon to modern
The first widely used insecticides were
technological agriculture, but they also have harmful side
organochlorines such as DOT, aldrin, dieldrin, and
effects. The side effects of most concern are health hazards
chlordane. In the 1960s and 1970s, these were largely
to agricultural workers using the pesticides, health effects
replaced by organophosphates for most uses, in part
on the general population through contamination of food,
because insects began to develop resistance to the effects
of organochlorines and in part because orgnophosphates water, air and adverse ecological effects.
break down more rapidly and therefore are less likely to The most severe human health hazards of pesticides
accumulate in the environment. Today many different are those associated with the occupational exposure of
types of chemicals and application methods are used. farm workers handling the substances. Workers in the field
Among the small-grain crops, pesticides and herbicides are at the time of application are exposed, as are those

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handling crops at harvest time. Accidental exposure is also Renewable and non-renewable energy sources can
a major concern. Although pesticides have been regulated be used to produce secondary energy sources including
to limit effects beyond the farm as well as on it, major electricity and hydrogen.
problems remain. For example, nonpersistent pesticides Sources of energy can also be categorised as:
that are generally used today do not accumulate in high Conventional and non-conventional.
concentrations in the environment. However, they are
(I) Conventional (Coal, petroleum, natural gas and
highly toxic at the time they are applied, hence those in
electricity (both thermal and hydel)
contact with pesticides at that time are most at risk.
(ii) Non-conventional (solar, wind, tidal,
The general population is also exposed to agricultural
geothermal, atomic energy and biogas) On the
chemicals, primarily through consumption of foods
basis of use, there are two categories:
containing these substances but also through transport of
pollutants in water and air. Although these exposures are (i) non-commercial (biofuels e.g. firewood, cow
less acute than those faced by agricultural workers, the dung, charcoal and agricultural waste).
number of people affected is much greater. (II) Commercial (coal, petroleum, natural gas,
The combined hazards of pesticide use are great, but hydro-electricity and nuclear energy.)
so too are the benefits in terms of increased yields. Concern
for the problems associated with massive pesticide use has Renewable Sources of Energy Solar Energy
prompted research on alternative methods of pest control, India, being a tropical country has enough scope for
most importantly integrated pest management. This production and utilisation of solar energy. Our country is
approach recognizes that several different means can be fortunate to receive solar energy for greater part of the
used to control pests, including pesticides, crop rotation year. This is an enormous energy resource, which is clean
and other habitat controls, biological controls such as and pollution-free. It requires to be converted into other
predator introduction, and other techniques. No single forms of energy by suitable technologies. It has been
technique is likely to be completely successful in any given estimated that India receives solar energy equivalent to
place, but for each particular set of agricultural needs and more than 5000 trillion kWh (5000 x 1018 kWh) during a
pest problems it should be possible to use a mix of different year. Under clear cloudless sky conditions the daily average
control techniques tailored to the situation. This approach of solar energy varies from 4 to 7 kWh/m . There are two
will require considerable research and development before main ways of using solar energy to produce electricity:
it can be widely used, but it offers the greatest promise in
solving pest problems without poisoning humans or the (i) Solar cells
environment. (ii) Solar thermal technology

Conservation of Energy Resources (i) Solar cells

Energy is an indispensable requirement in modern life. It Solar cells are photovoltaic cells that turn sunlight into
is involved in all developmental activities of the world. electricity in an environmentally clean manner. Solar photo
Abundant and dependable sources are vital for the modern voltaic (SPY) systems have emerged as useful power
economic activities. The amount of energy consumption sources for applications such as lighting, water pumping,
increases with increase in the per capita income of the telecommunications and power plants for meeting the
country. AH the amenities of modern world which are requirements of villages, hospitals, lodges etc. They could
making our lives easy and comfortable are energy driven. be installed in remote areas in forests and deserts where
There are several sources of energy like coal, installation of electric cables are cost-prohibitive.
petroleum, natural gas, solar energy, wind energy and Solar power, with government subsidy (Department
hydro energy etc. These sources are divided into two of Non-conventional Energy Source, DNES, Government
categories: of India) is being used in remote rural areas in West Bengal
(i) renewable (an energy source that can be in the forms of solar lanterns, solar streetlight and solar
replenished in a short period of time) pump (for irrigation). Solar powered small pumps are being
(ii) non-renewable (an energy source that cannot used in Delhi, Haryana and Himachal Pradesh. Electricity
be replenished in a short period of time). in Ladakh in the Himalayas in generated using solar panels,

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and this has brought about a tremendous change in generate electricity. A windmill essentially consists of a
people’s lives. There are several companies in India that structure similar to a large electric fan that is erected at
offer solar home-lighting systems. A 100×50 cm solar panel some height on a rigid support. To generate electricity, the
can easily power eight lamps. It is desirable to use solar rotator motion of the windmill is used to turn the turbine
cookers in villages on a large scale so that extensive of the electric generator. The output of a single windmill
deforestation can be prevented. About I ton of wood per is quite small and cannot be used for commercial purposes.
head per year can be saved by this process. Therefore a number of windmills are erected over a large
area, which is known as wind energy farm. The energy
(ii) Solar thermal technology output of each windmill in a farm is courted together to
This uses heat gained directly from sunlight. The best get electricity on a commercial scale.
known use of this technology is in: India is ranked fourth in the world for wind resource
1. Solar water heating availability. The total wind power potential in India is
estimated at 45,000 MW, out of which about 6000 MW is
2. Solar heating of buildings
located in Tamil Nadu and 5000 MW in Gujarat. A total
3. Solar dryer for food grains and other agricultural capacity or more than 1700 MW has already been installed
products which will increase further with the coming up of new
4. Solar distillation (for water purification) facilities.
5. Solar cooker (for cooking) India's largest wind energy farm established near
6. Solar powered vehicles Kanyakumari in Tamil Nadu can generate 380 MW of
electricity.
7. Solar thermal power generation
Various initiatives have been taken by the Ministry
SOLAR THERMAL POWER GENERATION of Non-conventional Energy Sources for the development
Of the various contributory factors to the global of the wind power programme. The introduction of fiscal
greenhouse effect, energy-related CO2 emissions are the benefits and promotional incentives in terms of subsidy
single largest source with power plants contributing about have attracted private investors which has provided a fillip
11% of the CO2 emissions. In this scenario, a cleaner energy for promotion of the technology. Guidelines for wheeling,
technology like solar thermal power generation is banking and purchasing power from wind power projects
imperative. Today, solar thermal power generation can have been sent to the states. It has been proposed that
competitively replace fossil fuel based Based power they may consider purchasing power at least at the rate of
generation at fuel price levels equivalent to US$100 per Rs. 2.25 per kWh. In addition to this, private sector can
barrel, depending on radiation, infrastructure, and also avail loans from the Indian Renewable Energy
operational mode. Apart from grid-connected centralized Development Agency Limited (IREDA).
power plants, solar thermal plants can also in standalone
mode in decentralized applications like rural electrification Merits of wind energy
and in remote locations like islands. The world market is  It is a non-polluting, environment friendly and
predicted to be 5.1 GW per year during 2010-15 including sustainable source of energy.
800 MW per year potential in India.
 The gestation period is low and the power generation
starts immediately after commissioning of the
Wind Energy windmill.
Atmospheric air is almost in a state of fast continuous  Power generation is cheaper as there is no shortage
motion due to unequal heating of landmasses and water of input (i.e., wind). The recurring expenses are
bodies by solar radiation. This kinetic energy possessed by almost nil.
air due to its velocity is called wind energy and can be
used to do work. This energy was harnessed by windmills Limitations of wind energy
in the past to do mechanical work. For example in a water-  Wind energy farms can be located only vast open
lifting pump, the rotator motion of windmill is utilized to areas in favorable wind conditions as the minimum
lift water from a well. Today, wind energy is also used to velocity for a windmill to function is 15 km/h.

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 The cost of construction of wind energy farm is high.  These projects are labour-intensive in nature, i.e.,
 The appearance of windmills on the landscape and they enable us to tackle problem of unemployment.
their continuous whirling and whistling is irritating.  Hydroelectric power projects are multi-purpose
 The location of wind energy farms should not be on projects as these enable us to use their water for
the routes of migratory birds otherwise it will play irrigation, industrial and domestic purposes, control
havoc with the birds. flood, develop recreational sites, etc.
 There should be some backup facilities (like storage
Dements of Hydel Power Plants
cells) to take care of energy needs during a period
when there is no wind.  The initial investment is very high and the gestation
period is very long.
 The tower and blades are exposed to rain, sun, storm
and cyclone they need a high level of maintenance.  These projects cause population displacement,
damage the environment and fertile land thereby
Hydroenergy creating a host of social problems as in the case of
the Tehri Dam (on river Ganga) and Sardar Sarovar
This renewable source of energy is produced from the
Projects (on river Narmada).
kinetic energy of flowing water of the potential energy of
water at height. This energy has been traditionally used  Hydroelectric generation is not suitable for all rivers
for rotating the water- wheels and drive water-mills to and for all areas.
grind wheat to make flour. This energy has been modified
to generate electricity by establishing hydro-power plants. Government’s Initiatives Towards the
At hydro-power plants, the energy of falling water (or Promotion of Biomass Energy
flowing water) is tapped by using a water turbine which (i) Biogas plants
drives the generator. At present, the total electric power
generated in our country, almost one-fourth is contributed The national project on biogas development was started
by hydroelectricity. In India, if water resources are properly in 1981/82 for the promotion of family-type biogas plants.
utilised, may be possible to generate more than 10,000 The project aims at providing a clean and inexpensive
megawatts of electricity. But at present only is 6500 energy source, producing enriched manure, improving
megawatts of hydroelectricity is generated. About 80% of sanitation, and elevating the status of women in rural areas.
the developed hydel projects lie in Maharashtra, Tamil Against a potential of setting up 12 million plants based
Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu on cattle dung, about 2.7 million plants have been set up.
and Kashmir and Uttaranchal. A 10 MW rice straw based thermal plant has been
commissioned by BHEL (Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited)
Advantages of hydel power Plants at Jhalkhari in Punjab. A pilot plant to generate electricity
from garbage and municipal wastes has been installed at
 Hydroelectric power is pollution free and the most
Timarpur in Delhi.
versatile source of energy out of all the known
sources of energy. Biomass Energy
 Hydel projects have a very low generation and Biomass is the organic matter which is used as a fuel to
maintenance cost, reliable and have a relatively long produce energy. It is the oldest renewable source of heat
life. The life expectancy of a hydel power plant energy still widely used as a fuel for domestic purposes. It
equipment is about 50 years or more. includes fuelwood, agricultural wastes like crop residues,
 They have a very high efficiency over a considerable bagasse etc. (Bagasse is solid residual mass left after
load and have quick start up and stopping time and extracting juice from sugar cane) and cowdung. In India
rapid response to change in power demand. more than 70% of the rural population depends upon
 Hydel power enables us to conserve our coal biomass as a source of energy. These are also burnt in rural
resources as for every horse power (hp) of hydel industries and in the urban service establishments. It is
power generated, about four metric tonnes of coal common to use bagasse in the sugar industry and rice husk
is saved. in rice mills. India is experiencing rapid economic and

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 ENVIRONMENT An effort of Team EG
population growth leading to more energy requirement. conservation, reduction of smoke, conservation of forests
The use of fuelwood alone in India is predicted to increase and the environment, providing employment, and
by a factor of three upto 2015. elevating the status of women and children in rural areas.
Improved cookstoves have a thermal efficiency of 20% -
These fuels however do not produce much heat on
35% as compared to the traditional cookstoves which have
burning and a lot of pollutants like particulate matter, SO2,
an efficiency of 10%. In addition, the improved cookstoves
NO and another trace gases are given out when these are
(ICs) are estimated to save about 11 million tonnes of
burnt. Therefore, technological inputs to improve the
fuelwood equivalent every year. A minimum thermal
efficiency of these fuels are necessary. Wood undergoes
efficiency of 20% and 25% has been prescribed for the fixed
carbonization to produce charcoal which burns without
and portable type cookstoves, respectively. The pattern of
flames, is comparatively smokeless and has higher heat
subsidies for the promotion of ICs has been further
generation efficiency.
rationalized to encourage market support.
Similarly cowdung, crop, residues, vegetable waste,
poultry droppings and sewage are decomposed in the Geothermal Energy
absence of oxygen (anaerobic decomposition) to give bio-
Geothermal energy is the heat of the earth and is the
gas. It is an excellent fuel as it contains upto 75% methane.
naturally occurring thermal energy found within rock
It burns without smoke, leaves no residue and has high
formations and the fluids held within those formations.
heating capacity. The slurry left behind is removed
periodically and used as excellent manure, rich in nitrogen, In the molten core lying deep inside the Earth, the
phosphorus and potassium. Biogas has a high calorific value temperatures are as high as 4000°C. The thermal energy
(5000 - 5500 kcal/kg) and can be used for domestic from this molten core forms an inexhaustible source of
purposes, operating small scale industries, lighting and as energy. Though the total quantity of heat stored in the
fuel for the boilers, generators etc. The large scale Earth is vast, geothermal energy can be exploited only in
utilisation of biomass wastes and sewage materials for particular areas, called the hot spots (e.g. volcanoes,
producing biogas provides safe and efficient method of geysers and bubbling mud holes). These hot spots are
waste-disposal besides supplying energy and manure. formed when geological changes push the molten rocks,
called magma, upwards where it gets settled at some
(ii) Biomass gasifiers for thermal applications depths below the Earth’s surface.
The techno-economic feasibility of utilizing biomass The underground hot water in contact with hot spots
gasifiers for a variety of thermal applications has also been changes into steam. As the steam is trapped between the
established. The capacity rating of these gasifiers is up to rocks, it gets compressed to high pressure. At some places,
150 kg of biomass/hour (equivalent to 400000 kcal/ hour hot water and steam gush out from the Earth’s surface
energy). The lower capacity gasifiers are used in small-scale after making their way through large cracks between the
industries like silk reeling, dyeing, and drying and in rocks and form natural geysers. Geothermal energy carried
community cooking, etc. The bigger sized gasifiers can be
by natural geysers is utilized for generating electricity.
used in industrial applications such as carbon dioxide”
manufacturing, and magnesium chloride production, etc. At some places, the steam trapped between the rocks
Moreover, there is a demand for large gasifiers in industries is extracted by sinking pipes though holes drilled upto hot
like cement, sugar, and calcium chloride for meeting the spots. The steam which comes out at high pressure is
process of heat requirement. The use of gasifiers offers utilized to turn the turbine of an electric generator to
substantial reduction in fuel consumption and reduction produce electricity.
in harmful emissions. A 100 KW gasifier system has been Although the most potent sources of geothermal
established in Port Blair and a 15 kW sugar cane-water energy are volcanos, hot springs and geysers, there are
based system is under field evaluation. some other areas where geothermal energy can be
harnessed under controlled conditions. This is done by
(iii) Improved cookstoves pumping water down through an injection well where it
The National Programme on Improved cookstoves was passes through joints and fractures in hot rocks and rises
launched in 1984/85 with the objectives of fuel to the surface through a recovery or production well. This
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A manish Singh Sir’s Initiative ENVIRONMENT
hot water is converted into steam by a heat exchanger. (i) Tidal energy
Dry steam is men passed through turbines to produce Water level near the coasts rises up and falls twice a day.
electricity. This movement of water level along the coasts is known
as tides. Tides are due to gravitational pull of the Moon on
Merits of geothermal energy waters in the ocean. This pull varies during the monthly
 Geothermal energy is the most versatile and least cycle rotation of the Moon around the earth. High tides
polluting renewable source of energy. occur on every new moon day and full moon day and can
 It can be harnessed for 24 hours throughout the year raise the level of water by few meters. Tidal energy is
and is relatively inexpensive. harnessed by constructing a dam across a narrow opening
 As compared to solar energy and wind energy, the to the sea. A turbine fixed at the opening of the dam
power generation level of geothermal energy is converts tidal energy to electricity.
higher.
Merits of tidal energy
l Geothermal energy can be used for power generation  It is an inexhaustible, pollution free and renewable
as well as direct heating.
source of energy.
Limitations of geothermal energy  It is independent of uncertainty of rainfall. Even if
there is a continuous dry spell for many years, there
 Geothermal hot spots are scattered and usually some
is no effect on tidal power generation.
distance away from the areas that need energy.
 The overall power production has a lower efficiency  A tidal power plant does not require large area of
(about 15%) as compared to that of fossil fuels (35% valuable land as it is built on the bay or the estuary.
to 40%). Limitations of tidal power
 Though as a whole, geothermal energy is  Due to variation in tidal range, the power output is
inexhaustible, a single bore has a limited life span of variable and power generation is intermittent and
about 10 years. not very large.
 Noise pollution is caused by drilling operations at  There are very few suitable sites available for
geothermal sites. construction of dams.
Geothermal power potential of India  The most difficult problems in the use of tidal power
is the barrage construction in areas of high tidal flow;
India has vast potential for geothermal power. North-
and corrosion of barrage, sluiceways and turbines by
Western Himalayas and the Western Coasts are considered
salty sea waters.
geothermal areas. The Geological Survey of India has
already identified more than 350 hot water springs with Tidal power potential of India
average temperatures of 80°C-100°C. A 5 kW geothermal India has an estimated tidal power potential of about
pilot power plant has been commissioned at Manikaran 15,000 MW and the sites that have been identified are:
in Himachal Pradesh. The Puga Valley in Ladakh region has
the most promising geothermal field with a potential of Gulf of Cambay (7000 MW), Gulf of Kutch (1000 MW)
4.5 MW power. A project on an experimental basis for the and Sunderbans (100 MW). Other suitable sites are near
cultivation of mushrooms and poultry farming has been Lakshadweep Islands, Andaman and Nicobar Islands and
implemented. Coasts of Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala and
Maharashtra. Asia’s first tidal power plant costing Rs. 5000
Ocean Energy Systems crore and of 800 - 1000 MW capacity is proposed to be set
Oceans are large water bodies covering about 75% of the up in the Hanthal Creek in the Gulf of Kutch in Gujarat.
Earth’s total surface area. Apart from being large reservoirs
(ii) Wave Energy
of water, they are huge reservoirs of energy also. Oceans
store energy in many forms which can be obtained for Due to blowing of wind on the surface of sea very fast
useful purposes in the following ways: water waves move on its surface. Due to their high speed,
(i) Tidal Energy (ii) Wave Energy (iii) Ocean Thermal sea-waves have a lot of kinetic energy in them. The energy
Energy of moving sea waves can be used to generate electricity. A

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 ENVIRONMENT An effort of Team EG
wide variety of devices have been developed to trap sea- (iii) Ocean Thermal Energy
wave energy to turn turbines and drive generators for the
Large amount of solar energy is stored in the oceans and
production of electricity:
seas. On an average, 60 million square kilometers of
(a) The floating generators are set-up in the sea. tropical seas absorb solar radiation which is equivalent to
These move up and down with sea-waves and the heat content of 245 billion barrels of oil. If this energy
this movement drives the generators to can be tapped, a large amount of energy will be available
produce electricity. to the tropical countries and the other countries as well.
(b) The sea waves are made to move up and down The sun warms the ocean water at the surface and the
inside large tubes. As the waves move up, the wave motion mixes the warmed up water downwards to
air in the tubes is compressed. This compressed the depth of about 100 m. This mixed warm layer is
air can be used to turn a turbine of a generator separated from the deep cold water layer and the
to produce electricity. temperature difference between these layers ranges from
10°C to 30°C. It is this temperature difference between
Merits of wave energy the surface of the ocean and the depths of about 2 km
 It is a free, renewable and pollution free source of which is used to produce electric power. The process of
energy. harnessing the ocean thermal energy is popularly known
 Wave power projects do not require large land areas. as ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC). In the OTEC
 After extracting energy from the waves, the sea water power plant, the warm surface water is used to boil a
is left in a relatively calm state. volatile liquid like ammonia. The vapours of the liquid are
then used to run the turbine of generator. The cold water
 Wave power projects do not require a specific site
from the depth of the ocean is pumped up and condense
(as in the case of tidal power projects) as same energy
vapour again to liquid.
exists on almost any coastline.
Merits of ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC)
Limitations of wave energy
process
 The power output is of variable nature.
 The electric power from OTEC is continuous,
 Wave energy extraction equipments must be capable renewable and pollution free. It is one of the most
of withstanding very severe peak stresses in storms. clean power production technologies.
 Wave power is expensive with presently available  These systems transfer nutrients from the
technologies. unproductive deep waters to the warmer surface
 Marine mammal and seabird population could be thereby enriching the fishing grounds.
affected due to the presence of wave energy  OTEC process does not have daily or seasonal
structures. variations in their output as in the case with other
The total amount of power available in the World solar energy devices.
from wave energy is roughly 2 to 3 million MW. But the Limitations of the process
number of sites where this energy can be converted into
 This process requires a lot of capital investment.
useful energy is limited because only those areas with an
 Due to small temperature difference between the
average energy density of 40 MW/km of coastline are
surface water and the deep water, the conversion
economically viable.
efficiency is low (3-4%)
Wave power potential of India
The wave energy potential of 7516.6 km long Indian coast
NON-RENEWABLESOURCES
is estimated to be about 40,000 MW. Trade wind belts in
Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal are the ideal locations for
(a) Fossil Fuels
harnessing wave energy. The first wave energy project with
a capacity of 150 MW has been set up at Vizhinjam near Fossil Fuels are remains of prehistoric plants and animals
Trivandrum. which got buried deep inside the earth millions of years

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A manish Singh Sir’s Initiative ENVIRONMENT
ago due to natural processes. These are energy rich Natural gas currently accounts for about 8% of the
compounds of carbon made by the plant and animal energy consumption in our country. The current demand
remains with the help of solar energy. is 89 mcmd as against domestic availability of 63 mcmd.
The total gas consumption is around 20 bcm with a sectural
Coal distribution.
It is a complex mixture of compounds of carbon, hydrogen, The aggregate natural gas production is about 25 bcm
oxygen and small amount of nitrogen and sulphur and is likely to peak in future. However a wide gap is
compounds. It is found in deep coal mines under the expected to prevail unless major gas discoveries materialize
surface of the earth. India has about 75118mt which is following future exploration by PSU’s and private
approximate 7% of world’s known coal reserves and these companies.
are mainly found in Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Pondicherry, Raja Also Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) imports can ease
as than, Jammu and Kashmir, Bihar, Orissa, Madhya the shortage of primary energy supply provided it can be
Pradesh. Coal supplies 50% of the country’s total energy sourced at competitive prices with respect to domestic and
requirement. By current estimates, the reserves are imported alternative fuels. In India, LNG is being imported
sufficient to meet the country’s demand for at least from Qatar.
another 100 years. The largest coal consuming sectors are
power, iron and steel and cement industries. The share of NUCLEAR ENERGY
the thermal power sector in coal consumption is almost Nuclear energy is released when atoms undergo nuclear
75%. fission. When heavy atoms like uranium, plutonium or
thorium are bombared with low-energy neutrons, a
Petroleum tremendous amount of energy is released. The fission of
an atom of uranium for example, produces 10 million times
Petroleum literally means rock oil. It is a complex mixture
the energy produced by the combustion of an atom of
of several solid, liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons mixed
carbon from coal. Currently all commercial nuclear reactors
with water, salt and earth particles. Small amounts of other
are based on nuclear fission. But there is a possibility of
compounds of carbon containing oxygen, nitrogen and nuclear energy generation by a safer process of nuclear
sulphur are also present in petroleum. It is a thick black fusion. Sun derives its energy from the fusion of hydrogen
liquid and is not used as a fuel in its natural form. It nuclei into helium nuclei, which is going on inside it all the
undergoes fractional distillation to obtain a number of time. In a nuclear reactor designed for electric power
useful products like fuel oil, Diesel oil, Kerosene, Petrol or generation such nuclear fuel could be a part of a self
Gasoline, Petroleum Gas, Asphalt, lubricating oil and sustaining fission chain reaction that releases energy at a
paraffin wax. The aggregate consumption of petroleum controlled rate. The released energy can be used to
products upto year 2000 was 85 mt The largest consumers produce steam and further generate electricity.
of petroleum products are the transport, residential and Nuclear power reactors located at Tarapur (Maharashtra),
industrial sectors. Rana Pratap Sagar (Rajasthan), Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu),
Narora (UP), Kaprapar (Gujarat) and Kaiga (Karnataka) have
Natural Gas the installed capacity of less than 3% of the total electricity
It is usually found underground near an oil source. generation capacity of our country. However many
industrialised countries are meeting more than 30% of
However, there are some oil wells which give only natural
their electric power needs from nuclear reactors.
gas. It is a mixture of methane (about 95%), ethane,
propane and butane. Other components found are carbon Advantages of Nuclear Energy
dioxide, helium, hydrogen sulphide and nitrogen. It is highly  It produces a large amount of useful energy from a
inflammable, odourless, colourless gas. It is the cleanest very small amount of nuclear fuel (like uranium-235).
burning fossil fuel found around the world but its largest  Once the nuclear fuel is loaded into the reactor, the
reservoirs are in the former Soviet Union and the Middle nuclear power plant can go on producing electricity
East Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) in liquid form is used for two to three years at a stretch. There is no need
as a fuel in calorific value of about 55 kJ/g. for putting in nuclear fuel again and again.

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 It does not produce gases like carbon dioxide which Carriage, storage and handling safety
contributes to greenhouse effect or sulphur dioxide Vegetable oils and biodiesel are biodegradable, non-toxic,
which causes acid rain. non-carcinogenic, non-mutagenic and non-allergenic. This
Disadvantages of Nuclear Energy is of considerable ecological advantage when considering
 The waste products of nuclear reactions (produced at the pollution that has been caused by petroleum products
nuclear power plants) are radioactive which keep on following large-scale marine oil spills vegetable oils having
emitting harmful nuclear radiations for thousands of been used to clean up oil slicks. Flash point is around 179°C
years. So, it is very difficult to store or dispose off (diesel fuel 74°C), which means that the transport, storage
nuclear wastes safely. Improper nuclear waste storage and use is easier as the fire hazard is far below any other
or disposal can pollute the environment.
currently available liquid transport fuel.
 There is the risk of accidents in nuclear reactors
Both ethyl and methyl alcohols are of similar safety
(especially the old nuclear reactors). Such accidents
lead to the leakage of radioactive materials which can
hazard. Highly volatile (BP 78.3°C; 64.6°C; petroleum 27°C)J
cause serious damage to the plants, animals (including flashpoints are also low, but comparable with petroleum
human beings) and the environment. for fire and explosion hazard.
Methane is a naturally occurring greenhouse gas,
which is also the major component of CNG. It requires only
ALTERNATE ENERGY SOURCES
0.29 ml energy to ignite, with an explosive concentration
Green Fuel in air of 5 to 13%. This is 15 times the energy required to
The recent excitement over the Kyoto protocol pertaining ignite a hydrogen/air mixture, but far lower levels of
to global climate change, the rising prices of fossil fuels concentration are required. It is non-toxic and carries the
has led India and other developing countries to look for same safety precautions as any of the liquefied gases
an environmentally friendly and economically viable currently dispensed from pressurised containers.
alternative fuel. Several initiatives have been taken in
recent times on the energy front such as large scale Environmental Effects
promotion of wind energy farms for power generation, Growing biofoels should be considered essentially non-
blending of ethyl alcohol with petrol and developmental polluting in the longer term, given proper agricultural and
efforts towards bio fuels or green fuels. process management. In addition by absorbing carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere, energy crops act as a carbon
BiofueIs include: sink throughout the year. This is released only when the
1. Vegetable oils (rape, hemp, sunflower, soy, palm, olive fuel is used or the by-products burned. Longer term carbon
etc.) sequestration is achieved through the roots and stubble
2. Biodiesel (obtained from oil extracted from Jatrapha of the plants being ploughed into the ground.
Curcas seeds.) Production of Biodiesel is two step There is a wide range of plants available, world-wide,
approach; the extraction of the Jatropha oils from as oil-producing energy crops. Other major benefit of
the seed, and the conversion of the extracted oil to energy crops is the oxygen by product from photosynthesis.
Biodiesel, according to the following
Ethanol, methanol, vegetable oil and biodiesel are
transesterification reaction - Oil + 3 Methanol [using
all oxygenated fuels. That is, they contain oxygen in their
NaOH or KOH catalyst =3 Biodiesel (Methyl Ester) +
Glycerol] molecular structure. This is significantly advantageous to
3. Ethanol (obtained by distillation from energy crops the burning process in an internal combustion engine, not
like sugarcane, maize, switch grass and populous tree only in improving the efficiency of the fuel but also in
etc and residues) turning noxious oxides into less harmful dioxides (carbon
4. Methanol (wood alcohol obtained by pyrolysis from and nitrogen). This also applies when used as fuel
energy crops or waste) extenders.
5. Methane (gas obtained by bacteriological In addition, none of them contain any sulphur at all
decomposition from landfill sites, sewage sludge etc.) unless minute traces are acquired through crop dusting,

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acid rain during growth or contaminated alcohols used Since the importance of green fuels as alternate
during manufacture. Biodiesel is a better burning fuel than energy sources has been well recognised in India, the
petrodiesel and has a higher atane number. This is due to various organizations such as Indian Oil Corporation and
the molecular oxygen content of the fuel, which reacts Indian Railways, as well as several Universities and private
under pressure and temperature fester than the institutions have initiated technology development plans
subsequent fuel/air mixture. This causes the fuel to burn for the use of bio-fuels. Many states like Tamil Nadu,
at a higher temperature, resulting in the formation of a Rajasthan, Karnataka and Andhra-Pradesh governments
higher level of nitrogen oxides. By simply retarding the have introduced schemes to encourage investments in
Jatropha plantations. The government plans to introduce
fuel injection timing by two to three degree (depending
10% ethanol blended petrol from October 2008 instead of
on the engine design), the burning temperature is reduced,
5% blend that is currently mandatory. But Tata Motors have
thereby reducing the amount of NOx gases formed.
indicated to Ministry of shipping, road transport and
Energy Production highways that the higher blend would impact vehicles
designed before 2002 and reduce fuel efficiency (Hindustan
Vegetable oil is the most energy positive fuel to produce Times, Dec. 15, 2007). The technical barrier to the
requiring only agricultural input and seed pressing. 1 tonne encouragement of bio-fuels as a transport fuel is lack of
of oil produced from rapeseed per hectare gives an energy suitable engines. Despite the fact that Dr. Rudolph Diesel
yield of 11 MWh at a cost of 2 MWh - a positive transport ran his new engine over a hundred years ago on peanut
energy yield of 550%. oil, subsequent engineering developments have been
Biodiesel requires an energy input of up to 1 MWh based on petroleum fuel. TTius India has to work and find
per hectare, a positive transport energy yield of over 375%. out path to an ecologically sound, energy efficient future.


 CHAPTER

3
ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH

It is well known that various human activities have caused Sanitation & Other Problems in Habitations
damage to land, air, water and organisms that inhabit them.  Unregulated growth of habitations, inadequate
The degraded environment in turn poses a serious threat infrastructure facilities and lack of proper facilities
to human health and social well­being. In developing for collection, transportation, treatment and disposal
countries like India the biological contamination of food, of wastes have all contributed to increased pollution
water and air with germs has remained a health menace. causing health hazards.
Introduction of toxic chemicals and harmful radiations has
 Lack of proper toilets, especially in villages, towns
created new types of potentially serious health problems.
and slum areas of cities does not permit proper
Developmental projects have led to pollution of the
disposal of human waste which in turn leads to
environment resulting in different type of health problems.
improper sanitary conditions and health hazards.
Health and Various Types of Influences  Scarcity of clean drinking water is one of the major
Health of a person is the result of interaction of a large causes for the spread of many water borne diseases.
number of influences upon the person. These can be  Poor drainage or improper drainage results in the
considered as genetic influences, behavioural influences accumulation of waste water in public places in
and environmental influences. villages, towns and cities. Animal excreta and
 Genetic influences: Genes determine the physical movement of cattle in and out of water pools and
and physiological characteristics of an organism. The puddles spreads this filth over larger areas further
inherited abnormalities manifest as the hereditary causing sanitary problems.
diseases which are passed on from parents to  Contamination of food, often due to lack of
offsprings. Diseases like allergies, hypertension, understanding of the reasons and consequences is
diabetes, etc. are not entirely genetic. However, they another health hazard faced by humans.
are due to the interaction of genes with the  Poor personal hygiene and eating without washing
environment. These are triggered and affected by of hands leads to many types of health problems.
nutrition, stress, emotion, hormones, drugs and other
environmental interactions. Villages
 Behavioural influences: Alcoholism, smoking, use of One of the major problems of the villages is the lack of
drugs, tobacco chewing or irregular food habits safe drinking water supply. Many health problems and
causing various kinds of health problems. diseases in villages are due to use of water which is not
 Environmental influences: Various components of clean. Improper disposal or lack of disposal of excreta adds
the environment exert their influence on our health. to the sanitation problems. These are linked with high
These can be grouped under physical, chemical, infant mortality rate and low life expectancy. Provision of
biological, sociological and psychological factors. low cost sanitary latrines in villages is a very important
A manish Singh Sir’s Initiative ENVIRONMENT
program of rural development. Ignorance of hygiene and  Industrial areas- Many industries are established in
sanitation adds to the problems further. Dissemination of unplanned manner and without environmental
knowledge and provision of safe drinking water is an impact assessment. This results in air, water, soil and
important agenda. Rural households are not properly noise pollution with their undesirable consequences.
ventilated as a result they suffer from lack of fresh air and The industrial effluents and waste are often
many rural households are single room units which get hazardous and may contain toxic heavy metals and
filled with smoke from burning of fire wood and biomass other toxic materials some of which ultimately to
and do not get adequate sun light. They lack of proper leach down and contaminate ground water making
drainage that leads to contamination of ground water and it unfit for drinking and other use.
other sources of drinking water.  Residential and commercial areas- It is very common
in cities to have commercial activities in areas meant
Towns exclusively for residential purposes. Since these are
In most of the cities there is lack of proper drainage. As a unplanned there is no proper infrastructure for these
result accumulation of waste water form puddles of dirty activities. There is lot of over crowding in a confined
water. Animals like cattle, dogs and pigs roam freely in cities area. Haphazard parking makes movement of traffic
and their excreta etc. make sanitation problems worse. and people difficult. The noise level is high especially
because of hawkers selling their wares at a very loud
Roads are not proper and the different types of transport
pitch so as to attract the attention of the prospective
further pollute the environment and cause health
customers. Daily generation of garbage­ both
problems.
domestic and commercial is often dumped at the
Cities roadside making the whole area filled with filth and
unhygienic. Burning of tree leaves and plant residues
Rapid growth of urbanization has adversely stressed the also leads to air pollution especially during winters.
environment. About l/5th of the urban population resides
 Traffic- Most often the traffic is chaotic due to
in slums and l/3rd of the population does not have access
inadequate roads, poor enforcement of traffic rules,
to sanitation and clean drinking water which results in poor
too many vehicles and lack of proper public transport.
health. Most cities have many unplanned and haphazard The movement of vehicles leads to atmospheric
areas with inadequate infrastructure. Industrial areas have pollution due to the emission from the vehicles,
been established without environmental assessment suspended participate matter and smoke especially
Inadequate commercial areas, inadequate transport from diesel vehicles.
network, inadequate green and recreational areas and lack
of consideration for environment in planning have led to Different Modes of Spread of Water Related
chaos and environmental degradation. Discharge of Disases Caused by Pathogents, Vectors and
sewage into open drains, contaminate city water supply, Chemical Pollutants
especially during rainy season. At least l/5th of world population lacks access to safe
 Slums: Are unplanned aggregations of hutments drinking water. In developing countries, 80 to 90% of the
arranged very closely without any space for roads, untreated sewage is discharged directly into rivers and
parks, drains, etc. Often many persons live in each of streams which provide water for drinking, washing and
these small hutments which do not have proper bathing. Lack of sewage treatment allows pathogenic
ventilation and cooking on wood burning chullahs organisms to spread water­borne diseases. Diseases
fills them with smoke resulting in many respiratory transmitted by vectors like mosquitoes which live in the
problems and diseases. Generally toilets are absent water are responsible for about one third of all deaths in
making life difficult especially for women. Lack of the world. The growing pollution of rivers and other water
proper drainage leads to very unhygienic conditions. bodies constitutes a very big threat to public health.
Due to unavailability of clean drinking water, these Polluted waters lead to various gastrointestinal problems,
people suffer from diseases like dysentery which is liver infection, cancer, etc. Large number of children die
often fatal to children in these areas. because of diarrhoea.

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Modes of transmission of diseases hygiene, for washing food and other items. Diseases are
Disease causing pathogens reach humans in various ways spread by poor quality water used for washing and include
which are described below. skin diseases like scabies and eye disease such as trachoma
and conjunctivitis. Water based diseases spread by
1. Contact transmission: Some diseases can be
parasites living in water include schistosomiasis transmitted
transmitted by either direct physical contact with the
by snails. Disease from polluted water include hook worm,
infected person or the causative agent can be
round worm, etc.
transmitted to the host indirectly by contact with the
infected articles. Air Pollutants Associated with Agriculture,
2. Vehicle transmission: Industry, Mining and Urban Areas
(a) Pathogenic organisms are transmitted through Atmospheric pollution is an ever­increasing threat to health
water, food, etc. When the water is infected at throughout the world especially in developing countries
the source, it spreads the infection to large like India. Air pollution spoils the quality of air that we
populations. Pathogens causing Cholera,
breathe­ Many substances which are harmful to lungs are
Typhoid and Hepatitis are transmitted from one
carried by such inspired air. Air pollutants cause irritation
person to another through then­ domestic
to eyes, burning sensation in eyes, blocking of nose,
water supply. Infection is also transmitted by
sneezing and headache etc. There are others which cause
organisms which live in water e.g. Helminthes
more serious problems which in some cases can be fatal.
(parasitic worms) which spend part of their life
cycle in water. Long exposures to air pollution can cause diseases such as
bronchitis, chronic cough, asthma and emphysema.
(b) Many chemical pollutants such as food
additives, adulterants, poisonous industrial Air Pollution from agricultural operations
waste, pesticides and metals get mixed with
water including underground water and are  Pesticides ­ A significant proportion of pesticides
consumed by humans and animals resulting in applied to crops is vapourized and contaminates the
diseases. Inadequate water supply and lack of atmosphere over agricultural fields.
personal hygiene cause transmission of disease  Smoke ­ Burning of crop residues results in
such as trachoma in the eye and skin infections. production of smoke and many toxic gases.
3. Vector transmission: Vector is a carrier of pathogen.  Water vapour ­ The humidity in agricultural fields
Mosquito spend a part of their life cycle in water. especially after irrigation is generally high. In addition
Vector for disases such as malaria, yellow fever, to the above, toxic gases are also released from the
encephalitis, filaria and dengue. use of machinery such as diesel pumps, tractors etc.
contaminate agricultural areas.
Water borne diseases, their spread and conse-
quences Industrial
It is estimated that 73 million work days are lost every  Smoke ­ Smoke is perhaps the major pollutant in
year in India due to water related diseases. India is rich in industrial areas caused due to burning of fossil fuels
rivers and surface flow represents 97% of the available such as coal. The chimney belches out dense clouds
water. But rattier than being a boon, these rivers are
of pollutants which coat the surrounding areas with
proving to be quite a disaster because of pollution. River
a thick layer of white dust or ash.
Yamuna becomes highly polluted after entering Delhi due
 Carbon dioxide ­ Burning of fossil fuel, wood and crop
to the addition of untreated sewage, industrial waste and
many other pollutants. It has been found that water residues all produce lot of carbon dioxide leading to
samples taken in Delhi are about 20 times more polluted global warming and climate change.
than the water samples taken before the river enters Delhi.  Oxides of sulphur- Sulphur dioxide is produced by
Water borne diseases are spread by drinking water burning fossil fuels and it is a major pollutant released
contaminated by faeces, by water used for personal from oil refineries, etc.

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In addition to the above, some industries like sugar the blood stream or lymphatic system and spread from
mills, tanneries etc. release a lot of foul smelling gases. the original site to form new rumors in other organs.
Many other atmospheric pollutants including heavy metals Leukemia and lymphoma are cancers which are
are common in urban atmosphere. initiated in blood­forming cells. Most cancers are named
after the organ concerned e.g. Cancer that begins in lungs
Mining Areas is lung cancer and the one in skin is known as melanoma.
Suspended particulate matter is one of the major pollutants The cancer­causing agents are known as carcinogens.
in mining areas. This is especially so in stone quarries, iron Agents present in the environment are the environmental
mines, etc. Other pollutants are sulphur dioxide and oxides carcinogens.
of nitrogen. Atmosphere of asbestos mines contains
asbestos dust which causes asbestosis, silica causes silicosis, Tobacco
lead, zinc and other heavy metals such as chromium, Smoking tobacco or being regularly exposed to tobacco
arsenic, copper and manganese, and radon gas may also smoke are responsible for about 85% of all cancer deaths.
accumulate in high concentrations in their respective Smoking may increase the chances of getting cancers of
mines. High levels of alpha and gamma radiation can also stomach, liver, prostate, colon and rectum. Use of
be found in and around uranium mines and uranium ore smokeless tobacco, chewing tobacco and snuff cause
tailings. cancer of mouth and throat. Exposure to environmental
tobacco smoke, termed passive smoking also increases the
Pollution in Urban Areas risk of lung cancer for non­smokers. The risk of cancer
High level of suspended particulate matter is one of the begins to decrease soon after quitting smoking and
major pollutants in urban areas. This is caused by chewing tobacco. This risk continues to decline gradually
multifarious human activities such as movement of traffic, after quitting.
smoke from industries and diesel vehicles from
automobiles gases like oxides of sulphur, oxides of nitrogen, Ultraviolet (UV) radiation
hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. In UV radiation coming from sun can cause premature aging
addition many trace metals such as iron, zinc and of and skin damage prolonged exposure to UV radiation
magnesium are found associated with suspended air may lead to skin cancer. The formation of ozone hole by
particutates. compounds like chlorofluorocarbons and others, increase
the incidence of UV radiation reaching the earth. This is
Environmental Carcinogents and Methods of because ozone layer acts as a shield to prevent passage of
Their Control UV radiations preventing melanoma. Avoiding exposure
Cancer is a group of related diseases that begin in cells of to direct midday sun light (from 10 a.m. to 3 p.m.) is
perhaps the best way of reducing the risk of skin cancer.
the body. Normally cells divide to produce more cells when
Wearing of a broad­brimmed hat, use of UV absorbing
body needs them for development, growth and repair of
sunglasses and clothing to cover the body adequately also
cell damage. Process of continuous division and growth of
offers protection against UV.
cells keeps the body healthy and normal. However, at times
cells keep on dividing even when new cells are not Ionizing radiation
required. These cells form a mass of tissue known as a
High levels of radiation like those from radiation therapies
tumor. The tumors can be either benign or malignant.
and X­rays, and from radioactive substances can damage
The benign tumors are not harmful. Generally they normal (somatic) cells and increase the risk of developing
can be removed surgically and do not reappear. Further, leukemia and cancers of the breast, thyroid, lung, stomach
cells from these tumors do not move to other parts of the and other organs. Studies with survivors of the atomic
body and rarely endanger life. On the other hand, bomb in Japan showed that ionizing radiation increases
malignant tumors are cancerous. Cells of these tumors are the risk of leukemia and other cancers. It is always desirable
abnormal and they divide and re­divide without any to minimize diagnostic and therapeutic exposure to
control. They can invade and damage nearby tissues and ionizing radiation and protect other parts of the body
organs. Cells from these tumors can break away and enter during such procedures.
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Chemicals and other substances BLUE BABY DISEASE
Pesticides: Excessive use of pesticides particularly  Modem agriculture uses a lot of nitrogenous
herbicides like 2,4­ dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4­D) has fertilizers and manures. This leads to increased levels
been associated with a 200­800% increase of NHL (Non­ of nitrates in the ground water as nitrates being
Hodgkin’s Lymphoma) ­ one type of cancer in Sweden. soluble in water easily leach into the soil. Once the
level exceeds 10 ppm it may become harmful. In areas
Pesticides such as toxaphene, hexachlorocyclohexane
where ground water is the only source of drinking
(BHC), trichlorophenol, dieldrin, DDT are known to cause
water, this causes methaemoglobinaemia particularly
lymphatic cancer in rats and mice. The danger is increased in bottle fed infants who are very sensitive to this
due to the persistent nature of the residues of these pollutant.
pesticides in the environment resulting in chronic exposure
 Babies drink large quantities of water; water is used
to low levels of pesticides. to mix powdered or concentrated recipes or juices.
The use of all these pesticides has now either been When water containing nitrates is consumed and it
banned or restricted. Organic farming and emphasis on reaches intestines, the intestinal bacteria convert
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) as an alternate and nitrates into nitrites. The nitrite ions combine with
environment friendly method of pest control. Asbestos, haemoglobin to form methaemoglobin which inhibits
the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood causing a
nickel, cadmium, radon, vinyl chloride, benzidine and
kind of anaemia known as methaemoglobinaemia.
benzene are well known carcinogens. Reduction in
exposure to these will reduce the incidence of various types  Methaemoglobin is formed when iron in the
haemoglobin molecule is oxidized from Fe2+ (ferrous)
of cancer.
to Fe3+ (ferric) form. Due to reduced carrying capacity
for oxygen the babies gradually acquire a blue tinge
Allergens and allergy
and hence the name ­ “Blue Baby disease”. Symptoms
Substances in the environment that cause allergic are sleeping, poor feeding, decreased energy, etc.
reactions, are known as allergens. Allergens stimulate Nitrates can be removed from the water by processes
within the body an immune response which may be in the like electrodialysis and reverse osmosis. Nitrites in
form of a reaction. An allergic person’s immune system the water can be oxidized to nitrates by introducing
believes allergens to be damaging and so produces a special a strong oxidant like ozone in the water.
type of antibody immunoglobulin E (IgE) to attack the
invading material. This leads other blood cells to release Asthma
further chemicals (including histamine) which together It is a chronic (long term) disease of the respiratory
cause the symptoms of an allergic reaction. passages. It is characterized by reversible airflow
The most common symptoms are sneezing, runny obstruction (tightening of the smooth muscles around
nose, itchy eyes and ears, severe wheezing, coughing, airways), inflammation (swelling) and mucous production
breathelessness, sinus problems, a sore palate and nettle­ when airways are exposed to various stimuli (triggers).
like rash. Other commonly known problems could include Asthma has no cure but there are effective medications to
asthma, eczema and headaches. The most common control the symptoms and prevent asthma attacks. Asthma
allergens are pollen from specific trees and grasses, house can be life threatening, requiring emergency room care or
dust mites, moulds, cats, dogs, insects like wasps and bees, hospital admission. Asthma can develop at any age. What
industrial and household chemicals, medicines and foods exactly causes bronchial tubes to become swollen is still
such as milk and eggs. Allergens contain protein which is not known. However, possible risk factors fordeveloping
asthma in childhood includes­
often regarded as a constituent of the food we eat. There
are some non­protein allergens including drugs like  family history of allergy and allergic disorders.
penicillin­ but they need to­be bound to a protein once  high exposure of airborne allergy causing substances
they are in the body. The best method to combat allergy is ( pet dander, house dust mites, cockroaches, moulds,
to identify the allergen (often difficult) and avoid coming etc) among susceptible children in the first year of
into contact with it. life.

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 exposure to tobacco smoke. organs which come in contact with mercury and thus
 frequent respiratory infections early in life, impairs their functioning. Inhalation of mercury vapours
is more dangerous than its ingestion. Chronic exposure
Symptoms of asthma are breathelessness, wheezing,
causes lesions in the mouth and skin and neurological
chest tightness or pain around the chest, persistent cough
problems.
that can last several weeks.
Typical symptoms of mercury poisoning are
Heavy Metal Toxicity and Methods of their irritability, excitability, loss of memory, insomnia, tremor
Prevention and gingivitis. Exposure to mercury can be prevented by
taking care that mercury is not released in the environment
Toxic metals are dispersed in the environment through
as well as by replacing mercury by other materials. Mercury
metal smelting industrial emissions, burning of organic
thermometers used earlier are getting replaced by mercury
wastes, automobiles and coal based power generation.
free thermometer.
Heavy metals can be carried to places far away from their
source of origin by winds when they are emitted in gaseous
Arsenic
form or in form of fine particulates. Rain ultimately washes
the air having metallic pollutants and brings them to the Arsenic is associated with copper, iron and silver ores.
land and to water bodies. Heavy metals may endanger Arsenic is emitted from fossil fuel burning. Liquid effluents
public health after being incorporated in food chain. Heavy from fertilizer plants also contain arsenic. Ground water
metals cannot be destroyed by biological degradation. contamination with arsenic is very common in areas where
Incidence of heavy metal accumulation in fish, oysters, it is present. People depending on ground water containing
mussels, sediments and other components of aquatic arsenic get exposed to this pollutant. Chronic arsenic
ecosystems have been reported from all over the world. poisoning leads to loss of appetite, weight, diarrhoea,
The heavy metals often encountered in the environment gastrointestinal disturbances and skin cancer.
include lead, mercury, arsenic, chromium. These are known
CADMIUM
to cause toxic effects in living organisms.
Mining especially of zinc and metallurgical operations,
Lead electroplating industries, etc. release cadmium in the
environment. It may enter the human body by inhalation
Lead enters the atmosphere from automobile exhaust
or from aquatic sources including fish, etc. It may cause
Tetraethyl lead (TEL) was added to petrol as an anti­knock hypertension, liver cirrhosis, brittle bones, kidney damage
agent for smooth running of automobile engines. TEL has and lung cancer, Itai­itai disease first reported from Japan
now been replaced by other anti­knock compounds to in 1965 was attributed to cadmium contamination in water
prevent emission of lead by automobiles. Lead in petrol is and rice caused by discharge of effluents from a zinc
being phased out by introduction of lead free petrol. Many smelter into a river.
industrial processes use lead and it is often released as a
pollutant. Battery scrap also contain lead. It can get mixed The water from underground sources contaminated
up with water and food and create cumulative poisoning. with arsenic should not be used for drinking and cooking
It can cause irreversible behavioural disturbances, purposes. Surface waters are generally free from arsenic
neurological damage and other developmental problems pollution and should be preferred for drinking and cooking.
in young children and babies. It is a carcinogen of the lungs Alternatively the tube well/ hand pump water should be
and kidneys. purified to remove arsenic before consumption.
Techniques for removing arsenic from water are available.
Mercury
Other Heavy Metals
In Japan, mass mercury poisoning (Minamata disease) was
observed in 1960s, caused by eating fish from Minamata Metals such as zinc, chromium, antimony and tin enter
Bay which were contaminated with methyl mercury. food from cheap cooking utensils. Preserved foods stored
Largest source of mercury pollution is through aquatic in tin cans also cause contamination by tin. Zinc is a skin
animals such as fish which accumulate mercury as methyl irritant and affects pulmonary system. Problems of heavy
mercury. Mercury kills cells in the body and damages metal toxicity can be prevented by avoiding the use of

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 ENVIRONMENT An effort of Team EG
utensils made from materials containing these heavy develops, in which damage continues in the upper parts
metals or use of drinking water and consuming fish having of the lungs even after exposure to dust has ended. Often
these heavy metals. some patients develop emphysema (Shortness of breathe),
as a complication of black lung disease. X­rays can detect
Occupational Health Hazards black lung disease before it causes any symptoms. Patients
Most people spend the largest proportion of their waking who develop this disease at an early age, or who have
hours at the work place. Many, however, often undertake progressive massive fibrosis, have a higher risk of
agricultural or cottage industry activity within the home premature death.
or in fields. In favourable circumstances work contributes Prevention: The only way to prevent black lung
to good health and economic achievements. For some, the disease is to avoid long­term exposure to coal dust. Coal
work environment exposes them to health hazards that mines may help prevent this condition by lowering coal
contribute to injuries, respiratory diseases, cancer, dust level and providing protective clothes to coal miners.
musculoskeletal disorders, reproductive disorders,
cardiovascular diseases, mental and neurological illnesses, NOISE
hearing loss, etc. Such health hazards are termed Workers in mining, manufacturing and construction
occupational health hazards, being associated with industries are exposed to high levels of noise which is a
occupation. very important stress factor. Sound levels higher than 80
to 90 dB (dBdecibles­ unit of sound) for more than eight
Heavy physical workload hours are harmful to human ear. Some of the adverse
Workers who are exposed to heavy physical work loads effects of sound are­
are miners, lumberjacks, construction workers, farmers, (a) Psychological: Noise leads to emotional disturbances
fishermen, storage workers and healthcare personnel. such as annoyance, disturbed sleep, lack of
Repetitive tasks and static muscular load can lead to injuries concentration and reduced efficiency.
and musculoskeletal disorders and may result in short­term (b) Auditory effects
and permanent work disability. Unshielded machinery, (i) Auditory fatigue ­ Occurs when noise level is
unsafe structures and dangerous tools are some of the in the range of 85 to 90 dB e.g. noise of a food
most prevalent work place hazards. blender.

Black lung disease (ii) Deafness or impaired hearing ­ It may be

temporary or permanent. Temporary hearing
In coal mining areas coal dust is the main air pollutant to loss occurs on continuous exposure to noise as
which miners are exposed everyday. The deposits of coal in case of telephone operators which
dust makes miners lungs look black instead of a healthy disappears within 24 hours after a period of
pink and hence the name black lung disease. Black lung rest. Repeated or continuous exposure to noise
disease is the common name for pneumoconiosis (CWP) more than 90 dB may result in permanent loss
or anthracosis, a lung disease of older workers in the coal of hearing. This effect is more serious in case
industry, caused by inhalation over many years, of small of persons having ear diseases and they should
amounts of coal dust. Although people who live in cities avoid noisy working environment.
often have some black deposits in their lungs from polluted (c) Non-auditory effects
air, coal miners have much more extensive deposits. The
(i) Interference with speech and communication:
particles of fine coal dust accumulate in lungs as they In the presence of high level of noise, one needs
cannot be destroyed within the lungs or removed from to strain his voice by increasing loudness to
them. Eventually this build­up causes thickening and make speech intelligible e.g. in foundries, boiler
scarring making the lungs less efficient in supplying oxygen cabins, etc. Street hawkers or salesmen of small
to the blood. The primary symptom of the disease is stalls in busy markets need to yell continuously
shortness of breathe which gradually gets worse as the at the top of their voice so that they are heard.
disease progresses. In severe cases it may eventually cause Due to this they suffer from voice disorder or
heart failure. In some cases a progressive massive fibrosis even cancer of voice­box later in life.
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(ii) Annoyance: Most people are annoyed by noise Chemicals and Biological Agents
and some may become neurotic. Neurotic Workers in many industries are exposed to chemicals which
people lose their temper quickly and become are hazardous and may be even carcinogenic such as in
irritable. textiles, cement and construction industries. Substances
(iii) Efficiency: High level of noise at the work place such as benzene, chromium, nitrosamines and asbestos
reduces working efficiency. Quiet environment may cause cancers of lung, bladder, skin, mesothelium,
helps in increasing efficiency. liver, etc. The only effective control strategy is primary
(iv) General change in the body: Exposure to noise prevention that eliminates exposure completely or that
increases blood pressure, pulse rate, breathing effectively isolates the worker from exposure to
and sweating or headache, giddiness, nausea, carcinogens. Occupational asthma is caused due to
fatigue, disturbs sleep, distorted colour exposure to organic dusts, microorganisms, bacteria, fungi
perception and reduced night vision are general and moulds and several chemicals. Silicosis first reported
symptoms observed in victims of noise. Persons from Kolar gold mines in 1947 is a common disease among
working in night shifts or those suffering from miners, pottery and ceramic industry workers.
hypertension get affected by noise earlier than Pneumoconiosis and byssinosis are common among mica
others. and textile industry workers respectively.



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4
DEGRADATION OF NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

When humans evolved more than two millions years ago,  Trees lose lot of water through transpiration. This
the natural resources were over abundant as compared to helps in forming rain clouds. Cutting of trees and
human needs. As human population increased, more and clearing of forest reduced rainfall in the area. Also
more food and resources for shelter were required and removal of plants and trees leads to soil erosion.
these were drawn at an increasing rate from the
environment. Even today, natural resources are being  Forests are natural habitats of wild life. Extinction of
exploited by humans to meet their needs. wild life species is on the rise because their natural
habitats are being destroyed due to deforestation.
Concept of Environmental Degradation  Non­renewable energy resources such as coal, natural
Increasing use of natural resources by rapidly increasing gas and petroleum are being used up speedily, leading
human population has resulted in overexploitation of to their depletion.
natural resources. The consequences of such exploitation
are clearly seen in soil erosion, loss of biodiversity and These are few examples which show the loss of
pollution of land, air and water bodies. The degradation natural resources due to the overuse by humans. On the
of the environment from overexploitation has reached a other hand­
level which is threatening human well­being and survival.  Excessive burning of coal, wood, kerosene, petrol etc.
release toxic gases such as SO2 (sulphur dioxide), NOx
Factors that Leads to Environmental
(oxide of nitrogen),CO (carbon monoxide) and
Degradation
hydrocarbons in the air. These gases are also emitted
In nature, there exists an ecological balance. The activities by industries, power plants, automobiles and
of various organisms are balanced. The interaction
aircrafts. The toxic gases pollute air which adversely
between abiotic and biotic components are so fine tuned
effects human health and plants.
that there exists an equilibrium in nature. As years passed
by, human activities interfered with this equilibrium.  Acid water from mines, toxic waste of industries,
Uncontrolled human activities caused damage to the chemical fertilizers and pesticides from agricultural
environment. fields have polluted rivers and other water bodies.
Some of the human activities that have led to  The problem of soil pollution is increasing day by day
environmental degradation are mentioned below­ in villages, cities and industrial areas due to faulty
 Forests are natural resources but they have been cut disposal of solid and liquid wastes generated from
down for use by humans for converting them into
households and industries.
the cultivable fields, for building houses and for taking
away logs for making shelters and furniture or fuel. Thus humans have spoilt the environment by (i)
The rate at which trees are cut far exceeds the rate depleting natural resources to a critical level and (ii) causing
at which trees grow, so forests are getting denuded. pollution to natural water bodies and land areas.
A manish Singh Sir’s Initiative ENVIRONMENT
Impact of Population Growth on Environment by the seepage of the rain water. But if water withdrawal
The enormous increase in human population is making the exceeds beyond the rate of replenishment of the ground
future of humans insecure. It is estimated that 5 million water table keep on receding and resulting in drying out
people lived in the world at the time when agriculture of wells. In many areas excessive withdrawl has depleted
begin about 12000 years ago. The population of our ground water resources causing acute water scarcity.
country alone is now well over one billion.
3. Need for human settlements
Factors leading to rise in population Apart from excessive land use changes for growing food,
Many factors have contributed to the enormous rise in large population means greater requirement for shelter.
human population. These are listed below: To make houses for so many, stones and other building
materials have to be quarried more rocks have to be blown
 Improved agricultural practices have helped in
off and more water to be used.
increasing food production, hence food became
available. 4. Need for transport
 Progress in medicine prevented deaths due to injury Elaborate network of transport is required to fulfill the
and epidemic diseases. growing need of teeming millions. Various modes of
 Average longevity of humans has increased since transports have been developed which consume growing
heart, lung and kidney disorders as well as other quantities of fossil fuels such as coal, gas and petroleum,
diseases can now be diagnosed and treated through polluting the atmosphere.
modem medical technology.
5. Need for various commodities
Impact of Population Growth on Environment Articles of everyday use such as plastic vessels, mugs,
With growing population, requirement for space, shelter, buckets etc., agricultural implements, machinery,
and commodities have exerted enormous pressure on the chemicals, cosmetics etc are manufactured in factories.
environment. To provide for these, land use has to change The raw materials and fossil fuels and water needed to
dramatically. It has already been seen that forests have run industries for manufacturing these products lead to
been cleared for cultivation of grain and fruit crops. their depletion. Rapid industrialization has also led to
pollution from dumping of industrial effluents into rivers
1. Clearing land for cultivation to grow more food and other water bodies. Rapid industrialization has caused
much damage to the environment. Mining activities have
Forests and natural grasslands have been converted to.
depleted stock of mineral resources particularly fossil fuels.
farmlands. Wetlands have been drained and arid lands have
Present day industrial civilization is becoming a burden
been irrigated. These changes have been made to grow on nature and it is time for us to learn to live in harmony
more food and more raw materials. But in doing so, the with nature.
natural resources have been depleted and the landscapes
have undergone drastic changes. For example, forests have 6. Slum development
been cleaned over large for cultivation of agriculture crops.
Over populated areas result in congested roads and slum
Many mangrove forests known to reduce erosion and formation which lack basic amenities like drinking water,
stabilize shorelines have been cleared use for growing food drainage, waste disposal, lack of hygienic conditions and
crops to meet the needs of the growing population. filthy environment create potential conditions for public
health untreated effluents and throwing of waste into
2. Water scarcity water bodies have polluted most of the lakes and rivers.
Water received as rainfall, flows into rivers, lakes and other
water bodies. Some of it seeps into the ground and reaches 7. Pollution resulting from overpopulation
the ground water. At certain depth of the soil, all the pore Holy rivers Ganga, Yamuna and other are suffering from
spaces between soil particles are saturated with water. This pollution due to discharge of effluents from industries,
depth is called Water Table. The water table may remain human settlements, bathing, washing of clothes and
stable if the drawn from the ground water is replenished throwing of garbage into the river.

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Deforestation and Its Consequences  Landslides - Removal of trees from forests leads to
Forests are found all over the world except the polar soil erosion. Ultimately cause landslides in hilly areas.
regions. Originally forests covered one third of the land This is because roots of trees hold the soil in position;
area. You have already learnt that since the beginning of  Silting - The loss of trees from forests also causes
human evolution, they have depended on the forest silting of rivers and lakes as loose soil gets washed
resources. Forests are nature’s major processors of solar with rainwater and reaches water bodies;
energy. They provide habitat for diverse kinds of organisms  Loss of wild habitat - Wild animals live in forests.
including large wild animals. Primitive humans too, lived Cutting forests means loss of their habitat which in
in forest and were completely dependent on forests for turn renders them endangered or even extinct.
survival till they took to farming; Cutting of trees in forests
is called deforestation. Deforestation has taken place for  Deforestation - Deforestation results in change of
various purposes at an alarming rate in different parts of climate since trees make the surroundings humid.
the world resulting in severe loss of wild plants and animals. Loss of trees leads to loss of humidity. Also
transpiration from plants makes rain clouds and so
Forests have been cleared for the various rainfall is reduced due to deforestation.
reasons  Loss of CO2 sink - Pollutants released by industries
1. Developmental activities take CO2 are taken up by trees. When forests are
As humans began leading a settled life, crop fields, building, denuded. This carbandioxide sink is lost and CO2
roads, industries, schools, hospitals, railway and irrigation collects in the environment.
canals etc. became necessary developmental activities.  Pollution - When trees are cut to use for making
Forests were cleared to meet the need for land needs for furniture or paper, the sawmills and paper mills
the above developmental activities. pollute water in which they dump the waste.

2. For timber and wood  Loss of medicinal and other useful plants - Unique
medicinal plants grow in certain forests. They are lost
Wood is used in buildings construction, making furniture
due to deforestation. Aromatic herbs, rubber trees
and other articles for human use. Trees that yield wood grow
and other useful plants are also lost due to
in forests and were cut down for timber. Use of firewood
deforestation.
for cooking and heating etc. also contribute to deforestation
Thus forest destruction leads to large scale
3. For pastures environmental degradation
Forests are cleared to grow grasses and converted into
Environmental Degradation From Mining
grassland for grazing by cattle.
 Loss of vegetation - Vegetation and soil are removed
4. Shifting cultivation to get access to mineral deposits. The flora and fauna
Shifting cultivation is a system of crop cultivation involving present in the area is lost.
cleaning of forest and burning the fallen trees to clear the  Depletion of minerals - Earth is full of metals and
land for raising crops. Crops are grown on the cleared area mineral resources. They are very important
for few years and abandoned after few years as the land nonadvancement in mining technology has
loses its fertility. Thereafter a new forest areas is cleared progressively intensified mining of mineral resources.
for cultivation and the same cycles is repeated Large amount of lead, aluminum, copper and iron
ores have been used up. It is believed that in the next
Consequences of Deforestation 20 years silver, tin, zinc and mercury will be depleted
 Soil erosion - Trees intercepts rainfall and cutting of to an alarming level if their exploitation continues at
trees and removal of plants leads soil erosion. the present rate.
 Plants roots hold the soil in place. With loss of  Dumping of debris ­ Extraction of minerals from the
protecting cover of plants, top soil, that is rich in earth also produces significant amounts of
organic matter, is washed away and the soil looses over­burden or debris. Often it is much more as
its fertility. compared to the quantity of mineral obtained. The

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dug out loose waste material is dumped on the Increased use of synthetic fertilizers causes to serious
adjacent land. Dumping of mining waste not only environmental problems. For example, unused fertilizers
occupies large land area but the waste dumps also from agricultural fields are carried away by run off waters
become a source of soil erosion. into lakes and rivers causing pollution. These agrochemicals
 Land subsidence ­ Excessive mining specially may even seep through the soil and pollute ground water.
underground mining may lead to land subsidence and Excessive nutrients enrichment of water bodies leads to
may also cause landslides. The landscape too is spoilt. ‘eutrophication’ (i.e. enrichment of water with nutrients
particularly nitrates and phosphates triggers the explosive
Unless care is taken, not only minerals will be
growth of green algae) may take place in water bodies and
alarmingly depleted but also a large land area, which could
kill aquatic life.
otherwise be used productively, is lost due to disposal of
mining waste. Use of pesticides not only kills pests that destroy crop
but may also kill many non pest organisms which may
IMPACT OF INDUSTRIALIZATION ON THE include even useful species of insects such as pollinators,
ENVIRONMENT birds and helpers in dispersal of plant seeds. Pesticides
To meet the growing requirement of the increasing human tend to accumulate and their concentration increases
population large scale manufacture of essential goods is through the food chain and reach toxic levels in eggs, milk
necessary. Small factories to big industries have come up and other food items, (biomagnification) Agro­ industrial
for mass production of goods. Industrialization is wastes are generated, e.g. crop residues such as paddy,
important for the development of a country. But jawar, gram straws, cotton straws, sugarcane trash, and
industrialization that disregards environmental concerns coconut shells etc. pile up causing environmental
led to environmental degradation like the following
degradation.
reasons:
 Natural resources used as raw materials by industry High yielding varieties (HYV) of food crops replaced
are depleting rapidly. various traditional crop varieties. Traditional agriculture
 Industries generate lot of toxic gases, and liquid was based on multicropping system, i.e. growing of food
effluents leading to environmental degradation. crops , fodder and firewood crops together. This practice
 Industries generate large amount of waste, which pile had been replaced by monoculture i.e growing of only one
up in the environment. Disposal of waste not only kind of crop (such as wheat etc) in a field of specific set of
needs land but also pollutes the environment and nutrients making soil unfit for growing other crops but is
poses hazards to human health. being considered again.
 Industries use up a lot of fossil fuels as source of
energy. Urbanization and Environment
Accelerated consumption of fossils fuels is depleting their Urban life is city life. More and more people are moving
stock as they are limited and non­renewable. But burning to cities from villages in search of jobs. The rural­urban
of fossil fuels releases CO2 in the atmosphere leading to migration is also partly due to population growth and
global warming.
poverty in the villages. Urbanization means permanent
settlement of people in cities and this has resulted in
Impact of Modernized Agriculture on degradation of the environment in various ways.
Environment Industrialization opened up many new jobs. Industries
Increase in food production to achieve self sufficiency is attracted rural youth to cities and their migration become
an important objective. Intensive agriculture unfortunately, easier with the improvement in communication and
may lead to serious damage to environment. Some of these transport facilities. Growth of cities lead to increasing
are listed below. demand of environmental resources leading to following
 Forests have been cleared transformed into changes ­
farmlands for growing food crops.  Cultivated land was lost forever for building houses,
 Excessive irrigation and poor drainage causes water industries, roads and other facilities.
logging and kill plants.  A water supply system had to be developed to
 Pollution by agrochemicals provide water for drinking and other domestic uses.

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Growing urban population created increasing water body nearby. Mercury enters food chain
demand for potable water. As a result, availability of through bacteria ­algae­fish and finally the humans.
water become more and more scarce. Fish died due to consumption of mercurry. Those who
 Industries, that were set up to provide the necessary ate these fish were affected by mercury poisoning
goods for urban folk, generated industrial waste, which proved fatal in certain cases. The high
leading to the pollution of the environment. In cities, concentration of mercurry in water and in tissues of
black smoke emitted from industries, buses, truck etc. fish resulted from formation of soluble mono methyl
cause air pollution. Large amount of garbage is mercury (CH3Hg+) and volatile dimethyl mercury
generated and not disposed properly. As a result [(CH3)2Hg] by the action of anaerobic bacteria.
garbage remains scattered and unattended. Domestic  Extinction of wild life species ­ The numbers of tigers
and industrial effluents are drained into rivers and and lions have dwindled, the great Indian bustard is
lakes. High noise levels are a common feature of endangered and the list of the animals and plants
urban environment. threatened to extinction is long and growing. The Kalu
An incessant influx of people into cities and shortage River near Mumbai is severely polluted by industrial
of housing result in development of slums and squatter waste and the Bombay duck, a favorite edible fish
areas. Inadequate facilities and lack of basic amenities in which was once common in this river has been lost
slums leads to unhygienic condition and social distortion forever. Tigers and lions are being killed for sport and
and crime. by poachers.

Environmental Backlash Regional Environmental backlash

Floods, drought, acid rain, oil spills are of common  Floods ­ Floods are a natural disaster and India is a
occurrence and they are largely due to the carelessness flood prone country. Floods occur almost every year
and callousness of humans towards the environment. Loss during the period monsoon, continuous heavy rainfall
of wildlife and their habitat , disappearance of some of brings huge quantities of water into rivers which
species such as cheetah from the country; Bhopal gas overflow and cause flood. The habitations close to
tragedy are examples of the environmental retort. At the the river get flooded resulting in loss of human life
global level, the problem of ‘global warming’ and ‘ozone and property. This means heavy economic losses. The
layer depletion’ poses serious threat to human health and flood affected areas suffer from quite shortage of
wellbeing. potable water often outbreak of epidemic diseases.
 Drought ­ Failure of monsoon and absence of rain
Local environmental backlash leads to drought. Rise in the average global
 Salination of irrigated soils ­ In several areas over temperature due to global warming will increase
irrigation resulted in salt accumulation in the soil as water use and may create water shortage. It is
water is lost from evaporation but the salts dissolved estimated that a 3ºC. Global warming may reduce as
in water remains in the soil and accumulate much as 10% precipitation and creating water scarcity
progressively making the soil saline and unfit for leading to drought conditions. Shortage of water
cultivation and infertile, would adversely affect agriculture, industries and
 Eutrophication ­ Eutrophication of a water body plants communities. Animals that are unable to move
occurs when plant nutrients such as nitrates and to greener pastures will perish; humans will suffer
phosphates are released by the action of aerobic from health problems.
bacteria on organic wastes entering a water body.  Acid rain ­ Moisture laden air rises to higher altitudes
These nutrients promote growth of algae (algal and condenses to fall as rain or snow Pure rain has a
bloom). Algae consume all the oxygen and aquatic pH of 5.6 but in areas where industries burn oil and
organism die due to lack of oxygen. coal emit SO2 (sulphur dioxide)into the atmosphere
 The Minamata disease ­ Plastic, caustic soda, and motor vehicles release NOx (compound of
fungicide and pesticide manufacturing factories nitrogen) into air, the rain becomes more acidic
release mercury along with other effluents in the reaching pH of 2. This is because SO2 and NOx dissolve

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in water vapour present in the atmosphere and forms Smaller fish are able to move faster to cooler areas
sulphric and nitric acid. When acidic snow melts acid away and the elevated temperature is taking its toll
rain drops reaches water bodies and making them on larger fish, some of which are likely to become
acidic. Acidic water kills aquatic fauna and flora. extinct. This change in behaviour of fish has led to
Acidic rain is toxic to trees and corrodes buildings, collapse of marine fisheries and loss of livelihood for
marble structures and archaeological monuments. many ­ many fisher folk.
 Oil spills ­ Sometimes there is accidental spill of crude Other reasons for collapse of marine fisheries is the
oil and petroleum products into the sea by oil tankers dumping of massive amount of waste into the sea.
and ships. A thin layer of oil covers sea surface The waste dumped into the sea include sewage and
depriving marine organisms of oxygen. garbage generated by people living in coastal areas
and industrial waste from industries. Run off from
Global backlash agricultural fields carrying fertilizers and pesticides
 Biodiversity loss- Dwindled forests the natural are brought by rivers to the sea. Fertilizers cause
habitat of various plants and animals has vanished “eutrophication.” Oil spills and oil slicks also kill
marine life.
and so have vanished forever many valuable trees
and animals. Some are on the verge of extinction  Ozone layer depletion - The ozone layer in earth’s
while others are on the borderline. atmosphere prevents harmful UV radiations of sun
from reaching earth’s surface. CFCs
 Global warming and green house effect - Green
(Chloroflorocarbons) used in refrigeration, air
house is a glass chamber in which heat or solar
conditioning, cleaning solvents, fire extinguishers and
radiations is trapped and plants grown in its closed
aerosols have damaged the ozone layer or ozone
warm environment. Industrialization and
shield particularly over Artic and Antarctic. 30­40%
urbanization have led to emission of large quantities
reduction in the ozone layer may cause sunburn, fast
of carbon dioxide into atmosphere from burning of ageing of skin, skin cancer, cataract, cancer of retina,
fossil fuels. Increased CO 2 concentration in the genetic disorders, and reduced productivity in sea
atmosphere does not allow heat radiations given out and forests.
by earth, to escape into the outer space. Increased
atmospheric concentration of CO2 has raised the Environmental Degradation- A Threat to
average global temperature causing global warming. Survival
Consequences of global warming include melting of
Human activities have caused irreparable damage to land,
snow caps and rising of sea level, rising temperature air and water and consequently to the organisms that
of the earth will cause polar ice caps to melt leading inhabit them. As human beings became more civilized and
rise in sea level. Excessive heat expands water. Sea through the progress of science and technology they
level rise cause flooding of coastal cities and damage created various luxuries of comfortable living. But
coastal ecosystems like marshes and swamps. Global population explosion coupled with human greed for
warming may change rainfall pattern; lead to early progressive prosperity and comfort has exploited and
maturation of crops and reduce grain size and yield degraded the environment mercilessly to such a large
of crop. extent that human survival itself is now threatened.
 Collapse of marine fisheries- As already mentioned, Contaminated food, water and air is taking its toll on
acid rain has toxic effect on ecosytem. Global human health. Toxic chemicals and harmful radiations have
warming has driven marine fish towards cooler the potential of causing serious problems of human health.
northern parts of the earth. Others are swimming to Asthma, pulmonary fibrosis, pneumoconiosis are caused
reach the cool deeper realms of ocean. The due to air pollution. Long exposure to pollutants in the
temperature of northern sea, it is estimated, to have working place such as mines, textile mills, poultry, crackers,
increased by 1ºC in the last twenty­five years, several sand blasting and chemical industries cause respiratory
species of fish and other marine animals have diseases. Carcinogenic chemicals and ionizing radiations
permanently moved to cooler northern regions. in the environment have been responsible for cancer.
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The enormously large population means reduced job rapidly. Degraded quality of life and continuous health
opportunities, unemployment and related stress. Stress problems lead to mental problems. Environmental health
may also due to job pressure, money problems,
and well being are the most valuable possessions of
uncomfortable living and dislike for work or workplace.
Asthma, ulcers, diabetes, hypertension, depression, humans. These are fast getting lost due to the fast
schizophrenia are stress related diseases and increasing deterioration of the environment.



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 CHAPTER

5
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION AND DEGRADATION

Environmental pollution is any discharge of material or erosion and other complex problems like alkalinity/salinity
energy into water, land, or air that causes or may cause and soil acidity due to water logging.
acute (short-term) or chronic (long-term) detriment to the The varying degrees and types of degradation, stem
Earth’s ecological balance or that lowers the quality of life. mainly from unstable use and inappropriate land
Pollutants may cause primary damage, with direct management practices. Loss of vegetation occurs as a result
identifiable impact on the environment, or secondary of deforestation, cutting beyond the silviculturally
damage in the form of minor perturbations in the delicate permissible limits, unsustainable fuel-wood and fodder
balance of the biological food web that are detectable only extraction, shifting cultivation, encroachment into forest
over long time periods.
lands, forest fires and over-grazing, all of which subject
Until relatively recently in humanity’s history, where the land to degradational forces.
pollution has existed, it has been primarily a local problem.
Other important factors responsible for large-scale
The industrialization of society, the introduction of
degradation are the extension of cultivation to lands of
motorized vehicles, and the explosion of the human
low potential or high natural hazards, nonadoption of
population, however, have caused an exponential growth
adequate soil conservation measures, improper crop
in the production of goods and services. Coupled with this
rotation, indiscriminate use of agro-chemicals such as
growth has been a tremendous increase in waste by-
fertilizers and pesticides, improper planning and
products.
management of irrigation systems and extraction of
groundwater in excess of the recharge capacity.
CONTEXT OF INDIA In addition, there are a few underlying or indirect
India is the seventh largest country in the world, with a pressures such as land shortage, short-term or insecure
total land area of 3,287,263 sq. km. (1,269,219 sq. miles). land tenancy, open access resource, economic status and
It measures 3,214 km (1,997 miles) from North to South poverty of the agriculture dependent people which are
and 2,993 km (1,860 miles) from East to West. It has a also instrumental, to a significant extent, for the
land frontier of 15,200 km (9,445 miles) and a coastline of degradation of land.
7,517 km (4,671 miles). Ever-growing population and
urbanization is creeping into its forests and agricultural
POLLUTION AND POLLUTANTS
lands. Although India occupies only 2.4 per cent of the
world’s total land area, it supports over 16.7 per cent of Human activities directly or indirectly affect the
the entire global population. Of the total geographical area environment adversely. A stone crusher adds a lot of
of 328.73 Mha., 306 Mha. comprise the reporting area and suspended particulate matter and noise into the
146.82 Mha. land is degraded land. atmosphere. Automobiles emit from their tail pipes oxides
In India, an estimated 146.82 Mha. area suffers from of nitrogen, sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide, carbon
various forms of land degradation due to water and wind monoxide and a complex mixture of unburnt hydrocarbons
A manish Singh Sir’s Initiative ENVIRONMENT
and black soot which pollute the atmosphere. Domestic float and move freely with the air current. Particles which
sewage and run off from agricultural fields, laden with are more than 10mm in diameter settle down. Particles
pesticides and fertilizers, pollute water bodies. Effluents less than 0.02mm form persisent aerosols. Major source
from tanneries contain many harmful chemicals and emit of SPM (suspended particulate matter) are vehicles, power
foul smell. These are only a few examples which show how plants, construction activities, oil refinery, railway yard,
human activities pollute the environment. Pollution may market place, industries, etc.
be defined as addition of undesirable material into the Fly ash
environment as a result of human activities. The agents Fly ash is ejected mostly by thermal power plants as by
which cause environmental pollution are called pollutants. products of coal burning operations. Fly ash pollutes air
A pollutants may be defined as a physical, chemical or and water and may cause heavy metal pollution in water
biological substance unintentionally released into the bodies. Fly ash affects vegetation as a result of its direct
deposition on leaf surfaces or indirectly through its
environment which is directly or indirectly harmful to
deposition on soil. Fly ash is now being used for making
humans and other living organisms.
bricks and as a land fill material.
Types of Pollution Lead and other metals particles
Tetraethyl lead (TEL) is used as an anti-knock agent in petrol
Pollution may be of the following types:
for smooth and easy running of vehicles. The lead particles
 Air pollution coming out from the exhaust pipes of vehicles is mixed
 Noise pollution with air. If inhaled it produces injurious effects on kidney
and liver and interferes with development of red blood
 Water pollution
cells. Lead mixed with water and food can create
 Soil pollution cumulative poisoning. It has long term effects on children
 Thermal pollution as it lowers intelligence. Oxides of iron, aluminum,
 Radiation pollution manganese, magnesium, zinc and other metals have
adverse effect due to deposition of dust on plants during
A brief description of the above has been laid down mining operations and metallurgical processes. They
in the forthcoming paragraphs- create physiological, biochemical and developmental
disorders in plants and also contribute towards
Air Pollution reproductive failure in plants.
Air pollution is a result of industrial and certain domestic Gaseous pollutants
activity. An ever increasing use of fossil fuels in power Power plants, industries, different types of vehicles - both
plants, industries, transportation, mining, construction of private and commercial use petrol, diesel as fuel and
buildings, stone quarries had led to air pollution. Air release gaseous pollutants such as carbon dioxide, oxides
pollution may be defined as the presence of any solid, liquid of nitrogen and sulphur dioxide along with particulate
or gaseous substance including noise and radioactive matter in the form of smoke. All of these have harmful
radiation in the atmosphere in such concentration that may effects on plants and humans.
be directly and indirectly injurious to humans or other
living organisms, plants, property or interferes with the Impact of Air Pollution
normal environmental processes. Air pollutants are of two Impact of air pollution is witnessed in various aspects of
types (1) suspended particulate matter, and (2) gaseous life which has been dealt in the forth coming paragraphs:
pollutants like carbon dioxide (CO2), NOx etc.
Health Problems
SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION
Air quality is deteriorating especially in metropolitan cities,
A short description of the major sources of air pollution mainly due to vehicular emissions. There is evidence that
has been laid down below-
the health of over 900 million urban people around the
Particulate pollutants world is deteriorating daily because of high levels of
Particulate matter suspended in air are dust and soot ambient air pollutants. The toxicology of air pollution is
released from the industrial chimneys. Their size ranges very complex as there are different types of pollutants
from 0.001 to 500mm in diameter. Particles less than 10mm affecting the individual differently.
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The pollutants in air, namely - Sulpher and Nitric (thermal plants, chimneys of brick-kilns or sugar mills.) and
oxides and Suspended 2 x Particulate Matter (SPM) - vehicular emissions. The most important effects of acid
damage the human respiratory and cardio-respiratory rain are damage to freshwater aquatic life, vegetation and
systems in various ways. The elderly, children, smokers and damage to buildings and material.
those with chronic respiratory diseases are the most In India, the main threat of an acid rain disaster
vulnerable. It has been reported that high levels of springs from our heavy dependence on coal as a major
pollution affect mental and emotional health too. Elevated energy source. Even though Indian coal is relatively low in
levels of lead in children result in impaired neurological sulphur content, what threatens to cause acid rain in India
development, leading to lowered intelligence quotient, is the concentrated quantity of consumption, which is
poor school performance and behavioural difficulties. expected to reach very high levels in some parts of the
A study conducted by All India Institute of Medical country by 2020. As energy requirements in India are
Sciences and Central Pollution Control Board in Delhi growing rapidly in tune with the growing economy, coal
showed that exposure to higher levels of particulate matter dependence in the country is expected to grow threefold
contributed to respiratory morbidity. It indicated that the over the current level of consumption, making the clouds
most common symptoms relating to air pollution were of acid rain heavier over many highly sensitive areas in
irritation of eyes (44 per cent), cough (28.8 per cent), the country like the northeast region, parts of Bihar, Orissa,
pharyngitis (16.8 per cent), dyspnoea (16 per cent) and West Bengal and coastal areas in the south. Already, the
nausea (10 per cent). In Mumbai, the prevalence of both soils of these areas have a low pH value, which acid rain
symptoms and signs of such diseases is around 22.2 per will aggravate further making them infertile and unsuitable
cent. for agriculture.
Among the six major communicable diseases, The prospect of increasing consumption of coal in
maximum cases (2,58,07,722) were reported for Acute Asia makes the acid rain threat even more real than ever.
Respiratory Infection while maximum number of people Possible options for mitigation are: radical improvements
(7,073) died due to Pulmonary Tuberculosis in India, during in energy efficiency, a switchover to low sulphur fuels like
the year 2006 . natural gas, greater use of renewables, major cut-down
and removal of sulphur from crude oil distillates like diesel,
Climate Change fuel oil, etc., and finally, the widespread use of state-of-
India is a fast growing economy and has many future the-art pollution control devices in all polluting sectors of
developmental targets, several of which are directly or the economy. Use of solid fuel (wood, animal dung, crop
indirectly linked to energy and therefore increased green residue/grasses, coal, and charcoal) exposes people to high
house gas emissions. Though the contribution of India to levels of toxic air pollutants, which result in serious health
the cumulative global CO2 emissions is only 5 per cent but consequences.
impacts could be severe at local level. India has nearly 700
million rural population directly depending on climate
MEASURES TAKEN BY GOVERNMENT
sensitive sectors (agriculture, forests and fisheries) and
natural resources for their subsistence and livelihoods.
TO CONTROLAR POLLUTION
Further, the adaptive capacity of dry land farmers, forest The Government of India has tried to control the air
dwellers, fisher folk and nomadic shepherds is very low. pollution by taking certain measures which has been dealt
Climate change is likely to impact all the natural in the following paragraphs.
ecosystems as well as socio-economic systems as shown
by the National Communications Report of India to the 1. Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution)
UNFCCC. Act, 1981
Government of India enacted the Air (Prevention and
Acid Rain Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 to arrest the deterioration
Acid rain is the direct consequence of air pollution caused in the air quality. The Act prescribes various functions for
by gaseous emissions (carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) at the apex level
nitrogen oxides) from industrial sources, burning of fuels and State Pollution Control Boards at the state level. The
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A manish Singh Sir’s Initiative ENVIRONMENT
main functions of the Central Pollution Control Board are 3. Vehicular Pollution Control Measures
as follows:
I. Vehicular Emission Norms
 To advise the Central Government on any matter
concerning the improvement of the quality of the In order to control vehicular pollution, a road map has been
air and prevention, control and abatement of air adopted as per the schedule proposed in the Auto Fuel
pollution. Policy (2002), which includes use of cleaner fuels,
automobile technologies and enforcement measures for
 To plan and cause to be executed a nation-wide in-use vehicles through improved Pollution Under Control
programme for the prevention, control and (PUC) certification system.
abatement of air pollution.
 To provide technical assistance and guidance to the II. Fuel Quality Specifications
State Pollution Control Board. For the first time, diesel and gasoline fuel quality with
 To carry out and sponsor investigations and research respect to environment related parameters was notified
related to prevention, control and abatement of air under the EPA in April 1996. All these measures were
pollution. introduced in phases .
 To collect, compile and publish technical and
III. Traffic Management
statistical data related to air pollution; and
(a) Restrictions have been imposed on goods vehicles
 To lay down standards for the quality of air.
during day time IN numerous cities.
2. National Air Quality Monitoring Programme (b) Left lane of the roads have been made exclusive for
buses and other HMV(Heavy Motor Vehicles) in Delhi.
 Central Pollution Control Board is executing a nation-
wide National Air Quality Monitoring Programme (c) Time clocks have been installed at important traffic
signals to enable the drivers to switch off their
(NAMP).
vehicles depending on the time left in the clocks.
 The objectives of the NAMP are to determine the
(d) More fly overs and subways have been constructed
status and trends of ambient air quality; to ascertain
and T-Junctions have been closed for better traffic
whether the prescribed ambient air quality standards
flow.
are violated; to assess health hazards and damage to
materials; to continue the ongoing process of IV. Public Transport Systems
producing periodic evaluation of air pollution
(a) Number of buses have been increased in major cities
situation in urban and industrial areas of the country;
to encourage the use of public transportation and
to obtain the knowledge and understanding
reduce private vehicle use.
necessary for developing preventive and corrective
(b) Delhi, Hyderabad, Kochi, Chennai, Bangalore, Jaipur
measures and to understand the natural cleansing
and Kolkata have introduced the Metro Rail system.
processes undergoing in the environment through
(c) To provide better public transport and to ease
pollution dilution, dispersion, wind based movement,
congestion, proposals for Bus Rapid Transit System
dry deposition, precipitation and chemical
(BRTS) have been approved under JNNURM, and it is
transformation of pollutants generated.
being implemented in several cities.
 The CPCB has evolved a format for preparation of
action plans, which has been circulated to all State V. Reduction of Emissions by Using Lubricants
Pollution Control Boards/Committees. The action (a) Specifications of 2T oil for two stroke engine with
plans emphasize on identification of sources of air respect to smoke emissions were notified under the
pollution, assessment of pollution load and adoption EPA in September 1998, for implementation from
of abatement measures for identified sources. Setting April 1,1999 throughout the country,
up of an inter-departmental task force for (b) Pre-mix 2T oil dispenser has been installed at all
implementation of city specific action plans has also petrol filling stations in Delhi so that excessive oil is
been suggested. not being used by the vehicle owners.

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VI. Technology (b) Industries have been directed to install the necessary
(a) Fitting catalytic converter for new petrol passenger pollution control equipments in a time bound
cars was made compulsory from April 1, 1995 in four manner and legal action has been initiated against
metres and 45 cities from September 1,1998. the defaulting units.
(b) Two wheeler scooters with four stroke engine were (c) 24 critically polluted areas have been identified. In
introduced in the market from October 1998. all, Action Plan has been formulated for restoration
of environmental quality in these areas.
(c) Registration of only rear engine auto rickshaws was
allowed from May 1996 onwards. (d) Environmental guidelines have evolved for sitting of
industries.
VII. Alternate Fuels (e) Environmental clearance is made compulsory for
(a) CNG vehicles were introduced in Mumbai and Delhi. various categories of development projects involving
At present more than 80,000 CNG vehicles (19000 public hearing/NGO participation as an important
cars, 49810 autos, 4935 RTVs & 8874 buses) are plying component of the EIA process.
in Delhi and about 23,000 in Mumbai. All.city buses (f) Environmental audit in the form of environmental
were converted to the CNG mode in Delhi. statement has been made mandatory for all polluting
(b) Emission norms for CNG & LPG driven vehicles have industries.
been notified. (g) Preparation of Zoning Atlas for setting up industries
(c) Petrol vehicles are running on ethanol blended (5 based on environmental considerations, in various
per cent) petrol in various states. districts of the country, has been taken up.
(d) Planning Commission, Government of India, has (h) Power plants (coal based) located beyond 1000 kms
announced a National Mission on bio-diesel. from the pit-head are required to use low ash content
Specifications for this have been drafted by the coal with effect from June 1, 2002. Power plants
Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS). located in the sensitive areas are also required to use
low ash coal, irrespective of their distance from the
VIII. Control of Pollution from In-use Vehicles pithead.
Idling emission norms have been notified for in-use (f) Take an integrated approach towards energy
vehicles. Pollution Under Control (PUC) certificates are conservation and adoption of renewal energy
issued for adherence to idling emission norms every 3-6 technologies, including hydropower, by appropriately
months. linking efforts to improve conversion, transmission,
distribution, and end-use efficiency, and R&D in
IX. Mass Awareness Programmes
dissemination of renewable energy technologies.
(a) Messages/articles related to vehicular emissions are Remove policies, legal, and regulatory barriers in
disseminated through newsletters, pamphlets, setting up of decentralized generation.
newspapers, magazines, television, radio, internet,
workshops and summer exhibitions. MEASURES SUGGESTED FOR CONTROL
(b) Display of ambient air quality data through display (a) Noise monitoring at Kota distribution systems for
systems in major cities through newspapers, daily power and other secondary energy forms, based on
news and internet. local primary energy resources.
(c) NGOs working on vehicular pollution control are (b) Accelerate the national programmes of dissemination
being encouraged for mass awareness campaigns. of solar cookers and improved fuel wood stoves
suited to local cooking practices and biomass
4. Industrial Pollution Control resources.
The measures taken for controlling air pollution from (c) Strengthen the monitoring and enforcement of
industries are as follows: emission standards and prepare and implement
(a) Emission standards have been notified under the action plans for both point and non-point sources,
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 to check relying on a judicious combination of flats and
pollution. incentive based instruments.

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(d) Formulate a national strategy for urban transport to coastal flooding, loss of coastal areas and ecosystems like
ensure adequate investment, public and private, in swamps and marshes, etc.
low pollution mass transport systems.
(e) Promote reclamation of wastelands by energy Noise Pollution
plantations for rural energy, through multi- Noise is one of the most pervasive pollutant. A musical
stakeholder partnership involving the land-owing clock may be nice to listen during the day, but may be an
agencies, local communities and investors. irritant during sleep at night. Noise by definition is “sound
(f) Strengthen efforts for partial substitution of fossil without value” or “any noise that is unwanted by the
fuels by bio-fuels, through promotion of bio-fuel recipient”. Noise in industries such as stone cutting and
plantation, promoting relevant research and crushing, steel forgings , loudspeakers, shouting by hawkers
development, and strengthening regulatory selling their wares, movement of heavy transport vehicles,
certification of the new technologies. railways and airports leads to irritation and an increased
blood pressure, loss of temper, decrease in work efficiency,
Ozone Hole loss of hearing which may be first temporary but can
become permanent in the noise stress continues. It is
The stratosphere has an ozone layer which protects the
therefore of utmost importance that excessive noise is
earth’s surface from excessive ultraviolet (UV) radiation
controlled. Noise level is measured in terms of decibels
from the Sun. Chlorine from chemicals such as
(dB). W.H.O. (World Health Organization) has prescribed
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) used for refrigeration, air
optimum noise level as 45 dB by day and 35 dB by night.
conditioning, fire extinguishers, cleaning solvents, aerosols
Anything above 80 dB is hazardous.
(spray cans of perfumes, medicine, insecticide) cause
damage to ozone layer chlorine contained in the CFCs on Sources of Noise Pollution
reaching the ozone (O3) layer split the ozone molecules to
Noise pollution is a growing problem. All human activities
form oxygen (O2). Amount of ozone, thus gets reduced and
contribute to noise pollution to varying extent. Sources of
cannot prevent the entry of UV radiation. There has been
noise pollution are many and may be located indoors or
a reduction of ozone umbrella or shield over the Arctic
outdoors. Indoor sources include noise produced by radio,
and Antarctic regions. This is known as ozone hole. This
television, generators, electric fans, air coolers, air
permits passage of UV radiation on earth’s atmosphere
conditioners, different home appliances, and family
which causes sunburn, cataract in eyes leading to blindness,
conflict. Noise pollution is more in cities due to a higher
skin cancer, reduced productivity of forests, etc. Under the
concentration of population and industries and activities
“Montreal Protocol” amended in 1990 it was decided to
such as transportation. Noise like other pollutants is a by
completely phase out CFCs to prevent damage of ozone
product of industrialialization, urbanization and modern
layer.
civilization.
Global Warming and Greenhouse Effect Outdoor sources of noise pollution include
indiscriminate use of loudspeakers, industrial activities,
Atmospheric gases like carbondioxide, methane, nitrous
automobiles, rail traffic, aeroplanes and activities such as
oxide, water vapour, and chlorofluorocarbons are capable
those at market place, religious, social, and cultural
of trapping the out-going infrared radiation from the earth.
functions, sports and political rallies. In rural areas farm
Infrared radiations trapped by the earth’s surface cannot machines, pump sets are main sources of noise pollution.
pass through these gases and to increase thermal energy During festivals, marriage and many other occasions, use
or heat in the atmosphere. Thus, the temperature of the of fire crackers contribute to noise pollution.
global atmosphere is increased. As this phenomenon of
increase in temperature is observed in green houses, in Effects of Noise Pollution
the botanical gardens these gases are known as green Noise pollution is highly annoying and irritating. Noise
house gases and the heating effect is known as green house disturbs sleep, causes hypertension (high blood pressure),
effect. If greenhouse gases are not checked, by the turn of emotional problems such as aggression, mental depression
the century the temperature may rise by 5ºC. This will melt and annoyance. Noise pollution adversely affects efficiency
the polar ice caps and increase the sea level leading to and performance of individuals.
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Prevention and control of noise pollution WATER DEMAND
Following steps can be taken to control or minimize noise Access to adequate water is one of the leading factors
pollution Road traffic noise can be reduced by better limiting development in India. Agricultural, industrial and
designing and proper maintenance of vehicles. domestic uses are competing more and more for a limited
supply. The agricultural sector continues to dominate
 Noise abatement measures include creating noise
water use owing to its continued importance to the Indian
mounds, noise attenuation walls and well maintained economy, while industrial demands are increasing as the
roads and smooth surfacing of roads. sector continues to grow. Domestic needs claim only a
 Retrofitting of locomotives, continuously welded rail small portion of the annual water withdrawals as access
track, use of electric locomotives or deployment of to adequate water and sanitation supplies remains low
throughout the country. Greater access and an
quieter rolling stock will reduce noises emanating
improvement in the socio-economic situation is likely to
from trains. result in a higher demand for water in the coming years,
 Air traffic noise can be reduced by appropriate in rural India.
insulation and introduction of noise regulations for
take off and landing of aircrafts at the airport. Causes For Water Pollution
 Industrial noises can be reduced by sound proofing Surface Water
equipment like generators and areas producing lot India is blessed with many rivers. Twelve major river
of noise. systems drain the subcontinent along with a number of
 Power tools, very loud music and land movers, public smaller rivers and streams and form a total catchment area
functions using loudspeakers, etc should not be of approximately 252.8 Mha. Of the major rivers, the
permitted at night. Use of horns, alarms, refrigeration Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna system is the biggest, with
units, etc. is to be restricted. Use of fire crackers which a combined catchment area of about 110 Mha. which is
are noisy and cause air pollution should be restricted. more than 43 per cent of the catchment area of all the
major rivers in the country. Other major rivers with a
 A green belt of trees is an efficient noise absorber. catchment area of more than 10 Mha. are Indus (32.1
Mha.), Godavari (31,3 Mha.), Krishna, (25.9 Mha.) and
Water Pollution Mahanadi (14.2 Mha.).
Addition or presence of undesirable substances in water Over 70 per cent of India’s rivers drain in the Bay of
is called water pollution. Water pollution is one of the most Bengal, mostly as a part of the Ganga-Brahmaputra system.
serious environmental problems. Water pollution is caused The Arabian Sea, on the western side of the country,
by a variety of human activities such as industrial, receives 20 per cent of the total drainage from the Indus
agricultural and domestic. Agricultural run off laden with system as well as from a number of smaller rivers down
the western coast. The remaining ten per cent drain into
excess fertilizers and pesticides, industrial effluents with
the interior basins and few natural lakes scattered across
toxic substances and sewage water with human and animal
the country.
wastes pollute our water thoroughly. Natural sources of
pollution of water are soil erosion, leaching of minerals Groundwater
from rocks and decaying of organic matter. Rivers, lakes, Groundwater represents one of the most important water
seas, oceans, estuaries and ground water sources may be sources in India. Total replenishable groundwater potential
polluted by point or non-point sources. When pollutants of the country has been estimated by the Ministry of Water
Resources as 431 Km3 per year . Excluding the water
are discharged from a specific location such as a drain pipe
reserved for drinking, industrial and other purposes (other
carrying industrial effluents discharged directly into a water
than irrigation), which is about 16 per cent of the total
body it represents point source pollution. In contrast non-
potential, the potential available for irrigation is 360 Km3
point sources include discharge of pollutants from diffused per year. The figure for net draft of groundwater
sources or from a larger area such as run off from considering the present utilization indicates that a
agricultural fields, grazing lands, construction sites, substantial portion of the total potential (about 68 per
abandoned mines and pits, roads and streets. cent) stilt remains untapped.

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Agriculture Demand Hydroelectric generation already accounts for a large
Agriculture remains central to the Indian economy and percentage of water demand. The potential in India has
therefore, receives the greatest share of the annual water been estimated to be 84,000 MW, of which only 22,000
allocation. According to the World Resources Institute, 92 MW is currently being harnessed (MOWR, 2001). The large
per cent of India’s utilizable water is devoted to this sector, untapped potential, particularly in the northern regions
mostly in the form of irrigation. of India, and the growing demands for electricity from a
larger population and industrial sector, will ensure that
The necessity of irrigation in agricultural production
the development of this activity continues in the coming
is greater due to the unpredictable nature of the monsoon.
years.
In regions completely dependent on rain-fed agriculture,
a weak monsoon season can result in drought like Domestic Demand
conditions leading to reduced yields or even total crop Demand from the domestic sector has remained low and
failure. The normal monsoon too allows the farmers to accounts for only five per cent of the annual freshwater
produce only one crop a year with a low yield. Indeed, the withdrawals in India (World Resources Institute, 2000).
productivity of irrigated agriculture per unit of land has Domestic water use will increase as the population
been estimated as seven times more than that of the rain- continues to grow and access to water is improved. Recent
fed agriculture. data from the World Bank indicates that the demand over
the next twenty years will double from 25 billion m3 to 52
The growth in the irrigated area, along with
billion m3.
improvements in the farming technologies and plant
genetics, has been responsible for the incredible growth Only 85 per cent of the urban and 79 per cent of the
in crop production over this period. The increase in rural population has access to safe drinking water and
production also has contributed greatly to the national fewer still have access to adequate sanitation facilities
despite Central Government’s commitment to provide the
economy and to India’s food security. However, irrigation
same in the National Water Policy (1987). Most urban areas
expansion has also placed greater demands on surface and
are serviced by a municipal water distribution system.
groundwater resources. Groundwater alone accounts for
Usually, the municipal water supply originates from local
39 per cent of the water used in agriculture and the surface
reservoirs or canals, but in some cases water may be
water use often comes at the expense of other sectors
imported through inter-basin transfer.
such as the industrial and the domestic supply.
 Although major cities in India enjoy access to central
On the other end, flood conditions could prove to
water supply systems, these schemes often do not
be equally devastating for the agricultural sector and
adequately cover the entire urban population and
require careful planning in terms of drainage and
are notoriously inefficient and unreliable. In rural
construction of flood control structures. Development
areas, access to water is even more precarious. Over
projects such as dam and canal construction were devised
80 per cent of the rural domestic water comes from
to help mitigate the effect of monsoon on rivers and
groundwater sources since it is more reliable in terms
seasonal streams. For the most part, they have been
of water quantity and quality.
successful in reducing the impact of flooding in some areas,
 Still, in areas where water is scarce, rural women
their effectiveness being limited in exceptional rainfall
travel long distances to wells or streams to fetch
situations.
water for their daily needs. Water pollution is a
Industrial Demand serious problem in India as almost 70 per cent of its
In the past several decades, industrial production has surface water resources and a growing percentage
increased in India owing to an increasingly open economy of its groundwater reserves are contaminated by
and greater emphasis on industrial development and biological, toxic, organic and inorganic pollutants. In
international trade. Water consumption for this sector has many cases, these sources have been rendered unsafe
consequently risen and will continue growing at a rate of for human consumption as well as for other activities
4.2 per cent per year . According to the World Bank, such as irrigation and industrial needs. This illustrates
demand of water for industrial, energy production and that degraded water quality can contribute to water
other uses will rise from 67 billion m3 to 228 billion m3 by scarcity as it limits its availability for both human use
2025. and the ecosystem.

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Besides rapidly depleting groundwater table, the State Pollution Control Boards have identified 1,532 ‘grossly
country faces another major problem on the water front - polluting’ industries in India, although almost none of the
groundwater contamination - a problem which has affected industries comply with the emission standards.
as many as 19 states, including Delhi. The geogenic  Wastewater from industrial activities is often
contaminants, including salinity, iron, fluoride and arsenic contaminated with highly toxic organic and inorganic
have affected groundwater in over 200 districts spread substances, some of which are persistent pollutants
across 19 states. Studies have shown that long-term intake and remain in the environment for many years. For
of fluoride can cause tooth decay and crippled bones. instance, over 50 per cent of the urban organic load
Arsenic can cause skin cancer and skin pigmentation. in some cities originates from industrial effluents.
Agriculture Pressure Further, heavy metal contamination from thermal
power, tannery and muling activities has occurred in
The rapid increase in agro-chemical use in the past five
several locations. Water contamination from
decades, has contributed significantly to the pollution of
industrial areas is compounded usually due to the
both surface and groundwater resources. Fertilizers and
high concentration of industries over a small area.
pesticides enter the water supply through run-offs and
Increasing industrial development, coupled with
leaching into the groundwater table and pose a hazard to
inadequate zoning and emissions regulations, will
human, animal and plant population. Some of these
only aggravate the problem in the coming years.
chemicals include several substances considered extremely
hazardous by WHO and are banned or under strict control Domestic Usage
in developed countries. All of India’s fourteen major river systems are heavily
Some of these substances have been known to bio- polluted, mostly from the 50 million cubic meters of
accumulate in certain organisms, leading to an increased untreated sewage discharged into them each year. The
risk of contamination when used for human consumption domestic sector is responsible for the majority of
and a persistence of the chemicals in the environment over wastewater generation in India. Combined, the 22 largest
long periods of time. Water enriched with nutrients leads cities in the country produce over 7,267 million litres of
to eutrophication. domestic wastewater per day, of which slightly over 80
Decaying organic matter releases odourous gases and per cent is collected for treatment.
partially decomposed matter accumulates on the river or Inadequate treatment of human and animal wastes
lakebed, thereby limiting water’s suitability for human also contributes to high incidence of water-related diseases
consumption and other uses. High levels of fertilizer use in the country. Till date, only 19.2 per cent of the rural and
has been associated with increased incidence of 70 per cent of the urban inhabitants have access to
eutrophication in rivers and lakes in several of India’s most adequate sanitation facilities. Therefore, water
important water bodies, such as the Hussein Sagar in contaminated by human waste is often discharged directly
Hyderabad and Nainital in Uttar Pradesh. into watercourses or seeps into the groundwater table from
faulty septic tanks or pit latrines. The level of faecal coliform
Industries bacteria in most rivers often exceeds WHO standards and
Although the industrial sector only accounts for three per is responsible for causing a number of gastro-intestinal
cent of the annual water withdrawals in India, its ailments among the population.
contribution to water pollution, particularly in urban areas,  Improper disposal of solid waste also leads to surface
is considerable. Wastewater generation from this sector and groundwater pollution. Runoff from garbage
has been estimated to be 55,000 million m3 per day, of dumps and city streets carries litter, deposed
which 68.5 million m3 are dumped directly into local rivers particulate matter and chemicals to nearby streams
and streams without prior treatment. and canals. Leaching from landfills and garbage pits
The government has called for the establishment of transports toxic substances and heavy metals to the
Common Effluent Treatment Plants (CETP) in industrial water table. Annual production of solid waste in India
areas but their implementation has been slow, and most has been estimated to be 2,000 million tonnes
industries either or not connected to CETPs or only partially (MOWR 2000). This figure will undoubtedly continue
treat their wastewater before disposal. The Central and to increase with the growing population and the

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A manish Singh Sir’s Initiative ENVIRONMENT
higher consumption of disposable goods resulting as well as manages inter-state and international rivers and
from improvement in the socio-economic conditions river valleys. It also provides technical advice to individual
of the rural and urban residents. The water quality states on development, flood control, coastal erosion, dam
data on rivers, lakes, ponds, tanks and groundwater safety, navigation and hydropower when required.
locations being monitored under the network, is
evaluated against the water quality criteria, and the National Water Quality Monitoring Programme
monitoring locations, on exceeding one or more (NWMP)
parameters are identified as polluted, and require CPCB in collaboration with State pollution control boards
action for restoration of water quality. established a nationwide network for water quality
Other Factors monitoring comprising 1,019 stations in 27 States and 6
Union Territories. The monitoring is undertaken on a
Due to various factors, available water is deteriorating in
monthly or quarterly basis for surface water and on a half
quality. Tests indicate that the biological contamination of
yearly basis for groundwater.
surface water sources, much of it due to untreated or
partially treated sewage, exceeds permissible limits at The water quality monitoring results obtained
many locations. Similarly, overexploitation of groundwater, between 1995 to 2006 indicate that organic and bacterial
besides other human activities has led to contamination contamination continue to be critical in water bodies. This
of groundwater in many parts of the country. While salinity is mainly due to discharge of domestic wastewater mostly
(dissolved salts in water) and iron make the taste of water in untreated form from the urban centres of the country.
and vegetables cooked in it unappealing, longterm usage The municipal corporations at large are not able to treat
of water with fluoride and arsenic can lead to several health the wastewater, increasing municipal sewage load flowing
hazards. into water bodies without treatment. Secondly, the
receiving water bodies also do not have adequate water
Around 85 per cent of the rural population of the
for dilution.
country uses groundwater for drinking and domestic
purposes. High concentrations of fluoride and arsenic in
METHODS FOR CONTROLING OF WATER
groundwater beyond the permissible limits of 1.5 mg/1
POLLUTION AND WATER RECYCLING
and 0.05 mg/1, respectively poses health hazard. In all, 19
states in India have been identified as ‘endemic’ areas for Waste water from domestic or industrial sources or from
fluorosis, with an estimated 44 million people impacted, garbage dumps is generally known as sewage. It may also
and another 66 million at risk. The scenario is the worst in contain rain water and surface runoff. The sewage water
can be treated to make it safe for disposal into water bodies
the hard rock terrain viz., granites.
like rivers, lakes etc. The treatment involves three stages:
Arsenic is a known carcinogen and is highly toxic. It primary, secondary and tertiary.
is perhaps the only human carcinogen for which there is This includes 1. sedimentation, 2. coagulation/flocculation,
adequate evidence of carcinogenic risk by both inhalation 3. filtration, 4.disinfection, 5.softening and 6.aeration. The
and ingestion. The occurrence of Arsenic in groundwater first four steps are of primary treatment. The first three
was first reported in 1980 in West Bengal in India. Apart steps are involved in primary treatment remove
from West Bengal, arsenic contamination in groundwater suspended particulate matter. Secondary treatment
has been found in the states of Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Uttar removes organic solids, left out after primary treatment,
Pradesh and Assam. Arsenic in groundwater has been through their microbial decomposition.
reported in 15 districts in Bihar, 9 districts in Uttar Pradesh, Effluents after secondary treatment may be clean but
8 districts in West Bengal and one district each in contain large amounts of nitrogen, in form of ammonia,
Chhattisgarh and Assam. nitrates and phosphorous which can cause problem of
The management of India’s water resources falls eutrophication upon their discharge into a receiving water
under the jurisdiction of a number of government agencies, body such as river, lake or pond. The tertiary treatment is
although the primary responsibility for the development meant to remove nutrients, disinfect for removing
of water resources belong to the individual states. The pathogenic bacteria, and aeration removes hydrogen
Central Government oversees the implementation of sulphide and reduce the amount of carbon dioxide and
national policy on resource development and exploitation, make water healthy and fit for aquatic organisms. This

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 ENVIRONMENT An effort of Team EG
treatment of waste water or sewage is carried out in The open ocean is divided into five broad zones
effluent treatment plants especially built for this purpose. based on the penetration of sunlight:
The residue obtained from primary treatment one known  Sunlit or epipelagic or euphotic zone: The top layer
as sludge. (up to 200 m depth), where there is enough sunlight
WATER RECYCLING and photosynthesis is possible. Due to this reason,
With increasing population the requirement for water is more than 90% of all marine life exists in this zone.
increasing rapidly. However, the availability of water is  Twilight or mesopelagic zone: A dim zone (between
limited but an ever increasing water withdrawal from
200 m and 1000 m) where some light penetrates,
different sources such as rivers, lakes and ground water is
but not enough for plants to grow. Some marine
depleting these sources and deteriorating their water
animals have adapted themselves to live here.
quality. Therefore, it is essential to utilize the available
water with maximum economy. This involves recycling of There is also a reverse process, called downwelling.
waste water for certain uses with or without treatment. In this case, wind causes surface, water to build up along
Recycling refers to the use of waste-water by the original a coastline and the surface water eventually sinks toward
user prior to the discharge either to a treatment system the bottom.
or to a receiving water body. Thus the waste water is
recovered and repetitively recycled with or without
WHAT ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF
treatment by the same user.
THE ARCTIC REGION?
The following measures can also be adopted to
control water pollution: The Arctic region is a vast, ice-covered ocean, surrounded
by frozen ground without trees.
(a) The water requirement should be minimized by
altering the techniques involved.  Arctic countries: Eight countries around the North
Pole—Finland, Sweden, Norway, Russia, Iceland,
(b) Water should be reused with or without treatment.
Canada, Greenland, and the US.
(c) Recycling of water after treatment should be
 Climate: In the mid winter months, the sun never
practiced to the maximum extent possible
rises and temperatures reach - 45°C. In the summer
(d) The quantity of waste water discharge should be months, 24 hours of sunlight a day melts the seas
minimized. and the topsoil.
 Ecosystems: Diverse ecosystems such as sea ice,
HOW DO WE DIVIDE THE OCEAN INTO coastal wetlands, tundra, mountains, and rivers.
MEANINGFUL ZONES?  Fauna: Abundant wildlife including the polar bears
and grey whales.
First, there is the coastal zone, which extends from the
 Population: 2 million, including the Eskimos.
high tide point to the continental shelf, which is the
submerged part of the continent. From this point, we have Special features:
the open ocean.
 Ecological problems due to climate change, mining,
shipping, oil and gas development, and overfishing.
 Due to global warming, sea ice and permafrost are
decreasing, precipitation patterns are changing,
temperatures are higher than before, and sea level
is rising (Chapter 13).

What is the Arctic Council?

The Arctic Council is an intergovernmental forum
promoting cooperation, coordination, and interaction
among the Arctic states, Arctic indigenous communities
and other Arctic inhabitants on common issues. The
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A manish Singh Sir’s Initiative ENVIRONMENT
Council focuses on issues of sustainable development and  The Sustainable Development Working Group works
environmental protection of the Arctic. to advance sustainable development in the Arctic
The members of the Arctic Council are: and to improve the conditions of Arctic communities
 Canada as a whole.
 Denmark  The Arctic Council is only a forum. It does not and
 Finland cannot implement or enforce its guidelines,
 Iceland assessments or recommendations. That
 Norway responsibility belongs to each individual Arctic State.
Also, the Council’s mandate explicitly excludes
 Russia
military security.
 Sweden
 US What will be the impact of the rapid melting
In addition, six organizations representing the Arctic of the Arctic ice?
indigenous communities are permanent participants of
The impact of climate change is greater in the Arctic region
the Council:
than in any other part of the world.
 Aleut International Association
The short-term economic benefits of the Arctic
 Arctic Athabaskan Council
melting would be the following:
 Gwich’ in Council International
Strategic waterways, such as the Northwest Passage,
 Inuit Circumpolar Council will be open for longer periods of time and offer greater
 Russian Association of the Indigenous Peoples of the opportunity for offshore oil exploration and drilling. 13%
North of the world’s undiscovered oil and 30% of its undiscovered
 Saami Council gas might be in the Arctic.
The work of the Arctic Council is primarily carried
out through six Working Groups: What is special about Antarctica and the
 The Arctic Contaminants Action Program acts as a Southern Ocean?
strengthening and supporting mechanism to  Antarctica is the most desolate, coldest, windiest and
encourage national actions to reduce emissions and driest continent. It contains 90% of all the ice on
other releases of pollutants. the Earth.
 The Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program  Flora: There are no trees or bushes, only mosses,
monitors the Arctic environment, ecosystems and lichens and algae.
human populations and provides scientific advice to  Fauna: Penguins, whales, seals, fishes and krill. The
support governments as they tackle pollution and male Emperor penguin remains on the continent
adverse effects of climate change. through the freezing winter.
 The Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna Working  Population: There are no indigenous communities
Group, addresses the conservation of Arctic living in Antarctica. But several countries have set
biodiversity, working to ensure the sustainability of up research stations in which more than 4000
the Arctic’s living resources. scientists conduct research.
 The Emergency Prevention, Preparedness and
Response Working Group, works to protect the Arctic Special features:
environment from the threat or impact of an  The size of Antarctica changes through the seasons.
accidental release of pollutants or radionuclides. In winter, the expanding sea ice along the coast
 The Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment nearly doubles its size.
Working Group is the focal point of the Arctic  More precipitation falls on the Sahara Desert than
Council’s activities related to the protection and on Antarctica. The annual precipitation is 50 mm,
sustainable use of the Arctic marine environment. mostly snow.
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How is Antarctica governed? management, and others. All activities relating to Antarctic
The continent is governed by the Antarctic Treaty, which mineral resources, except for scientific research, are
was signed in Washington in 1959 by the twelve countries forbidden.
whose scientists had been active in and around Antarctica
What is India’s status with respect to Antarctica?
during the International Geophysical Year (IGY) of 1957-
58. The twelve countries were: Argentina, Australia, India acceded to the Treaty in 1983 and it has a
Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, South consultative status by virtue of its substantial research
Africa, and the then USSR, UK, and the US. activity there. India’s Antarctic programme is a multi-
The Treaty entered into force in 1961 and has since disciplinary and multi-institutional programme under the
been acceded to by many other countries. The total control of the National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean
number of Parties to the Treaty is now 53, of which 29 Research, Ministry of Earth Sciences.
have consultative status, because they have been Some highlights of India’s Antarctic programme are:
conducting substantial research activity there.  First Indian expedition in 1981.
Among the signatories of the Treaty, seven  Dakshin Gangotri Research Base established in 1983.
countries—Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New
 Superseded by the Maitri Base in 1990.
Zealand, Norway and the United Kingdom—had territorial
claims, sometimes overlapping ones. Other countries do  Bharati Base commissioned in 2015.
not recognize any claims.  35 scientific expeditions conducted.
The primary objective of the Treaty is to ensure ‘in  Research on atmosphere, biology, earth science,
the interest of all mankind that Antarctica shall continue chemistry, and medical science.
for ever to be used exclusively for peaceful purposes and
shall not become the scene or object of international What is the State of the Global Ocean?
discord.’ Two major studies on the state of the ocean were:
 The first Global Census of Marine Life conducted
Some important provisions of the Antarctica Treaty
from 2000 to 2010 by 2700 scientists from more than
are:
80 countries.
 Antarctica shall be used for peaceful purposes only.
 The World Ocean Assessment or the First Global
 Freedom of scientific investigation in Antarctica and Integrated Marine Assessment also carried out by a
co-operation towards that end shall continue. large team of scientists. It was presented to the UN
 Scientific observations and results from Antarctica in December 2015.
shall be exchanged and made freely available.
 The US and Russia maintain a “basis of claim”. All 2010 Global Census of Marine Life Key
positions are explicitly protected in Article IV, which Findings
preserves the status quo. The Census found a changing ocean, richer in diversity,
 No new claims or enlargement of an existing claim more connected through distribution and movements,
to territorial sovereignty in Antarctica shall be more impacted by humans, and yet less explored than
asserted while the present Treaty is in force. what the scientists had known.
 All areas of Antarctica, including all stations, The major findings were the following:
installations, and equipment within those areas shall  The Census encountered an unanticipated riot of
be open at all times to inspection. species and found more than 6000 potentially new
The Antarctic Treaty system includes an Environment ones.
Protocol, which designates the continent as ‘a natural  The Census found living creatures everywhere it
reserve, devoted to peace and science’. Activities are looked, even where heat would melt lead, seawater
subject to regulations concerning environmental impact froze to ice and light and oxygen was lacking. It found
assessments, protection of fauna and flora, waste that in marine habitats, extreme is normal.
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 The Census affirmed that by weight 90% of marine pollution, and other factors have placed excessive
life is microbial and that we know less about the pressure on oceans.
small than the large.  Overfishing remains a critical problem with 29% of
 After all its work, the Census still could not reliably assessed stocks presently overfished.
estimate the total number of species in the ocean.  Sustainable use of oceans cannot be achieved
There could be a million or more species and tens without coherent management of all sectors of
or even hundreds of millions of kinds of microbes. human activities affecting the oceans and addressing
 For more than 20% of the ocean’s volume, the the delay in implementing known solutions.
Census database still has no records at all, and for
vast areas very few. What are the major threats to the ocean?
 The Census documented declining numbers and sizes  Overfishing: Powerful and large trawlers are
of species, even within a human generation. destroying ocean fisheries. 90% of the world’s
fisheries are already fully exploited or overfished,
2016 World Ocean Assessment Parameters while billions of unwanted fish are thrown away as
bycatch. Fishing subsidies given by developed
Studied
countries such as Japan, China, the European Union,
The Assessment examined our state of knowledge of the the US, and Russia encourage unsustainable
world’s ocean and the ways in which humans benefit from practices. The livelihoods and food security of over
and affect it. In particular, it studied the following human a billion people are in danger. Bottom trawlers drag
pressures on the ocean: nets and steel plates (weighing many tonnes) across
 Climate change (ocean acidification and changing the ocean floor ruining the ecology of the sea-bed.
salinity and oxygen content, among others)  Illegal fishing: Illegal, Unregulated and Unreported
 Inputs to the ocean (such as toxic substances, (IUU) fishing accounts for 35% of the global wild
plastics, waterborne pathogens) marine catch and causes revenue losses and
 Human-induced mortality and physical disturbance ecological damage. IUU fishing is also linked to
of marine biota (such as capture fisheries, including smuggling of drugs and people.
by-catch)  Lack of protection: Marine Protected Areas cover
 Demand for ocean space and changes in use of coasts just 3.4% of the ocean surface. Even those areas are
and seabed not managed well.
 Underwater noise (from shipping, sonar and seismic  Impact of industries and tourism: Coastal areas all
surveys) over the world are under intense pressure from new
 Interference with migration from structures in the beach resorts and industrial development. Beaches
sea or other changes in routes along coasts (wind disappear and marine life is threatened.
farms, barrages, coast reinforcement) Introduction  Impact of shipping: Marine habitats are devastated
of non-native species. by oil spills, ship groundings, anchor damage, and
the dumping of rubbish, ballast water, and oily
2016 World Ocean Assessment Main waste.
Conclusions  Impact of offshore oil drilling: Prospecting and
 Human impacts on the sea are no longer minor in drilling disturb the marine habitats. Oil spills kill
relation to the overall scale of the ocean. No part of marine species, contaminate beaches, and destroy
the ocean has today completely escaped the impact livelihoods.
of human pressures, including the most remote  Dumping of waste: Lots of waste such as untreated
areas. Cumulative impacts of human activities have sewage, garbage, fertilizers, pesticides, industrial
pushed the ocean’s carrying capacity almost to its chemicals, and plastics enter the ocean by direct
limit. dumping or through water run-off. Minute particles
 Climate change, overexploitation of marine living of plastic now cover large areas of the ocean and
resources, increased uses of ocean space, rising they enter the food chain.
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 Aquaculture: This is often presented as the answer  Coral reefs (discussed below), which are vital for
to declining wild fish stocks. But more often than marine life, are likely to get eroded very quickly.
not, aquaculture (the farming of fish) actually harms  Other shelled animals such as mussel, clam, urchin,
wild fish, through the pollution, the discharge from and starfish will have trouble building their shells in
farms, escaped farm fish, increased parasite loads, more acidic waters.
and the need to catch wild fish as feed.
 Ocean acidification is very likely to threaten
 Global warming and climate change: The plankton, which is a key to the survival of larger fish.
absorption of greenhouse gases by the ocean has
 Fish species suffer a condition called acidosis,
led to acidification and deoxygenation, affecting
affecting their very survival.
marine organisms. Coral bleaching, rising sea levels,
changing species distributions, and rising water What is marine upwelling and what is its
temperatures are some of the results of climate
effect?
change.
In some parts of the ocean, strong winds push the water
 Weak Governance of High Seas: In spite of UNCLOS
away. The effect is to draw (to the surface) the cold water
(see below), governance of high seas is weak,
from below, which is rich in nutrients. Then, the surface
fragmented, and poorly implemented.
waters become highly productive as fishing grounds. This
How does ocean acidification occur? process of water replacement is called upwelling.
Upwelling occurs in the open ocean and along coastlines.
 The ocean absorbs about 25% of the carbon we
deposit in the atmosphere through our emissions. There is also a reverse process, called downwelling.
Since, we have been rapidly increasing our In this case, wind causes surface water to build up along a
emissions, more carbon enters the ocean, making it coastline and the surface water eventually sinks toward
more acidic. the bottom.
 The rate of human-driven ocean acidification is Who controls human activities on and in the
about 100 times faster than that experienced by
ocean?
marine ecosystems globally for tens of millions of
years. Since the beginning of the Industrial From the 17th century, the ocean came to be governed
Revolution, the ocean has become 30% more acidic. by the concept of the freedom of the high seas. This meant
If we continue to burn more and more fossil fuels that, apart from a narrow belt of the ocean adjoining the
and place more carbon in the atmosphere, the ocean coastline of a country, the ocean was free for all and
will become even more acidic. By the end of the belonged to none. By the middle of the 20th century,
21st century, the surface waters of the ocean could however, several issues came up with regard to the
be nearly 150% more acidic, a condition not exploitation of the ocean:
experienced by the ocean for more than 20 million  Competition for the fish stocks
years.  Pollution due to ships

What is the impact of ocean acidification?  Exploitation of the mineral wealth and oil in the
ocean
As the ocean acidifies, some organisms adapt, but others
do not. While scientists are still studying the biological  Movement of the navies of the world
impact of ocean acidification, they expect dramatic and  Exploration by nuclear submarines and other ships
mostly negative impacts on ocean ecosystems. for ocean resources and sunken treasures.
Even a small change in the acidity level of seawater Coastal countries began to declare sovereignty over
can have harmful effects on marine life, affecting the adjoining coastline - from 3 nautical miles to 200
reproduction and growth. In fact, the shells of some nautical miles.
animals are already dissolving in the more acidic water. In 1987, Arvid Pardo, Malta’s ambassador to the UN,
The expected negative impacts of ocean acidification drew the attention of the General Assembly to the
include: potential conflicts and proposed that the ocean be treated

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as the ‘Common Heritage of Mankind’. This concept meant basis of the potential and recharge capabilities of the
that no country owned any part of the ocean. We should aquifer;
treat the ocean as a heritage bequeathed to us, use the  Water allocation should be based on the following
ocean’s resources wisely and sustainably, and hand it over priorities: drinking water, irrigation, hydro-power,
in good condition to the succeeding generations. navigation, industrial and other uses;
After a series of conferences, the UN Convention on  Irrigation planning should attempt to maximize
the Law of the Sea was adopted in 1982. After ratification benefits to farmers and integrate soil and water
by the required number of countries, the Convention came conservation practices;
into force in December 1994.
 Water rates should reflect the true cost of water use
and encourage economic use of the resource;
National Water Policy
 Promotion of conservation through education,
A comprehensive policy on water is necessary on the face
regulation and incentives be encouraged;
of a growing number of social, economic and
environmental issues surrounding water resources in India.  Development of a master plan for flood control and
In 1987, the National Water Resources Council adopted management should be undertaken and include soil
the National Water Policy (NWP) and submitted the conservation, forestry management, zoning and
document to Parliament for implementation. forecasting considerations;
The NWP is the primary document stating the  Drought-prone areas should be given priority in water
position of the Government of India (GOI) on water development projects and programmes such as soil
resource issues, ranging from drought and flood moisture conservation and water harvesting practices
management to drinking water provisions. In essence, the should be encouraged;
policy serves as a guideline to help planners and managers  Additional research in a number of areas such as
develop the country’s water resources to its maximum hydrometeorology, groundwater hydrology and
potential. But the adoption of the policy is also a step- recharge, water harvesting, crops and cropping
forward for the government in terms of promoting the systems, sedimentation and reservoirs, river
sustainable management of the country’s water resources. morphology and hydraulics, recycling and re-use, and
The policy addresses many issues regarding planning, sea water resources should be pursued.
development and allocation of water, including The National Water Resources Council is the body
groundwater and surface water sources. Among the points responsible for reviewing the progress made by the
addressed in the policy are: government in implementing the policy. The Council is
 Development of standardized national information composed of Secretaries from various Ministries associated
system containing data on water availability and use with water resources and the Chief Secretaries of States/
is essential for appropriate planning; Union Territories. Through the National Water Board, the
 Resource planning should be conducted using a Council is able to make recommendations regarding the
catchment or a watershed as the basic unit; financing and development of new projects and provide
 Water development projects should be multi- suggestions on further action to be taken.
purpose and should address various priorities such
as drinking water provision and flood-mitigation; Acts And Regulations
 Environmental impact of new projects should be Water in India is governed under three different Acts
assessed and minimized wherever possible;
The Environmental Protection Act (1986), the River Boards
 Socially disadvantaged groups such as Scheduled Act (1956) and the Inter-State Water Disputes Act (1956).
Castes and Tribes and other minority groups are to Other Acts and Regulations affect water resources in
be included in the planning process as much as different ways by addressing its importance for agriculture,
possible, and farmers must become increasingly biodiversity and conservation and drinking water. These
involved in the irrigation management policies; three Acts, however, have the broadest scope in terms of
 Groundwater development should be based on the how they affect all aspects of water management.

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The regulation and development of inter-state rivers non biodegradable and burning of plastic in garbage
and river valleys was to be entrusted to various River dumps release highly toxic and poisonous gases like
Boards when this Act was adopted in 1956. The River carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, phosgene, dioxine
Boards were designed to advise the central government and other poisonous chlorinated compounds.
on development opportunities, coordinate activities and  Industrial sources - It includes fly ash, chemical
resolve disputes. Under their mandate, the Boards were residues, metallic and nuclear wastes. Large number
required to provide advice to the government on the of industrial chemicals, dyes, acids, etc. find their way
following topics: into the soil and are known to create many health
 Conservation with a view to control and optimise use hazards including cancer.
of water resources;  Agricultural sources - Agricultural chemicals
 Promotion and operation of schemes related to especially fertilizers and pesticides pollute the soil.
irrigation, water supply and drainage; Fertilizers in the run off water from these fields can
 Promotion and operation of schemes related to hydro cause eutrophication in water bodies. Pesticides are
power and flood control; highly toxic chemicals which affect humans and other
animals adversely causing respiratory problems,
 Promotion and control of navigation;
cancer and death.
 Promotion of aforestation and control of soil erosion;
 Prevention of pollution; and Control of soil pollution
 Other duties as deemed necessary. Indiscriminate disposal of solid waste should be avoided.
The Indian government has been unable to constitute To control soil pollution, it is essential to stop the use of
a River Board since the Act was enacted, almost fifty years plastic bags and instead use bags of degradable materials
ago. However, there is a realisation of the fact that the Act like paper and cloth. Sewage should be treated properly
should be revised and amendments are currently under before using as fertilizer and as landfills. The organic matter
way to strengthen its powers. from domestic, agricultural and other waste should be
segregated and subjected to vermicomposting which
Soil Pollution generates useful manure as a by product. The industrial
Addition of substances which adversely affect the quality wastes prior to disposal should be properly treated for
of soil or its fertility is known as soil pollution. Generally removing hazardous materials. Biomedical waste should
polluted water also pollute soil. Solid waste is a mixture of be separately collected and incinerated in proper
plastics, cloth, glass, metal and organic matter, sewage, incinerators.
sewage sludge, building debris, generated from
households, commercial and industries establishments add GOVERNMENTS MEASURES IN THIS
to soil pollution. Fly ash, iron and steel slag, medical and CONTEXT
industrial wastes disposed on land are important sources
of soil pollution. In addition, fertilizers and pesticides from Soil pollution from heavy metals due to improper disposal
agricultural use which reach soil as run-off and land filling of industrial effluents, along with the excessive use of
by municipal waste are growing cause of soil pollution. pesticides and mismanagement of domestic and municipal
Acid rain and dry deposition of pollutants on land surface wastes, is becoming a major concern. Though no reliable
also contribute to soil pollution. estimates are available to depict the exact extent and
degree of this type of land degradation, it is believed that
Sources Of Soil Pollution the problem is extensive and its effects are significant.
 Plastic bags - Plastic bags made from low density Some commercial fertilizers also contain appreciable
polyethylene (LDPE), is virtually indestructible, create quantities of heavy metals, which have undesirable effects
colossal environmental hazard. The discarded bags on the environment.
block drains and sewage systems. Leftover food, The indiscriminate use of agrochemicals, such as
vegetable waste etc. on which cows and dogs feed fertilizers and pesticides, is often responsible for land
may die due to the choking by plastic bags. Plastic is degradation. Soil texture, infiltration and permeability

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characteristics are affected adversely to a considerable the International Convention on Combating
extent due to excessive grazing, fire and mismanagement Desertification’ held in December 1996, India
of land under cultivation. participated and ratified its commitments. The
1. Watershed management programmes have been objective was to curtail wide scale deforestation and
taken up extensively in the recent past. The Soil and watershed degradation through appropriate
Water Conservation Division in the Ministry of corrective measures.
Agriculture has been playing a key role in 5. Drought Prone Areas Programme (DPAP): The Rural
implementing Integrated Watershed Management Works Programme (RWP) initiated in 1970-71 was
Programmes. IWDP (Integrated Watershed re-designated as Drought Prone Areas Programme
Development Programme) was launched in the year (DPAP) in 1973-74 to focus solely on problems of
1989-90 to develop the wastelands on watershed drought prone areas. At present, DPAPis under
basis, to strengthen the natural resource base and implementation in 972 Blocks of 185 Districts in 16
to promote the overall economic development of the States.
resource-poor and disadvantaged sections of people 6. Desert Development Programme (DDP): The Desert
inhabiting the programme areas. Development Programme (DDP) was started both in
2. The National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use hot desert areas of Rajasthan, Gujarat and Haryana
Planning, the Central Soil and Water Conservation and the cold deserts of Jammu & Kashmir and
Research and Training Institute and the Indian Himachal Pradesh in 1977-78. DDP was launched to
Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), have jointly tackle special problems of desert areas. The basic
initiated the preparation of maps of soil erosion objective of this programme is to minimize the
affected areas in different states using the adverse effect of drought, and to control
components of Universal Soil Loss Equation. Similar desertification through rejuvenation of the natural
resource base of the identified desert areas. The
assessments needs to be carried out for other
programme also aims at promoting overall economic
degradation processes also. In addition, the All-India
development and improving the socio-economic
Soil and Land Use Survey, MoA, is engaged in
conditions of the resource - poor and disadvantaged
generating spatial and nonspatial information on the
sections of people inhabiting the programme areas.
soils of India and preparing thematic maps like land
capability classification, hydrological soil grouping, 7. The National Land Use & Conservation Board’s
irrigability classification, etc. The state governments (NLCB) objective is to serve as a policy planning,
are also working on various aspects of soil coordinating and monitoring agency at the national
conservation, following the guidelines of the Centre. level for issues concerning the health and scientific
management of land resources of the country.
3. Joint Forest Management Programme: In India, Joint
8. The Programme for Reclamation of Alkali Soil (RAS)
Forest Management (JFM) has emerged as an
was launched in the Seventh Five Year Plan for
important intervention in management of forest
reclamation of soils, which are suffering from
resources. It recognizes the livelihood and sustenance
alkalinity. The main objectives of the programme
needs of the people through the principle of ‘care
are;-
and share. The concept of JFM has been interpreted
in various ways but the basic element in this concept  Reclamation of the lands affected by alkalinity
is to establish grassroots community based and improving land productivity by growing salt
institutions for protection and management nf Forest tolerant crops and horticulture plantations;
The programme aims at empowering local people  Increase the production of fuel- wood and
for their active participation as partners in the fodder;
management of forest resources and sharing the  Improve capacity of extension personnel and
benefits derived from its protection and beneficiaries in various aspects of alkali land
management. reclamation technology;
4. Soil conservation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-  Generate employment opportunities, thereby
humid areas was included as one of the themes in reducing rural-urban migration.

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Since the inception of the programme, till its end in Suggestions Laid To Overcome This Problem
2004-05, an area of 6.59 lakh ha. had been reclaimed  Land degradation problem can be tackled to an extent
under this programme. by suitable policies that would internalize
9. Watershed Development Project in Shifting degradation into proper decision-making, wherever
Cultivation Areas (WDPSCA) is basically a central possible. Inappropriate policy choices in the Indian
assistance to states with an objective of overall context like free or highly subsidized pricing of
development of jhum areas on watershed basis, electricity for tube well irrigation, heavily subsidized
reclaiming the land affected by shifting cultivation surface water for irrigation and subsidized chemical
and socio-economic upgradation of jhumia families inputs have aggravated the problem. For example,
so as to encourage them for settled agriculture. The overuse of poor quality tube well water has led to
scheme is being implemented since 1994-95. soil salinity.
10. The Programme on Soil Conservation for Enhancing  Economic instruments in the form of balanced
the Productivity of Degraded Lands in the incentives will be a cost-effective measure to
Catchments of River Valley Project and Flood Prone encourage farmers to adopt soil conservation
River (RVP and FPR): The major objectives of the practices. For problems regarding over-application
programme are: of chemical inputs, in the long run, conjunctive use
 Prevention of land degradation by adoption of of chemical inputs with bio-inputs along with farm
a multi-disciplinary integrated approach of soil residue is the only answer.
conservation and watershed management in  At the macro level, the existing database on land use
catchment areas; statistics cannot adequately facilitate the analysis of
 Improvement of land capability and moisture land degradation and its impact. Modifications in the
regime in the watersheds; classification of land use statistics are needed in order
 Promotion of land use to match the land to study its environmental impacts. Advanced
capability; and technology like Remote Sensing can go a long way in
helping generate better information on the different
 Prevention of soil loss from the catchments to
dimensions of Land Degradation.
reduce siltation of multipurpose reservoirs and
enhance the in-situ moisture conservation and  The information base on which farmers make
surface rainwater storage in the catchments to decisions is incomplete with respect to internalizing
reduce flood peaks and the volume of run-off. rapid changes in soil and water quality variables, by
moving towards more sustainable practices such as
11. Several initiatives for proper management of
integrated pest management and land-conserving
agricultural waste have also been taken up for
crop rotations.
promoting alternative uses of straw instead of
burning it in the fields. The Department of Science,  Research needs to be focused on measures such as
Technology & Environment, Government of Punjab integrated crop management. An integrated
constituted a task force in September, 2006 for approach to the problem of degradation, linking
formulation of a policy to mitigate the problem agriculture and environment, is yet to be attempted
generated due to severity of burning of agricultural even at the policy level.
waste in the open fields after harvesting, and its  Farm research should address the issue of balancing
consequent effects on soil, ambient air and health the external inputs usage and the internal sources of
of living organisms. The task force has suggested nutrients. Thus from a policy perspective, there is a
promotion of agronomic practices and technological need for public and private initiative on several fronts
measures for better utilization of agricultural waste. - increased investment in resource management,
These include use of happy seeder, developed by research and extension; research to develop suitable
Punjab Agricultural University in collaboration with and more sustainable cropping patterns and
Australian Centre for International Agriculture rotations; correction of price distortions on key
Research (ACIAR) and use of paddy straw for power inputs, especially water and electricity; and special
generation. The happy seeder, machine is compact incentives to invest in bio-inputs and also inputs like
and lightweight, and is tractor-mounted. gypsum, which helps in reclamation of salt-affected

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soil. Such policy interventions may be rewarding if RADIATION
they can counteract the environmentally perverse
Radiation is a form of energy travelling through space. The
land use. However, costs of such interventions have
radiation emanating from the decay of radioactive nuclides
to be considered against their potential benefits,
are a major sources of radiation pollution. Radiations can
before making definite policy prescriptions. be categorized into two groups namely the non-ionizing
 Develop and implement viable models of public- radiations and the ionizing radiations.
private partnerships for setting up and operating Non-ionizing radiations are constituted by the
secure landfills, incinerators, and other appropriate electromagnetic waves at the longer wavelength of the
techniques for the treatment and disposal of toxic spectrum ranging from near infra-red rays to radio waves.
and hazardous waste, both industrial and biomedical, These waves have energies enough to excite the atoms
on payment by users, taking the concerns of local and molecules of the medium through which they pass,
communities into account. causing them to vibrate faster but not strong enough to
 Develop and implement strategies for cleaning up ionize them. In a microwave oven the radiation causes
toxic and hazardous waste dump legacies, particularly water molecules in the cooking medium to vibrate faster
in industrial areas, and abandoned mines, and work and thus raising its temperature.
towards reclamation of such lands for future Ionizing radiations cause ionization of atoms’ and
sustainable use. ‘ molecules of the medium through which they pass.
Electromagnetic radiations such as short wavelength ultra
violet radiations (UV), X-rays and gamma rays and energetic
RADIATION POLLUTION: SOURCES particles produced in nuclear processes, electrically
AND HAZARDS charged particles like alpha and beta particles produced
in radioactive decay and neutrons produced in nuclear
Radiation pollution is the increase in over the natural fission, are highly damaging to living organisms. Electrically
background radiation. There are many sources of radiation charged particles produced in the nuclear processes can
pollution such as nuclear wastes from nuclear power plants, have sufficient energy to knock electrons out of the atoms
mining and processing of nuclear material etc. The worse or molecules of the medium, thereby producing ions. The
case of nuclear pollution was the chernoboyl disaster in ions produced in water molecules, for example, can induce
USSR occured in 1986 but the effects still longer today. reactions that can break bonds in proteins and other
important molecules. An example of this would be when
Radiation Damage a gamma ray passes through a cell, the water molecules
The biological damage resulting from ionizing radiations near the DNA might be ionized and the ions might react
is generally termed as radiation damage. Large amounts with the DNA causing it to break. They can also cause
chemical changes by breaking the chemical bonds, which
of radiation can kill cells that can dramatically affect the
can damage living tissues. The ionizing radiations cause
exposed organism as well as possibly its offspring. Affected
damage to biological systems and are, therefore,
cells can mutate and result in cancer. A large enough dose
pollutants.
of radiation can kill the organism.
Radiation damage can be divided into two types: (a) Radiation dose
somatic damage (also called radiation sickness) and (b)
genetic damage. Somatic damage refers to damage to cells The biological damage caused by the radiation is
that are not associated with reproduction. Effects of determined by the intensity of radiation and duration of
somatic radiation damage include reddening of the skin, the exposure. It depends on the amount of energy
loss of hair, ulceration, fibrosis of the lungs, the formation deposited by the radiation in the biological system. In
of holes in tissue, a reduction of white blood cells, and the studying the effects of radiation exposure in humans, it is
induction of cataract in the eyes. This damage can also important to realize that the biological damage caused by
result in cancer and death. Genetic damage refers to a particle depends not only on the total energy deposited
damage to cells associated with reproduction. This damage but also on the rate of energy loss per unit distance
can subsequently cause genetic damage from gene traversed by the particle (or “linear energy transfer”). For
mutation resulting in abnormalities. Genetic damages are example, alpha particles do much more damage per unit
passed on to next generation. energy deposited than do electrons.

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Radiation effects and radiation doses power reactors require a constant up gradation of safety
A traditional unit of human-equivalent dose is the rem, measures. Accidents with nuclear submarines also points
which stands for radiation equivalent in man. At low doses, to the same.
such as what we receive every day from background
radiation (< 1 m rem), the cells repair the damage rapidly. ENVIRONMENTAL BIOTECHNOLOGY
At higher doses (up to 100 rem), the cells might not be
able to repair the damage, and the cells may either be The environmental biotechnology is going to new paths
changed permanently or die. Cells changed permanently where microbes are used to clean up the environment.
may go on to produce abnormal cells when they divide These technologies are such designed that their product
and may become cancerous. output is high and the residues left are comparatively low
and relatively non-toxic.
At even higher doses, the cells cannot be replaced
fast enough and tissues fail to function. An example of this In other words, biotechnology in Environmental
would be “radiation sickness.” This is a condition that studies is the “development, use and regulation of
results after high doses is given to the whole body (>100 biological systems for remediation of contaminated
rem). environment (land, air, water) and for environment friendly
processes green manufacturing technologies and
Nuclear explosions and accidents in nuclear reactors
sustainable developments.”
are a serious source of radiation hazard. The effects of
atomic explosions in Nagasaki and Hiroshima are still not Bioaccumulation
forgotten. The nuclear reactor accident at Chernobyl in
Bioaccumulation in general can be defined as the
1986 led to deaths of many reactor personnel and a very
accumulation of substances such as pesticides (DDT etc),
large release of radionuclide to the environment causing
methyl mercury, or any other organic chemical in an
a long term radiation damage to the people living in the
organism or part of an organism. It is an important process
neighboring regions.
in which chemicals can affect the living organism. This
Accidents at nuclear power plants process results in the increase in. the concentration of a
chemical in a biological organism over time, compared to
Nuclear fission in the reactor core produces lot of heat
that of the environment surrounding it Compounds get
which if not controlled can lead to a meltdown of fuel rods accumulated in the organism when the rate of intake of
in the reactor core. If a meltdown happens by accident, it the chemicals and its storage is faster than its metabolism
will release large quantities of highly dangerous radioactive or excretion. Although it is often thought, that the man
materials in the environment with disastrous consequences made chemicals have a negative effect on the biological
to the humans, animals and plants. To prevent this type of organism, bioaccumulation is in fact a necessary process
accidents and reactor blow up, the reactors are designed for organism’s survival because animals bioaccumulate,
to have a number of safety features. when the chemical substances get accumulated at harmful
Inspite of these safety measures two disasters in the levels.
nuclear power plants are noteworthy- namely at ‘Three
Mile Island’ in Middletown (U.S.A.) in 1979, at Chernobyl Bioconcentration & Biomagnification
(U.S.S.R.) in 1986. In both these cases a series of mishaps Bioconcentration is a specific bioaccumulation process in
and errors resulted in over heating of the reactor core and which an organism increases the concentration of a certain
lot of radiation was released into the environment. The chemical directly from the surrounding environment For
leakage from Three Mile Island reactor was apparently low example, for aquatic animals (like fish) bioconcentration
and no one was injured immediately. However, in case of after uptake through the gills (or sometimes skin) is the
Chernobyl the leakage was very heavy causing death of most important bioaccumulation process.
some workers and radiation spread over large areas Biomagnification on the other hand describes a
scattered all over Europe. People of the city had to be process that results in the accumulation of a chemical in
evacuated to safer places and the plant had to be closed an organism at a much higher level than consumed by it
down. These two disasters are a reminder that nuclear directly. It becomes more and more concentrated as it

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moves through a food chain. This can be best illustrated Nature of Toxicant
with an example. A toxic substance which is generated by In order for biomagnification to occur, the pollutant must
a land based source is deposited on a lake, is absorbed by be:
the phytoplankton (free-floating algae). They are further
 long-lived
eaten by zoo-plankton (free-floating animals) which are
consumed by small fish, followed by large fish and many  mobile
others in the chain, subsequently reaching man. As the  soluble in fats
toxicant is transferred up in the foodchain, its concentration If a pollutant is short-lived, it will be broken down
is magnified by bioaccumulation as much as million times. before it can become dangerous. If immobile, it will stay
If the affected organism is kept in uncontaminated in one place and is unlikely to be taken up by organisms. If
atmosphere, then the reverse of bioaccumulation takes the pollutant is soluble water, it will be excreted by the
place, when the toxins are released by the affected organism.
organisms to the environment. This reverse process is
called depuration.
Biomagnification of Mercury
When mercury reaches an aquatic environment, it can be
Bioaccumulation is the result of the three transformed into methylmercury which is extremely toxic.
processes Mercury is found in all tissues of a contaminated fish. This
(i) Uptake: Bioaccumulation process begins when a can be fatal for humans when mercury levels are very high.
chemical moves, or diffuses from a place of high
concentration (environment) to one of low
Endocrine Disruption
concentration (organisms cells). This is a complex This is a common problem in people whose intake of animal
process and several factors are responsible for it For fats, particularly meat, walrus, whale as well as fish and
instance chemicals which are lyophflic (fat loving) or birds is very high. This may contribute to the accumulation
hydrophobic (water hating) have a greater tendency of chemicals such as organochlorines in humans.
to move from the water to the cells of the aquatic Another problem is common in Arctic region where
organisms. the accumulation of vitamin A takes place since people
(ii) Storage: Some chemicals become attracted to certain consume large amount of livers of pure carnivores like
sites inside the cell and get temporarily stored. One polar bears and husky dogs.
important factor in uptake and storage is the
solubility of the chemicals in water. Usually chemicals Factors Affecting Bioaccumulation
which have high solubility in water have little  The physical and chemical properties of the
tendency to accumulate inside the organism’s cells. chemicals, including its solubility in water and fats,
Once inside, they are easily removed unless they are molecular weight and ease of metabolism.
retained in the cells by specific mechanisms. Heavy
 Environmental condition including water quality (pH,
metals like mercury is an exception because it can
hardness, etc.)
bind tightly to specific sites within the body. If the
binding of the chemicals occur, then even highly  Nature of organism, including its ability of
water soluble chemicals can accumulate which is best metabolism and lipid content, etc. Large, long-lived
illustrated by cobalt, which despite its high water organisms with low rates of metabolism or excretion
solubility binds tightly to liver. Similar accumulation of a chemical will bioaccumulate more than small,
processes occur for mercury, copper, cadmium and short-lived organisms.
lead.  Dietary factors (feeding rate, amount of
(iti) Elimination: This is the third factor affecting contaminated food taken and absorption of the
bioaccumulation in which an organism can break chemicals from the food.
down and/or excrete a chemical. The process of Thus, bioaccumulation is a normal process that can
metabolism (breakdown of chemicals) varies among result in injury to an organism only when the equilibrium
individual organisms and species and also depends between exposure and bioaccumulation is overwhelmed,
on characteristics of the chemical itself. relative to the harmfulness of the chemical.
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Biodegradation decomposition or through anaerobic decomposition which
Biodegradation is a process in which the organic are described below:
compounds are broken by indigenous microbes. Organic
Aerobic Biodegradation
compounds can be degraded aerobically (with oxygen) or
anaerobically (without oxygen). Proteins, complex organic This degradation takes place in the presence of freely
compounds and nucleic acids of dead plants and animals available oxygen by the aerobic and/or facultative bacteria
are converted to carbon dioxide and water by the which utilize the free oxygen as electron acceptor, thereby
microorganisms which are present in the atmosphere. The oxidizing the organic matter to stable and harmless end
inorganic substances attached to these organic compounds products. The final products of degradation are carbon
are converted into minerals by the degradation process. dioxide in the case of carbonaceous organic matter and
This process is known as biomineralization. ammonia in the case of nitrogenous organic matter

Methods of Measuring Biodegradation Anaerobic Biodegradation

This type of degradation takes place in the absence of
Biodegradation can be measured under aerobic as well as
oxygen. The bacteria convert the carbonaceous organic
anaerobic conditions. The activity of aerobic microbes are
matter into simple organic carbon compounds. Whereas
measured in terms of the amount of oxygen consumed or
the nitrogenous organic matter are converted to ammonia.
the amount of carbon dioxide produced during
degradation. Factors Affecting Biodegradation
The DR4 test or 4-day dynamic respiration index test These are a number of factors which affect the rate of
is used to measure the biodegradation under aerobic naturally occurring biodegradation such as:
condition for 4 days. Here the substance is aerated by
1. Physical factors: Soil moisture content, porosity, soil
passing air through it. Microbes are then introduced to
temperature, soil PH, soil water dissolved oxygen, soil
the test material while incubating it under aerobic
gas oxygen content etc.
conditions. The microbes biodegrade the material and
2. Chemical factors: Nature of the substrate compounds
produce carbon dioxide which can be monitored.
(saturated, unsaturated, aliphatic or aromatic),
The activity of anaerobic biodegradation is produced soluble salts, buffer index, presence of micronutrients
by the amount of methane and alloy produced. The BMP like Sodium, Calcium, Magnesium, Sulphur, Boron,
100 test (100 day biogenic methane potential test) Copper and Zinc, presence of inorganic nitrogen
measures the amount of biogas produced (carbon dioxide nutrient (NH3, NO2, NQ3) and soluble phosphorus etc.
and methane) under anaerobic conditions. The test is 3. Biological factors: Presence of suitable
incubated until the biogas production caeses which could microorganisms for degrading the organic
be 100 days or more. This test ensures complete contaminants. Competition amongst the various
degradation. microorganism for degradation is another important
factor. The redox potential of a soil which determines
The Biodegradation Process its electron density is also important because
Biodegradation of the organic compounds takes place with biological energy is obtained from the oxidation of
the help of enzymes produced by the microorganism. Many the reduced material.
enzymes are not released by the microbial cells hence the Micro-organisms metabolize and decompose
organic compounds which are to be biodegraded are either biodegradable organic substances or pollutants to produce
transported to the cells or they come in contact with the energy for their own growth and survival. In some specific
cells. Since enzymes are highly specific in their action hence cases it is found that the degradation of a substance (A)
many types of enzymes are required for the complete occurs without the use of energy produced by its own
biodegradation making it a stepwise process. Sometimes metabolism. In such cases, a second substance (B) to used
a contaminant may not be completely biodegraded but and metabolized to produce energy which is used in the
converted into an intermediate compound which may be growth and survival of the first organism (A). The metabolic
more harmful for the environment. The biodegradation in degradation of the substance A, is known as co-
general may be carried out either through aerobic metabolism.

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Co-metabolism is therefore defined as the Bioremediation
simultaneous metabolism of two compounds, in which the Bioremediation is the use of living organism, primarily
degradation of the second compound (B) serves as the microorganisms which degrade the toxic substances in the
primary energy or carbon source. The second substrate B environment to less toxic forms. In this process the
is usually referred to as a ‘nutrient’ since its addition helps microorganisms enzymatically attack the pollutants and
in the biodegradation of a normally non-biodegradable convert them into harmless products. This process uses
substance (A). Here the first substrate (A) which undergoes naturally occurring bacteria fungi or plants to detoxify the
co-metabolism is known as the secondary substrate hazardous substances to human health and environment.
whereas the second substrate (B) which brings co- The microorganism can be either indigenous to a
metabolization of first substrate (A) and acts as a primary contaminated area or may be isolated from other sites and
source of energy is known as the ‘primary substrate’. brought to the contaminated sites. Since the microbes are
used to clean up the harmful chemicals, the ambient
This is illustrated with the example of
temperature, nutrients and right amount of oxygen should
Trichloroethylerte (TCE) which is a non-biodegradation
be present in the soil and groundwater These conditions
substrate under ordinary conditions. However it can be
help the microbes to multiply. If the required conditions
degraded easily when phenol is added to it which acts as a
are not supplied to the microbes, the) grow too slowly or
nutrient or a primary substrate for the growth of the micro- they die which can also create other harmful chemicals.
organism which are needed for the co-metabolism of A.
The methanotrophs (methane oxidizing bacteria) are How does Bioremediation Work?
developed due to the metabolism of phenol and produce Bioremediation depends on the natural biological
an enzyme (methane-mono-oxygen are) which can react processes of microorganisms, one of which is Metabolism.
with trichloroethylene to form carbon dioxide as the final
Metabolism refers to the chemical reactions
product.
occurring in a cell of organism. All living processes are
It is important to note here that for the complete based on a complex series of chemical reactions. The
degradation or co-metabolism of non-biodegradable process of metabolism can be divided into two parts which
pollutants, usually mixed cultures of micro-organisms are are:
referred since the pure cultures of microorganisms, [one
type of microorganisms] lead to the accumulation of the Anabolism
initial products of co-metabolism, which often does not Processes that build up complex molecular structures from
undergo further degradation. simpler molecular.

ADVANTAGES OF COMETABOLISM Catabolism

1. The process of cometabolism has given rise to new The processes which break down complex molecular into
methods of purification of ground water and soil. simpler ones is called catabolism.
2. The addition of methane, methanol, phenol etc have Chemicals present at contaminated sites become part
been found to biodegrade the otherwise of the anabolism and catabolism processes. Petroleum
nonbiodegradable chlorinated solvents like vinyl products at the sites are a rich source of energy and some
chloride, trichloroethylene etc. organisms take advantage of this and use hydrocarbons as
a source of food and energy to carry out their cellular
DISADVANTAGES OF CO-METABOLISM
functions. This results in the breakdown of these complex
1. When the subsurface of a pollutant is irregular, then compounds into simpler forms like carbon dioxide and
it is difficult to co-metabolism the pollutants water.
uniformly. For bioremediation to be effective, microorganisms
2. Since methane is also used as a nutrient in case of must enzymatically attack the pollutant and convert them
many pollutant, so all the ignition sources in the area into harmless products. This can only happen when
should be removed as methane is inflammable. environmental conditions permit microbial growth and
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activity. Therefore the process of bioremediation often contaminated soil or water. Bioemediation frequently
involves the manipulation of environmental parameters involves the addition of microorganisms indigenous
to allow microbial growth and degradation to proceed at or exogenous to the contaminated sites.
a faster rate. (iii) Bioventing: It is the most common insitu treatment
and involves supplying air and nutrients through wells
Factors of Bioremediation to contaminated soil to stimulate the indigenous
The control and optimization of bioremediation process is bacteria. It employs low air flow rates and provides
a complex system and consists of many factors: only the amount of oxygen necessary for the
(i) The existence of a microbial population capable of biodegradation while minimizing volatilization and
degrading the pollutants release of contaminants to the atmosphere.
(ii) The availability of contaminants to the microbial (iv) Biosparging: Biosparging involves the injection of air
population under pressure below the water table to increase
(iii) The environmental factors (type of soil, temperature groundwater oxygen concentrations and enhance the
pH, pressure of oxygen, other electron acceptors and rate of degradation of contaminants by bacteria. It
nutirents). increases the mixing in the saturated zone and there
by increases the contact below even soil and
Microbes have an immense adaptability, because of
groundwater.
which these can be used to degrade or remediate
environmental hazards. The main requirements are an Advantages of Bioremediation
energy source and a carbon source. Although the
1. Bioremediation is a perceived by the public as an
microorganisms are present in contaminated soil, they
acceptable water treatment process. Microbes able
cannot necessarily be there in the numbers required for
bioremediation of the site. So therefore growth and activity to degrade contaminants increase in number when
must be stimmlated. the contaminant is present The residues are usually
harmless including carbon dioxide water and cell
Types of Bioremediation biomass.
Different techniques are employed depending on the 2. Polluted soil groundwater can be cleaned at the site
degree of saturation and aeration of an area to successfully without having to move them somewhere else. This
remove the contaminants from the soil. allows clean up workers to avoid contact with
(i) IN SITU techniques are defined as those that are polluted soil and groundwater.
applied to soil and ground water at the site with 3. It prevents the release of harmful gases into the air.
minimal disturbance. Instead of transferring the contaminants from one
(ii) EX SITU techniques are those that are applied to soil medium to another the complete destruction of
and ground water at the site which has been removed target pollutants is possible.
from the site via excavation (soil) or pumping for 4. Bioremediation can prove less expensive that other
water. technologies that are used for cleanup of hazardous
There are four basic methods employed for the water, as it does not require as much equipments or
process of bioremediation. skilled labours.
(i) Biostimulation: It involves supplying oxygen and
Disadvantages of Bioremediation
nutrients by circulating aqueous solutions through
contaminated soils to stimulate naturally occurring 1. Bioremediation is limited to those compounds that
bacteria to degrade organic contaminants. It can be are biodegradable. Not all compounds are
used for soil and groundwater. The disappearance of susceptible to rapid and complete degradation.
contaminants is monitored to insure that remediation 2. Biological processes are often highly specific.
occurs. important site factors required for success, include
(ii) Bioaugmentation: Microorganisms that can chain up presence of capable microbes, environmental
a particular contaminant are added to the conditions and levels of nutrients and contaminants.

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3. It often takes longer time than other treatment has proved to be very useful in extracting Gold, Copper
options. and Uranium. About 20% of the World’s Copper is obtained
4. Research is needed to develop engineer by this process. Thermophyllic bacteria can also leach
bioremediation technologies that are appropriate for Nickel, Zinc and Cobalt, but this method has proven to be
sites with complex mixtures of contaminants that are uneconomical. A lot of research is being carried out for
not evenly dispersed in the environment. the economic viability of this process because Nickel and
Contaminants may be present as solids, liquids or Cobalt are used to alloy steel and Zinc is used to alloy
gases. Magnesium.
The microorganism which are used for bioleaching
Phytoremediation are Thiobacillus ferrooxidans, Lepto-Spirillum ferrooxidans,
Vegetation based remediation shows potential for Thiobacillus thio-oxidans, Sulfolobus, Acidiphilium,
accumulating immobilizing, and transforming a low level Sulfobacillus, Ascidians and many others. The advantage
of persistent contaminants. In natural ecosystems, plants of using these microorganism is that they can tolerate acids
act as filters and metabolize substances generated by and metabolize sulfur. The process of bioleaching are used
nature. extensively in ores containing sulfur because the bacteria
Phytoremediation is an emerging technology that can feed on sulfur.
uses plants to remove contaminants from soil and water
Advantages of Bioleaching
to clean up the environment. This technology is
comparatively new and thus requires a lot of research in 1. Economical: It is generally simpler and therefore
the area. There are five types of phytoremediation cheaper to operate and maintain, than traditional
techniques. They are: processes, since fewer specialists are needed to
operate complex chemical plants.
1. Phytoextraction: Plants accumulate the
contaminants into the roots and above ground into 2. Environmental: The process is more environmentally
the shoots or leaves. This process produces a mass friendly than traditional extraction methods. For the
of plants and contaminants (usually metals) that can company this can translate into profit, since the
be recycled or disposed. necessary limiting of sulphur dioxide emissions
during smelting is expensive. Less landscape damage
2. Phytotransformation: This process deals with the
occurs, since the bacteria involved grow naturally,
uptake of organic contaminants from the soil,
and the mine and surrounding area can be left
sediments or water and transfers it into less toxic
relatively untouched. As the bacteria breed in the
form.
conditions of the mine, they are easily cultivated and
3. Phytotstabilization: This technique reduces the recycled.
mobility of contaminated soil. Leachable
contaminants are absorbed and bound to the plant Disadvantages of Bioleaching
structure.
1. Economical: The bacterial leaching is very slow
4. Phytodegradation: This technique involves the compared to smelting. This brings in less profit as
breakdown of contaminants due to the presence of well as introduces a significant delay in cash flow for
proteins and enzymes produced by plants or by soil new plants.
organism such as bacteria, yeast and fungi.
2. Environmental: Toxic chemicals are sometimes
5. Rhizofiltration: This is a water remediation technique produced in the process. A sulphuric acid and Per
that involves the uptake of contaminants by the roots ions which have been formed can leak into the
of the plants. This technique is used to reduce the ground and surface water turning it acidic, causing
contamination in natural wetlands. environmental damage. Heavy ions such as iron, zinc
and arsenic leak during acid mine drainage. When
Bio Leaching
the pH of this solution rises, as a result of dilution by
Bioleaching is a process in which the microorganisms are fresh water, these ions precipitate, forming
used to extract metals from low grade ores. This method “yellowbody” pollution.

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Bio Methanation Factors Affecting the Rate of Digestion
The production and disposal of large quantities of organic 1. Temperature is the most important factor affecting
and biodegradable waste without proper treatment leads the rate of digestion. The optimum temperature
to environmental potation. Some wastes are treated by being 36.7°C (mesophilic) and 54.4°C (Thermophilic).
aeration (conventional method). The anaerobic treatment In the thermophilic range, decomposition and biogas
leads to the degradation of organic wastes to produce production is faster than the mesophitic range.
carbondioxide and methane. This process has greater However the advantage of mesophilic range over
economic viability and more environmental benefits. thermophilic range is that it is less sensitive to change
Thus Biomethanation is defined as conversion of in operating condition.
organic matter in the waste either solid or liquid to 2. PH is another important factor although it is self
Biomethane (also referred as biogas) and manure by the regulating in most of the cases. When the waste has
action of the microbes in the absence of air (anaerobic too much ‘green’ or is rich in Nitrogen, bicarbonate
condition). of soda is added to regulate the pH.
The anaerobic processes could either occur naturally 3. A Carbon/Nitrogen ratio should be between 20/1 to
or in a controlled environment (biogas plant). Organic 30/1. If the nitrogen content is high, water should be
waste such as livestock manure and various types of added to regulate the nitrogen content
bacteria (Methanobervibacter and Methano bacterium 4. Antibiotics in livestock have been known to kill the
fhermoautotrophicum) are put in an air tight container anaerobic bacteria., making the retention time an
(digester) producing approximately 55-75% methane by important factor.
anaerobic process.
Biogas produced in the anaerobic digester consists Use of Effluent from the Biogas Digesters
of methane (50% - 80%), carbondioxide (20% - 50%) and The effluent from the digester also known as the sludge is
other gases such as Hydrogen, Carbonmonoxide, Nitrogen, rich in ammonia, phosphorous, potassium and many other
Oxygen, Hydrogen sulfide in traces. The relative amount trace elements. The sludge can be used as a solid
of the gases produced depend on the feed material and conditioner for livestock feed additive (when dried). Any
efficiency of the process. On burning a cubic foot (0.028 toxic compound (pesticides etc.) that are in the digester
m3) of biogas yields about 10 BTU (2.52 k cal) of heat per feedstock may become concentrated and come out with
percentage of methane composition. For example biogas the sludge. Hence effluent testing becomes very important
consisting of 55% of methane yields 550 BTU per cubic foot. prior to its use.

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 CHAPTER

6
ISSUES OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS

Environmental concerns are given utmost priority in ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It
today’s world. The main concerns on this topic lingers on contains within it two key concepts:
the following­  the concept of needs, in particular the essential needs
1. Sustainable Development of the world’s poor, to which overriding priority
2. Climate Change and Global Warming should be given; and
3. Ozone Layer Depletion  the idea of limitations imposed by the state of
A brief description of the above have been short listed technology and social organization on the
below­ environment’s ability to meet present and future
needs.”
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT All definitions of sustainable development require
that we see the world as a system—a system that connects
The concept of sustainable development was largely space; and a system that connects time.
developed by the World Commission on Environment and
Sustainable development is a development that
Development, more commonly known as the Brundlandt
provides economic, social and environmental benefits in
Commission in 1987. The main objectives of sustainable
the long term, having regard to the needs of living and
development are reviving growth, changing the quality of
growth, meeting essential needs for jobs, food, energy, future generations. Thus, the main objective is the
water and sanitation, conserving and ‘ enhancing the satisfaction of human needs and aspirations. It consider
resource base, reorienting technology and managing risk both the living and non­living resource bases with regard
and merging environment and economics in decision for conservation and the advantages and disadvantages of
making. According to the commission’s document “Our alternative courses of action for future generations. It calls
common Future”, sustainable development is defined as: for, more emphasis on conserving natural resources
“A dynamic process designed to meet today’s needs efficiently, a planning horizon that goes beyond the needs
without compromising the ability of future generations to of the present generation and a greater regard for equity
meet their own needs”. within society, with special regards to the poor.
It requires societies to meet human needs by
What is Sustainable Development? increasing production potential and ensuring equitable
Sustainable development has been defined in many ways, economic, social and political opportunities for all. Thus,
but the most frequently quoted definition is from Our sustainable development is a process of change in which
Common Future, also known as the Brundtland Report: resource ­ use, economic policies, technical development
“Sustainable development is development that and population growth are in harmony and enhance
meets (he needs of the present without compromising the current and future potential for human progress.
A manish Singh Sir’s Initiative ENVIRONMENT
United Nations Conference On Sustainable develop a set of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs),
Development - Or Rio+20 which will build upon the Millennium Development Goals
and converge with the post 2015 development agenda . It
The United Nations Conference on Sustainable
was decided establish an “ inclusive and transparent
Development ­ or Rio+20 ­ took place in Rio de Janeiro,
intergovernmental process open to all stakeholders, with
Brazil on 20­22 June 2012. It resulted in a focused political
a view to developing global sustainable development goals
outcome document which contains clear and practical
to be agreed by the General Assembly”.
measures for implementing sustainable development.
In the Rio+20 outcome document, member States
In Rio, Member States decided to launch a process
agreed that sustainable development goais (SDGs) must:
to develop a set of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs),
which will build upon the Millenium Development Goals 1. Be based on Agenda 21 and the Johannesburg plan
(MDGs)and converge with the post 2015 development of Implementation.
agenda. The Conference also adopted ground­breaking 2. Fully respect all the Rio Principles.
guidelines on green economy policies. 3. Be consistent with international law.
Governments also decided to establish an 4. Build upon commitments already made.
intergovernmental process under the General Assembly 5. Contribute to the full implementation of the
to prepare options on a strategy for sustainable outcomes of all major summits in the economic,
development financing. Governments also agreed to social and environmental fields.
strengthen the United Nations Environment Programme
6. Focus on priority areas for the achievement of
on several fronts with action to be taken during the 67th
sustainable development, being guided by the
session of the General Assembly. They also agreed to
outcome document.
establish a high level political forum for sustainable
development. Decisions on its detailed form are expected 7. Address and incorporate in a balanced way all three
to be taken during the upcoming session of the General dimensions of sustainable development and their
Assembly, with the aim of having the first session of the interlinkages.
forum at the beginning of the 68th session of the Assembly. 8. Be coherent with and integrated into the United
Governments also requested the United Nations Statistical Nations development agenda beyond 2015.
Commission, in consultation with relevant United Nations 9. Not divert focus or effort from the achievement of
system entities and other relevant organizations, to launch the Millennium Development Goals.
a programme of work in the area of measures of progress 10. Include active involvement of all relevant
to complement gross domestic product in order to better stakeholders, as appropriate, in the process.
inform policy decisions.
It was further agreed that SDGs must be:
Governments also adopted the 10­year framework
 Action­oriented
of programmes on sustainable consumption and
production patterns and invited the General Assembly, at  Limited in number
its sixty­seventh session, to designate a Member State body  Concise
to take any necessary steps to fully operationalize the  Aspirations
framework.
 Easy to communicate
The Conference also took forward­looking decisions
 Global in nature
on a number of thematic areas, including energy, food
security, oceans, cities. The Rio +20 Conference resulted Universally applicable to all countries while taking
in over 700 voluntary commitments and witnessed the into account different national realities, capacities and
formation of new partnerships to advance sustainable levels of development and respecting national policies and
development. priorities.
The outcome document further specifies that the
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) development of SDGs should:
One of the main outcomes of the Rio+20 Conference was  Be useful for pursuing focused and coherent
the agreement by member States to launch a process to action on sustainable development.
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 Contribute to the achievement of sustainable objectives.
development An intergovernmental committee, comprising 30
 Serve as a driver for implementation and experts nominated by regional groups, with equitable
mainstreaming of sustainable development in geographical representation, will implement this process,
the UN system as a whole concluding its work by 2014.
 Address and be focused on priority areas for
the achievement of sustainable development
Failures And Controversies
The Rio+20 outcome document The Future We Want The summit has been criticized for failing to set concrete
resolved to establish an inclusive and transparent targets. The Summit failed to address the most crucial
intergovernmental process on SDGs that is open to all point, the growth of the human population. Ignoring this
stakeholders with a view to developing global sustainable point will place an ever­greater strain upon resources,
development goals to be agreed by the UNGA. The produce more pollution and ultimately threaten the
outcome document mandated the creation of an inter­ environment for the survival of all living things.
governmental Open Working Group, that will submit a Johannesburg became a battleground as countries and
report to the 68th session of the General Assembly participants slugged it out on such crucial issues as “targets
containing a proposal for sustainable development goals and time­frames”, “common but differentiated
for consideration and appropriate action. The outcome responsibilities”, “new and additional finance”, “good
document specifies that the process leading to the SDGs governance”, “corporate responsibility” and trade and
needs to be coordinated and coherent with the processes globalisation.
considering the post 2015 development agenda and that To make business and trade the driving force of
initial input to the work of the Open Working Group will sustainable development, several Type­II partnerships
be provided by the UNSG in consultation with national were announced at the WSSD. These initiatives, criticized
governments. widely as a regressive outcome, fall outside the binding
commitments of the U.N., and dilute the process of
The Future We Want multilateral agreements, which were central to the Rio
The outcome document of the United Nations Conference Conference. It was highlighted by many that the original
on Sustainable Development (Rio+20) “The future We purpose of this summit has been hijacked by corporate
Want” recognizes the need for significant mobilization of interests. Some of the most environmentally destructive
resources from a variety of sources and the effective use corporations have emerged as partners of the U.N., and
of financing, in order to give strong support to developing are permitted to operate without binding rules or
countries in their efforts to promote sustainable regulations to curtail their destructive habits.
development, including through actions undertaken in As negotiators at the World Summit on Sustainable
accordance with the outcome of the United Nations Development in Johannesburg try to tackle poverty and
Conference on Sustainable Development and for achieving save the environment, heads of state from South Asia have
sustainable development goals. been notable by their absence. South Asia is one of the
In this regard, Heads of State and Government have regions most affected by the problems of environmental
agreed to establish an intergovernmental process under degradation, population growth, poverty and poor
the auspices of the General Assembly, with technical sanitation. Officials from the region have argued that it
support from the United Nations system. The process will was not convenient for their heads of state to attend. Their
be carried out in open and broad consultation with relevant absence has provoked criticism and questions about
international and regional financial institutions and other whether South Asia has lost its voice in the environmental
relevant stakeholders to assess financing needs, consider debate.
the effectiveness, consistency and synergies of existing
instruments and frameworks, and evaluate additional Other Initiatives In This Field
initiatives, with a view to preparing a report proposing
Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD)
options on an effective sustainable development financing
strategy to facilitate the mobilization of resources and their The 19th Session of the UN Commission on Sustainable
effective use in achieving sustainable development Development (CSD­19) was held at the UN Headquarters

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UPSC IAS GURU TEAM
A manish Singh Sir’s Initiative ENVIRONMENT
in New York from 2nd­13th May, 2011. The Commission 2. To facilitate planning and implementation of
on Sustainable Development was created as an outcome programmes and projects to address desertification,
of the Rio Earth Summit in 1992, and its mandate land degradation and drought (DLDD) in the dryland
reaffirmed and expanded in the 2002 Johannesburg Plan areas, specially through sustainable land & ecosystem
of Implementation. In its eleventh session, it was decided management (SLEM).
that the CSD’s multi­year programme of work beyond 2003
would be organized on the basis of seven two­year cycles, Regulatory Acts/Rules Governing The
with each cycle focusing on selected thematic clusters of
Programme And Promulagation Of New Acts
issues. CSD­19 was the final year of the 4th cycle, and its
thematic focus areas were transport, mining, chemicals, The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
waste management, and a 10 year framework of (UNCCD) is one of the three Rio Conventions that focuses
programmes on sustainable consumption and production on Desertification, Land Degradation and Drought (DLDD).
patterns. Inter­linkages and cross cutting issues were also ‘Desertification’ as defined in the UNCCD refers to land
on the agenda. degradation in the drylands (arid, semi arid and dry sub
humid regions) resulting from various factors and does not
International Centre for Integrated Mountain Devel- connote spread or expansion of deserts.
opment (ICIMOD)
UNCCD with 194 Parties recognized land degradation
The interaction and collaboration between ICTMOD and
as an important factor affecting some of the most
the Government of India and among the national partners
vulnerable people and ecosystems in the world. The
took place through the Strategic Programmes and Action
Areas of ICIMOD, being within the ambit of the convention aims at adaption and can, on implementation,
Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) signed by the significantly contribute to achieving the millennium
GBPIHED, on behalf of the Ministry of Environment and Development Goals (MDGs), as well as sustainable
Forests, Government of India, with ICIMOD, Kathmandu, development and poverty reduction by means of arresting
on the 25th September, 2008. The major highlight of 2011 and reversing land degradation.
collaboration was the organization of ‘India ICIMOD Day’
The convention promotes Sustainable Land
on 30th September, 2011 at New Delhi, which acted as a
Management (SLM) as solution to global challenges. Land
boost by providing an opportunity for the eminent experts,
G.B.Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and degradation is longterm loss of ecosystem function and
Development (GBPIHED) and other partner Institutions productivity caused by disturbances from which the land
and ICIMOD professionals to interact and share their cannot recover unaided. While Sustainable Land
experiences. Management is focused on changes in land cover/land use
Other major programs include developing in order to maintain and enhance ecosystems functions
entrepreneurship in value­chains of Cinnamomum tamala and services.
(Indian Bay Leaf); linking poor producers to markets for As the Convention enters its second decade, the
essential oils and spices which is completed. Efforts are
Parties unanimously adopted the 10­year strategic plan and
being made to obtain support for comanagement of
framework to enhance the implementation of the
rangeland activities in Ladakh, through Chang Tang
Foundation. ICIMOD with its partners in India and other Convention for 2008­2018 (The Strategy) at COPS, held in
countries operationalized a landscape management project Madrid in September 2007. The Strategy provides a unique
in Kailash Sacred Landscape area. opportunity to address some of the Convention’s key
challenges, to capitalize on its strengths, to seize
United Nations Convention To Combat opportunities provided by the new policy and financing
Desertification environment, and to create a new, revitalized common
The objective of the division is two fold: ground for all UNCCD stakeholders, The Strategy contains
1. To implement policies and promote policy Initiatives the “strategic objectives” to be achieved over the 10 years,
related to minimize land degradation in dryland and the “operational objectives” that guide the actions of
areas. short and medium­term effects.
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INDIAN STAND ON UN CONVENTION TO of India (GOI) and the Global Environmental Facility (GEF),
COMBAT DESERTIFICATION under the latter’s Country Partnership Programme (CPP).
The objective of SLEM Programmatic Approach is to
India became a signatory to the United Nations Convention
“promote sustainable land management and use of
to Combat Desertification on 14th October, 1994 and
biodiversity as well as maintain the capacity of ecosystems
ratified it on 17th December, 1996. With about 32% of its
to deliver goods and services’. Under this SLEM
land being affected by land degradation, India has high
Programmatic Approach, seven projects have been
stakes and stands strongly committed to implementing the
formulated, and are under various stages of
UNCCD. The Ministry of Environment and Forests is the
implementation.
nodal Ministry in the Government of India for the UNCCD,
and Desertification cell is the nodal point within the
Ministry to coordinate all issues pertaining to the
convention. Additionally, India is also the Chair of the Asia
CLIMATE CHANGE AND
Group of countries party to UNCCD. GLOBAL WARMING
Though India does not have a specific policy or legislative
Climate change is a global phenomenon but adversely
framework for combating desertification as such, the
affects developing countries particularly as their capacity
concern for arresting and reversing land degradation and
and resources to deal with the challenge is limited. India
desertification gets reflected in many of our national
policies which have enabling provisions for addressing
is already vulnerable to a large degree of climate variability.
these problems. It is also implicit in the goals of Sustainable Studies indicate that climate change may exacerbate the
Forest Management (SFM), sustainable agriculture, problem of existing climate variability in India. It is
Sustainable Land Management (SLM) and the overarching projected that, by the end of 21st century, rainfall in India
goal of sustainable development which the country has. may increase by 15­40% with high regional variability.
been pursuing. The subject has in fact been engaging the Warming may be more pronounced over land areas with
attention of our planners and policy makers since the northern India experiencing maximum increase. The
inception of planning. The first five year plan (1951­1956) warming could be relatively greater in winter and post­
had ‘land rehabilitation’ as one of the thrust areas, hi the monsoon seasons.
subsequent plans too, high priority has been consistently
attached to development of the drylands. Where it is leading?
It is worth noting that India occupies only 2.4% of the Climate changes characterized as global warming are
world’s geographical area, yet supports about 16.7% of leading to large­scale irreversible effects at continental and
the world’s human population; it has only 0.5% of the global scales. The likelihood, magnitude, and timing is
world’s grazing land but supports 18% of the world’s cattle
observed to be increasing and accelerating. Many
population. Thus there is tremendous pressure on our
projected consequences of global warming once thought
land­ based natural resources, and sustainable land
controversial, are now being observed. The IPCC reports
management is crucial for sustainable development and
also our progress towards attaining the MDG goals that the effects of global warming will be mixed across
including poverty alleviation. regions. For smaller values of warming (1 to 3ºC), changes
India formulated and submitted in 2001 a National Action are expected to produce net benefits in some regions and
Programme (NAP) to combat desertification, in accordance for some activities, and net costs for others. Greater
with the Convention (UNCCD). A broad roadinap to warming may produce net costs in all regions. Developing
combating desertification, NAP recognizes the multi­ countries are vulnerable to reduced economic growth as
sectoral nature of the task, in view of the fact that many a result of global warming.
of the drivers of desertification have cross cutting Most of the consequences of global warming would
dimensions. As for instance, poverty of the masses has result from physical changes like sea level rise, higher local
long been known to be a key driver of desertification and temperatures, and changes in rainfall patterns, but
land degradation, which needs to addressed. synergistic effects such as the release of methane hydrates
To address the issues of DLDD and build synergy with other or clathrates and forests and species die­off may cause
RIO conventions (UNFCCC & CBD), the Sustainable Land many unforeseen impacts such as a decrease in the levels
and Ecosystem Management Country Partnership of oxygen in the Earth’s atmosphere. Most scientists
Program (SLBM CPP) was developed. The SLEM believe that the warming of the climate will lead to more
Programme is a joint initiative between the Government extreme weather patterns such as:
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A manish Singh Sir’s Initiative ENVIRONMENT
 Heat Spells: Extreme temperatures and heat spells system has a number of glacial lakes. These lakes are
have already become common over Northern India, formed by displacement of transverse and longitudinal
often causing human fatalities. In 1998 alone, 650 crevasses, rapid melting of glacial ice and high precipitation
deaths occurred in Orissa due to heat waves. and seismicity.
 Storms/Cyclones: India’s 7,517 km coastline will be
particularly hard­hit by storm surges and sea­level Agriculture
rise displacing millions, flooding low­lying areas, and Food production in India is still considerably dependent
damaging economic assets and infrastructure. The on the rainfall quantity and its distribution, which is highly
super­cyclone of 1999 wreaked havoc in Orissa, variable, both spatially and temporally. In the past fifty
knocking decades off its development and claiming years, there have been around 15 major droughts, due to
more than 30,000 human lives which the productivity of rain­fed crops in drought years
 Rainfall: Climate change has had an effect on the was adversely affected. Limited options of alternative
monsoons too. India is heavily dependent on the livelihoods and widespread poverty continue to threaten
monsoon to meet its agricultural and water needs, livelihood security of millions of small and marginal farmers
and also for protecting and propagating its rich in the rain­fed agriculture region. Food security of India
biodiversity. Subtle changes have already been noted may be at risk in the future due to the threat of climate
in the monsoon rain patterns by scientists who also change leading to an increase in the frequency and
warn that by the 2050s, India will experience decline intensity of droughts and floods, thereby affecting
in its summer rainfall.. which accounts for almost 70 production of small and marginal farms. Simulations using
per cent of the total annual rainfall and is crucial to dynamic crop models, having the flexibility to
agriculture. independently assess the impacts of temperature rise and
CO2 increase on crop production, indicate a decrease in
 Melting of glaciers causing sea level rise & flooding:
yield of crops as temperature increases in different parts
According to International Centre for Integrated
of India.
Mountain Development (IC1MOD), Himalayan
glaciers could disappear within 50 years because of There is a need for developing and implementing
climate change, with far­reaching implications for adaptation strategies to minimize the possible adverse
more than a billion people in India. The Earth’s impacts. Further, there is a need to study and identify forest
temperature has increased by an average of 0.740C policies, programmes and silvicultural practices that
over the past 100 years. It is believed that global contribute to the vulnerability of forest ecosystems to
warming has pushed up the temperature of the climate change. Globally, about 1,900 Mha. of land is
Himalayas by up to 0.60C in the past 30 years. Ice affected by land degradation. Climate change, leading to
melt’s share in sea level rise is increasing, and will warming and water stress could further exacerbate land
accelerate if the larger ice sheets crumble. As degradation, leading to desertification. It is important to
mountain glaciers shrink, large regions that rely on note that the climate sensitive sectors (forests, agriculture,
glacial runoff for water supply could experience ceastal zones) and the natural resources (groundwater, soil,
severe shortages. biodiversity, etc.) are already under major stress due to
As glaciers retreat, water flows are expected to be socio­economic pressures. Climate change is likely to
affected during the dry season, leading to freshwater exacerbate the degradation of resources and
scarcity in the summer months when melt waters socioeconomic pressures. Thus India, with a large
contribute up to 75 per cent of the river water. In the population dependent on climate sensitive sectors and low
Ganga, one of the two biggest rivers in India, the loss of adaptive capacity will have to develop and implement
glacier melt water is expected to impact downstream water adaptation strategies.
flows, causing water stress for several million people and
also affect the irrigated land in the Ganga basin. Coastal Regions
In Indian Himalaya Region (IHR), Gangotri glacier, the Future climate change in the coastal zones is likely to be
largest ice mass in the Ganga basin, is receding and manifested through worsening of some of the existing
shrinking at an unsustainable rate. The Gangotri glacier coastal zone problems. Some of the main climate related

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 ENVIRONMENT An effort of Team EG
concerns in the context of Indian coastal zones are erosion, The precipitation decline and droughts in most delta
flooding, submergence and deterioration of coastal regions of India have resulted in the drying up of wetlands
ecosystems such as mangroves and salinization. In many and severe degradation of ecosystems. In some regions,
cases, these problems are either caused by, or exacerbated the remaining natural flood plains are disappearing at an
by, sea level rise and tropical cyclones. The key climate accelerating rate, primarily as a result of changes in land
related risks in the coastal zone include tropical cyclones, use and hydrological cycle, particularly changes hi stream­
sea level rise and changes in temperature and precipitation. flows due to climatic and human related factors.
A rise in the sea level is likely to have significant According to 1PCC, the most threatened flood plains
implications on the coastal population and agricultural will be those in South Asia. Evidence of the impacts of
performance of India. An one metre rise in sea level is climate­related factors on mangroves remains limited to
projected to displace approximately 7.1 million people in the severe destruction of mangroves due to reduction of
India and about 5,764 sq. km. of land area will be lost, freshwater flows and salt water intrusion in the Indus delta
along with 4,200 km of roads. The diverse impacts, and Bangladesh. In addition, around 30 per cent of Asia’s
expected as a result of sea level rise, include land loss and coral reefs are likely to be lost in the next 30 years due to
population displacement, increased flooding of low lying multiple stresses and climate change.
coastal areas and loss of yield and employment resulting The higher impact will be on the Savannah biomes,
from inundation and salinization. Teak and Sal forests of Central and East India and the
Damage to coastal infrastructure, aquaculture and temperate biomes of the Himalayas. Moist and dry
coastal tourism, due to the erosion of sandy beaches, is Savannahs are likely to be replaced by tropical dry forests
also likely. The extent of vulnerability, however, depends and seasonal forests. By 2050, significant impact will be
not just on the physical exposure to sea level rise and the witnessed. The impact will be lower on the evergreen rain
population affected, but also on the extent of economic forests of the Western Ghats and the North­East
activity of the areas and capacity to cope with impacts. Composition of spscies and their dominance could also be
altered, and large­scale forest depletion and loss of
Water Resources biodiversity are likely to mark the beginning of the bleak
Water resources will come under increasing pressure in scenario.
the Indian subcontinent due to the changing climate.
Presently, more than 45 per cent of the average annual WHAT IS AN ECO-SENSITIVE ZONE?
rainfall, including snowfall in the country, is wasted as
natural run­off to the sea. Rainwater harvesting schemes Eco­Sensitive Zones (ESZs) are peripheral areas around
are now being implemented in the country to minimize Protected Areas tint are considered ecologically fragile
this run­off loss based on present rainfall scenarios over enough to justify some regulation of human activities. The
the country, to increase groundwater levels. ESZ is a kind of transition zone or a ‘shock absorber’ for
the protected area. If unrestricted developmental activities
However, for the success of these schemes it is
are allowed around a protected area, it will become almost
necessary that we focus on how climate change will affect
impossible to ‘protect’ it.
the intensity, spatial and temporal variability of the rainfall,
evaporation rates and temperature in different agro­ In 2011, MoEFCC published the revised ‘Guidelines
for the Declaration of Eco­ Sensitive Zones around National
climatic regions and river basins of India.
Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries.’ According to Mol ,I CC, ‘The
Changing Ecosystem basic aim is to regulate certain activities around National
Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries so as to minimize the
Ecosystems will be particularly vulnerable to climate
negative impacts of such activities on the fragile ecosystem
change, with a study estimating that between 15 and 40
encompassing the protected areas.’
per cent of species will face extinction, with 2ºC of
warming. The impact of climate change would be Some of the important guidelines are:
particularly adverse on the forests, wetlands and coastal  Delineation of ESZ would be site­specific and decided
regions. locally as per the guidelines.

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A manish Singh Sir’s Initiative ENVIRONMENT
 Every state should constitute a committee comprising Controversy: Eco-Sensitive Zone for the
the wildlife warden, an ecologist and a revenue Western Ghats
department official of the area concerned to suggest
In 2010, MoEFCC set up the Western Ghats Ecology Expert
the requirement of an eco­sensitive zone and its
Panel (WGEEP), under the chairmanship of Prof. Madhav
extent.
Gadgil. The Panel’s main tasks were to:
 It is prerequisite that an inventory of different land­  Assess the current status of ecology of the Western
use patterns and the different types of activities, Ghats region.
types, and number of industries operating around  Demarcate areas within the Western Ghats Region,
each of the protected areas be made. which need to be notified as ecologically sensitive
 In general, the ESZ could extend up to 10 km around and to recommend for notification of such areas as
the protected area, but this could vary from site to ecologically sensitive zones.
site.  Make recommendations for the conservation,
 The area could extend more than 10 km in the case protection and rejuvenation of the Western Ghats
of sensitive corridors and ecologically important Region.
patches. The width of ESZ need not be uniform  Recommend the modalities for the establishment of
around the periphery of the protected area. Western Ghats Ecology Authority under the
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, which will be a
 The control of activities in an ESZ would be, in general,
professional body to manage the ecology of the
regulatory rather than prohibitory, unless and
region and to ensure its sustainable development
otherwise so required.
with the support of all concerned states.
 Human activities within the ESZ could be categorized The major recommendations of WGEEP were:
as permissible, restricted with safeguards and
 Designate the entire Western Ghats as an Ecologically
prohibited. Sensitive Area (ESA).
 Prohibited activities would include commercial  Assign three levels of Ecological Sensitivity to different
mining, setting up saw mills and industries causing regions, termed as Ecologically Sensitive Zone 1
pollution, commercial use of firewood, major hydro­ (ESZ1), Ecologically Sensitive Zone 2 (ESZ2) and
power projects, tourist activities like, flying over the Ecologically Sensitive Zone 3 (ESZ3).
protected areas in an aircraft or in a hot air balloon,  Implement regulatory as well as promotional
and discharge of effluents and solid waste in natural measures appropriately fine­tuned to local ecological
water bodies or terrestrial areas. and social contexts within the broad framework of
 The regulated activities would include felling of trees, ESZ1, ESZ2 and ESZ3.
drastic change in agriculture systems, commercial use  No new dams based on large scale storage be
of natural water resources (including groundwater permitted in ESZ1.
harvesting), and setting up of hotels and resorts.  Indefinite moratorium on new environmental
 Activities permitted would include ongoing clearances for mining in ESZ1 and ESZ2, phasing out
agriculture and horticulture practices by local of mining in ESZ1 by 2016, and continuation of
communities, rainwater harvesting, organic farming, existing mining in ESZ2 under strict regulation.
adopting green technology, and using renewable  No new polluting industries, which would include
energy sources. coal­based power plants, should be permitted to be
established in ESZ1 and ESZ2.
 The proposal for ESZ should be sent to MoEFCC for
MoEFCCsat on the document for months, refusing to
processing and final notification.
release it even for public discussion. Finally, the Delhi High
Eco­Sensitive Zones are notified and regulated under Court directed the government to take action on the
the relevant section of the Environment (Protection) Act, recommendations. Then, MoEFCC set up another High­
1986. Level Working Group (HLWG) under the chairmanship of
It is not easy to notify and implement an ESZ, Dr. Kasturirangan, to suggest an all­round and holistic
especially if we wish to protect a large area. A case in point approach for sustainable and equitable development while
is the controversy over notifying an ESZ for the Western keeping in focus the preservation and conservation of
Ghats. ecological systems in Western Ghats.

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The HLWG Report made the following main points and deciduous category of forests, expansion of grass lands,
recommendations: lead to forest fragmentation and raise frequency of forest
 Out of the estimated 1,64,280 sq. km of the Western­ fires. All these can cause significant changes in fauna!
Ghats area, the natural landscape constitutes only species distribution, demography and composition.
41%. The area identified as ecologically sensitive is
about 37%, i.e., about 90% of the natural landscape. Human Health
 About 60,000 sq. km of natural landscape Climate changes observed over India in the last 100 years
(approximately 37% of the total geographical area of show an increasing trend in surface temperature by 0.3ºC,
Western Ghats Region) has been identified as a change in the spatial pattern of rainfall and occurrence
Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA). of more intense and frequent extreme temperature,
 There will be a prohibitory and regulatory regime in rainfall and cyclone events. As a result, there is growing
ESA for those activities with maximum interventionist concern about the changing pattern over the years of some
and destructive impact on the ecosystem. of the diseases that are directly influenced by the variable
 There will be a complete ban on mining, quarrying climate. Changes in the climate may affect vector borne
and sand mining in ESA. diseases in several ways, namely, their survival and
 No thermal power projects should be allowed in ESA. reproduction rates, the intensity and temporal pattern of
Hydropower projects may be allowed but subject to vector activity and the rates of development, survival and
conditions. reproduction of pathogens within vectors.
 All ‘Red’ category industries should be strictly banned Applying the same criteria as under the climate
in ESA.
change conditions in the 2050s, it is projected that Malaria
Both the reports were sharply criticized by both pro­ is likely to persist in Orissa, West Bengal and Southern parts
development groups and environmentalists. The state of Assam, bordering North of West Bengal. However, it
governments were also against the reports, since they did
may shift from the central Indian region to the South
not want any developmental projects to be stalled or
Western coastal states of Maharashtra, Kamataka and
cancelled. Environmentalists said that HLWG Report was
Kerala. Also the Northern states, including Himachal
anti­environment compared to the WGEEP Report.
Pradesh, may become Malaria prone in the future climate
And so the debate went on, the government changed and
change regime. The duration of the transmission window
both the reports have been shelved. The destruction of
is likely to widen in Northern and Western states and
the Western Ghats goes on without any hindrance.
shorten in the Southern states.

Biodiversity Response Measures Initiated By India

The impact of global warming on biodiversity has emerged India has undertaken numerous response measures that
as an active area in contemporary conservation biology are contributing to the objectives of the United Nations
research and it is extremely important for a country like Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
India, where community dependence on forests is very high India’s development plans balance economic development
and climate change can have much worse impact than and environmental concerns. The planning process is
expected or predicted on biodiversity of forest ecosystems. guided by the principles of sustainable development.
In the Indian scenario, the two important measures of Reforms in the energy and power sector have accelerated
climate change which have direct and significant impact economic growth and enhance the efficiency of energy
on the biodiversity are the variation in precipitation and use. These have been complemented by notable initiatives
temperature. taken by the private sector. In the last few years, several
The increase in precipitation can change the nature measures relating to environmental issues have been
of the forest in terms of the floral species dominance, introduced. They have targeted a significant increase in
canopy cover, forest dynamics etc. It can rebuild the the capacity of renewable energy installations, improving
connections between fragmented ecosystems, support the air quality in major cities (the world’s largest fleet of
forest areas to encroach in to grasslands, alter tree species vehicles fuelled by compressed natural gas has been
dominance and thereby change the forest class. Vice­versa, introduced in New Delhi) and enhancing afforestation.
reduction in precipitation can support a shift towards Other similar measures have been implemented by
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A manish Singh Sir’s Initiative ENVIRONMENT
committing additional resources and realigning new a. Hydropower: The government’s policy objective is
investments, thus steering economic development onto a to exploit the huge potential in India’s North­East. At
climate­friendly path. present, about 25 per cent of the total installed
capacity is accounted for by hydro. The total installed
Sectoral Initiatives capacity of small hydropower projects is 1,423 MW.
1. Coal b. Solar Energy: This includes the following­
Coal is, and will remain, the mainstay of commercial energy  Photovoltaic (PV) systems based on solar energy have
production in India in the near future. To ensure more been put to a variety of uses in rural electrification,
efficient use of coal, the following measures have been railway signaling, microwave repeaters, power
taken : to border outposts and TV transmission and
reception.
 Rationalization of coal use
 Participation of private sector encouraged  Grid­connected PV power plants with an aggregate
capacity of 1900 KWp (Kilowattpeak) have been set
 Reforms in pricing
up for demand­side management or tail­end voltage
 Technology upgradation involving coal­washing,
support.
improvements in combustion technology and the
recovery of coal­bed methane.  A140 MW Integrated Solar Combined Cycle (ISCC)
plant is being set up, based on solar thermal
2. Oil technology and liquefied natural gas.
To promote fuel efficiency and conservation, the following  Solar lanterns, home and street­lighting systems,
measures have been undertaken: standalone power plants, and pumping systems are
 Reduction of gas­flaring being promoted.
 Installation of waste heat recovery systems c. Wind Energy: India is among the five leading nations
 Energy audits in wind power generation. Around 95 per cent of
 Equipment upgradation installed wind power capacity is in the private sector.
State­of­the­art wind power systems are also being
 Substitution of diesel with natural gas
manufactured in the country, in fact, wind turbine
 Establishment of PCRA (Petroleum Conservation
equipment is also being exported to other developing
Research Association) to increase awareness and
and developed countries.
develop fuel­efficient equipment.
d. Biogas: Biomass power generation plants of a total
3. Gas capacity of about 358 MW have been installed and
This source of energy is the preferred substitute for coal gasification systems of a total capacity of 42.8 MW
and oil. have been set up for decentralized energy
application.
 In the residential sector, gas has replaced coal and
kerosene e. Others: Projects with an aggregate capacity of about
15 MW have been completed using energy recovered
 CNG is being introduced as an alternative to petrol
from urban, municipal and industrial waste.
and diesel in the transport sector
5. Energy Efficiency and Conservation: India is alive to
 Major investments have been made in developing
the importance of improving the efficiency of energy
infrastructure for long distance and local distribution
usage and conservation measures. A Bureau of
 Import options are under consideration Energy Efficiency (BEE) has been set up to put into
 The share of gas in the power sector has increased operation, conservation measures such as energy
from 2 to 8 per cent standards, labeling of equipment/appliances,
building energy codes, and energy audits.
4. Renewable Energy
India has an active programme to promote the use of 6. Transport
renewable energy. Some salient features of the current A major initiative has been the upgradation of vehicular
renewables situation are given source­wise. emission norms. A beginning was made by introducing the
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norm called the ‘Bharat 2000’, similar to Euro­I norms, technology, leading to conservation of coal and
which was implemented throughout the country on 1 April, savings in emissions.
2000 for all categories of vehicles manufactured in India.  Power sector reforms include regulatory
 Emission standards for motor cars and passenger restructuring, corporatization, privatization and
vehicles came into force. Apart from reducing unbundling of state owned utilities. The 1998
pollution locally, these norms result in increased Regulatory Commissions Act empowers commissions
energy efficiency and therefore, reduced Green to rationalize electricity tariffs and promote
House Gas emission. environmentally benign policies.
 Awareness and training programmes, have been  Corporatization is altering state electricity boards
undertaken to educate drivers. from state ownership and administration to business­
 The commercial manufacture of battery operated like corporations, as defined by the Indian Company
vehicles has begun in India. This will promote low/ Act, 1956.
no carbon emitting vehicles.  The Indian Electricity Act of 1910 and the Electricity
Act of 1948 have been amended to permit private
7. Industry participation in the generation and distribution of
This sector has made significant advances in the power.
conservation of energy. Government policies, campaigns  Privatization in transmission has been encouraged
by associations of industry and strategic decisions by firms by the recognition of exclusive transmission
have all contributed to sizeable improvements in the companies.
intensity of energy use in industries.
 The major energy­consuming sectors are steel, Adaptation to Climate Change
cement, caustic soda, brick, aluminium and electric Adaptation will be necessary to address impacts resulting
power generation. Measures to improve energy from warming which is already unavoidable due to past
efficiency include: emissions. A wide array of adaptation options is available,
a. Promotion of fuel­efficient practices and equipment but more extensive adaptation than is currently occurring
b. Replacement of old and inefficient boilers and other is required to reduce vulnerability to future climate change,
oil operated equipment. There are barriers, limits and costs, but these are not fully
c. Fuel switching and technology upgradation understood.

8. Agriculture Adaptation Expenditure

Some efforts to mitigate climate change in the agricultural The adverse impact of current climate already threaten
sector have also been undertaken. the livelihoods of many Indians, especially the poorest.
Current government expenditure on adaptation to climate
 Standardization of fuel­efficient pump sets and
variability, already exceeds two per cent of the GDP, with
rectification of existing pump sets.
agriculture, water resources, health and sanitation, forests,
 Rationalization of power tariffs. coastal zone infrastructure and extreme weather events,
 Better cultivation practices which will help in being specific areas of concern.
reducing NO2 emissions
Major Components of Adaptation
9. Power sector The broad areas where adaptation programmes have been
India has a diverse mix of power generation technologies developed include:
with coal dominating, and a significant contribution by  Crop improvement and research: It includes
large hydro power plants. technical issues such as development of arid­land
 Reforms in the power sector and targeted technology crops and pest management, as well as capacity
improvements have helped to enhance the building of extension workers and NGOs to support
combustion efficiency of conventional coal better and vulnerability reducing practices.
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 Drought proofing and flood control: It includes Impacts of climate change may occur beyond certain
measures to minimize the adverse effects of drought thresholds in the ability of some ecosystems to adapt
on production of crops and livestock, and on without dramatic changes in their functions and resilience.
productivity of land, water and human resources, so The inherent sensitivity of some ecosystems, habitats and
as to ultimately lead to drought proofing of the even species with extremely narrow ranges of bio­
affected areas. This also includes the overall geographic adaptability will also limit the options and
development and Improvement in the socio­ effectiveness of adaptation.
economic conditions of the resource poor and 1. Poverty: Poverty has been identified as one of the
disadvantaged sections inhabiting the affected areas. greatest barriers to developing adaptive capacity. The
poor, usually, have low adaptive capacity due to their
 Health improvement and prevention of diseases:
limited access to information, technology and other
The prime objective of this is surveillance and control capital assets, making them highly vulnerable to
of vector born diseases such as Malaria, Kala­azar, climate change. Poverty also constrains adaptation
Japanese Encephalitis, Filarial and Dengue, and to in other sectors. Poverty, along with infrastructural
provide emergency medical relief in the case of limitations and other socio­economic factors, could
natural calamities and train and develop human also limit efforts to conserve biodiversity in India.
resources for these tasks. Adaptive capacity in countries where there is a high
 Risk-financing: It includes risk­financing to support incidence of poverty, will likely remain limited.
adaptation to climate impacts. The crop insurance 2. Inadequate Awareness: Insufficient information and
scheme supports the insurance of farmers against knowledge on the impacts of climate change and
climate risks, and the Credit Support Mechanism responses of natural systems to climate change will
continue to hinder effective adaptation, particularly
facilitates the extension of credit to farmers,
in India. The limited studies on the interconnections
especially in instances such as crop failure due to
between adaptation and mitigation options, costs
climate variability.
and benefits of adaptation, and trade­offs between
 Disaster Management: The National Disaster various courses of actions will also likely limit
Management Programme provides grants­in­aid to adaptation initiatives. The deficiency in available
victims of disasters, and manages disaster relief information and knowledge will continue to make it
operations. It also supports pro­active disaster difficult to enhance public perception of the risks and
prevention programmes, including dissemination of dangers associated with climate change, In addition,
information and training of disaster management the absence of information on adaptation costs and
staff. benefits makes !t difficult to identify the best
adaptation option. This limiting factor will be most
 Poverty alleviation and livelihood preservation: It
constraining in developing countries, where systems
includes support for income diversification, as well for monitoring and research on climate, and
as minimum employment guarantees in order to responses of natural and human systems to climate
enable sustainability of livelihoods, including help in are usually lacking.
response to loss of livelihood due to the adverse 3. Lack of Political Motivation: The slow change in the
impact of climate. political and institutional landscape in response to
climate change could also be a major limitation to
KEY CONSTRAINTS TO ADAPTATION MEASURES
future adaptation. The existing legal and institutional
Effective adaptation and adaptive capacity in Asia, framework in India remains inadequate to facilitate
particularly in South Asia, will continue to be limited by implementation of comprehensive and integrated
several ecological, socio­economic, technical and political response to climate change in synergy with the
constraints, spatial and temporal uncertainties associated pursuit of sectoral development goals.
with forecasts of regional climate, low levels of awareness India released its National Action Plan on Climate
amongst decision­makers, limited national capacities in Change (NAPCC) on 30th June, 2008 to outline its
climate monitoring and forecasting and the lack of strategy to meet the challenge of climate change. The
coordination in the formulation of responses. National Action Plan advocates a strategy that

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promotes, firstly, the adaptation to climate change development of new solar technologies, while
and secondly, further enhancement of the ecological attempting to expand the scope of other renewable
sustainability of India’s development path. and non fossil options such as nuclear energy, wind
4. Approach to Climate Change: The National Action energy and biomass.
Plan recognizes that climate change is a global 2. National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency
challenge and that it should be successfully comprises four new initiatives, namely – a market
addressed through a globally collaborative and based mechanism for trading in certified energy
cooperative effort based on the basis of the principle savings in energy intensive large industries and
of equity. The Action Plan expresses India’s facilities, accelerating the shift to energy efficient
willingness to play its role as a responsible member
appliances in designated sectors, demand side
of the international community and to make its
management programmes in all sectors by capturing
contribution. However, it emphasizes that this
future energy savings, and developing fiscal
requires not only sustainable production processes,
but also sustainable life styles across the globe. In instruments to promote energy efficiency.
this effort, every citizen of the planet should have an 3. National Mission for Sustainable Habitat attempts
equal share of the planetary atmospheric space. The to promote energy efficiency in buildings,
Action Plan suggests that the long­term convergence management of solid waste and nodal shift to public
of per capita Green House Gas emissions is the only transport including transport options based on
equitable basis for a global agreement to tackle biodiesel and hydrogen.
climate change. The Action Plan assures the 4. National Water Mission has as its objective, the
international community that India’s per capita GHG
conservation of water, minimizing wastage of water
emissions would not exceed the per capita GHG
ensuring more equitable distribution both across and
emissions of developed countries, despite India’s
within states.
developmental imperatives.
5. National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan
5. Domestic Action: India’s National Action Plan
Ecosystem is aimed at evolving management
stresses that maintaining a high growth rate is
essential for increasing the living standards of the vast measures for sustaining and safeguarding the
majority of people in India and reducing their Himalayan glacier and mountain ecosystem.
vulnerability to the impacts of climate change. 6. National Mission for a Green India focuses on
Accordingly, the Action Plan identified measures that enhancing ecosystem services and carbon sinks
promotes objectives of sustainable development of through afforestation on degraded forest land, in line
India while also yielding to benefits for addressing with the national policy of expanding the forest and
climate change. Eight National Missions, which form tree cover to 33 per cent of the total land area of the
the core of the National Action Plan, represent country.
multipronged, long term and integrated strategies for
7. National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture would
achieving key goals in the context of climate change.
develop strategies to make Indian agriculture more
The focus is on promoting understanding of climate
change, adaptation and mitigation, energy efficiency
resilient to climate change, with new varieties of heat
and natural resource resistant crops, credit and insurance mechanisms and
improving productivity of rainfed agriculture.
While several of these programmes are already a Part
of the current actions, the Action Plan seeks to 8. National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate
enhance them in scope and effectiveness and Change is intended to identify the challenges of, and
implement them in an accelerated manner through the responses to, climate change through research
time bound plans. and technology development and ensure funding of
high quality and focused research into various aspects
National Missions of climate change.

Eight National Missions were announced for this particular Other Initiatives
sector, a brief description of which has been given below­ Apart from the eight National Missions, the National Action
1. National Solar Mission aims at increasing the share Plan also envisages other initiatives aimed at enhancing
of solar energy in the total energy mix through mitigation and adaptation. These include:

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 Research and development in the area of ultra super Framework Convention on Climate Change. It renews
critical boilers in coal­based thermal plants. India’s pledge to play an active role in multilateral
 Integrated gasification combined­cycle technology to cooperation in addressing climate change based on the
make coal based power generation efficient principle of ‘Common but Differentiated Responsibilities
 Setting up more combined cycle natural gas plants. and Respective Capabilities’. The Action Plan acknowledges
that in the move towards a low carbon economy,
 Promotion of nuclear energy through adoption of fast
technology has a vital role to play. Models and mechanisms
breeder and thorium based thermal reactor
for technology transfer will need to incorporate key
technology in nuclear power generation.
elements such as appropriate funding modalities and
 Adoption of high­voltage AC and high­voltage DC approaches, facilitative IPR environment, and enhancing
transmission to reduce technical losses during the absorptive capacity within developing countries. Some
transmission and distribution. reforms in the carbon market, such as mainstreaming the
 Setting up small and large scale hydro power projects. bundling and programmatic CDM, also need to be carried
 Promotion of renewable energy technologies such out multilaterally.
as biomass combustion and gasification based power The Action Plan emphasizes that international
generation. cooperation should aim at enhanced implementation of
 Enhancement in the regulatory/tariff regimes to help the UNFCCC by minimizing the negative impacts of climate
mainstream renewable based sources in the national change through suitable adaptation measures, providing
power system. fairness and equity in actions and measures, and ensuring
 Promotion of renewable energy technologies for concessional financial flows from the developed countries
transportation and industrial fuels. and access to technology on affordable terms.
In addition, the Action Plan envisages effective India’s National Action Plan on Climate Change will
disaster management strategies that include evolve on the basis of new scientific and technical
mainstreaming disaster risk reduction into infrastructure
knowledge, and in response to the evolution of the
project design, strengthening communication networks
multilateral climate change regime including arrangements
and disaster management facilities at all levels, protection
for international cooperation.
of coastal areas, provision of enhanced public health care
services and assessment of increased burden of disease
A Note On Intergovernmental Panel On
due to climate change. The Action Plan also highlights the
Climate Change (IPCC)
role of Central Government, State Governments and local
bodies in putting in place appropriate delivery mechanisms The Intergovernmental panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is
and building adequate capacity and knowledge in the a specialized body jointly established by the United Nations
relevant institutions for effective adaptation and mitigation Environment Programme and World Meteorological
action. Organization mandated to prepare scientific assessments
on various aspects of climate change. As a nodal ministry
Institutional Mechanism in the Government it undertakes and facilitates
The National Missions are to be institutionalized by the implementation of various activities of the IPCC at both
respective Ministries and will be organized through international and national level.
intersectoral groups. Appropriate mechanisms including
public private partnerships and civil society actions will Why the IPCC was created ?
be devised, as suited, for effective delivery of each Climate change is a very complex issue, policy makers need
individual Mission’s objectives. The work is to be an objective source of information about the causes of
coordinated by the Ministry of Environment and Forests. climate change, its potential environmental and socio­
economic consequences and the adaptation and mitigation
International Cooperation options to respond to it. This is why WMO and UNEP
National Action Plan looks forward to enhanced established the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
international cooperation under the United Nations Change (IPCC) in 1988.

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WHAT IS IPCC? usual two oxygen atoms. It usually forms when some type
The IPCC is a scientific intergovernmental body set up by
of radiation or electrical discharge separates the two atoms
the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and by the in an oxygen molecule (O2), which can then individually
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Its recombine with other oxygen molecules to form ozone
constituency is made of: (O3). The ozone layer became more widely appreciated
when it was realized that certain chemicals mankind
 The governments: the IPCC is open to all member
countries of WMO and UNEP. Governments of manufactures, like chlorofluorocarbons, find their way ­
participate in plenary Sessions of the IPCC where up into the stratosphere where, through a complex series
main decisions about the IPCC work programme are of chemical reactions, they destroy some of the ozone. As
taken and reports are accepted, adopted and a result of this discovery, an international treaty was signed,
approved. They also participate in the review of PCC the manufacture of these chemicals was stopped. The
Reports. ozone layer has since begun to recover as a result of these
 The scientists: hundreds of scientists all over the efforts.. There is also ozone produced near the ground,
world contribute to the work of the IPCC as authors, from sunlight interacting with atmospheric pollution in
contributors and reviewers. cities, that is bad. It causes breathing problems for some
people, and usually occurs in the summertime when the
 The People: as United Nations body, the IPCC work
aims at the promotion of the United Nations human pollution over a city builds up during stagnant air
development goals. conditions associated with high pressure areas.

The IPCC is a scientific body: the information it The Ozone Hole And Its Causes
provides with its reports is based on scientific evidence The Antarctic ozone hole is an area of the Antarctic
and reflects existing viewpoints within the scientific stratosphere in which the recent ozone levels have dropped
community. The comprehensiveness of the scientific to as low as 33% of their pre­1975 values. The ozone hole
content is achieved through contributions from experts in occurs during the Antarctic spring, from September to early
all regions of the world and all relevant disciplines December, as strong westerly winds start to circulate
including, where appropriately documented, industry around the continent and create an atmospheric container.
literature and traditional practices, and a two stage review Within this polar vortex, over 50% of the lower
process by experts and governments. Because of its stratospheric ozone is destroyed during the Antarctic
intergovernmental nature, the IPCC is able to provide spring.
scientific technical and socio­economic information in a The overall cause of ozone depletion is the presence
policy­relevant but policy neutral way to decision makers. of chlorine­containing source gases (primarily CFCs and
When governments accept the IPCC reports and approve related halocarbons). In the presence of UV light, these
their Summary for Policymakers, they acknowledge the gases dissociate, releasing chlorine atoms, which then go
legitimacy of their scientific content. on to catalyze ozone destruction. The Cl­catalyzed ozone
The IPCC provides its reports at regular intervals and depletion can take place in the gas phase, but it is
they immediately become standard works of reference, dramatically enhanced in the presence of polar
widely used by policymakers, experts and students. The stratospheric clouds (PSCs).
IPCC continues to be a major source of information for These polar stratospheric clouds form during winter,
the negotiations under the UNFCCC. in the extreme cold. Polar winters are dark, consisting of 3
months without solar radiation (sunlight). Not only lack of
Ozone Layer Protection sunlight contributes to a decrease in temperature but also
The ozone layer is a deep layer in the stratosphere the polar vortex traps and chills air. Temperatures hover
encircling the Earth, that has large amounts of ozone in it. around 01 below ­80 °C. These low temperatures form
The layer shields the entire Earth from much of the harmful cloud particles and are composed of either nitric acid (Type
ultraviolet radiation that comes from the sun. I PSC) or ice (Type II PSC). Both types provide surfaces for
Interestingly, it is also this ultraviolet radiation that chemical reactions that lead to ozone destruction.
forms the ozone in the first place. Ozone is e special form The role of sunlight in ozone depletion is the reason
of oxygen, made up of three oxygen atoms rather than the why the Antarctic ozone depletion is greatest during spring.

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During winter, even though PSCs are at their most  The planet’s climate could also be affected by
abundant, there is no light over the pole to drive the depletion of the ozone layer. Wind patterns could
chemical reactions. During the spring, however, the sun change, resulting in climatic changes throughout the
comes out, providing energy to drive photochemical world.
reactions, and melt the polar stratospheric clouds,
releasing the trapped compounds. Various Conventions
Most of the ozone that is destroyed is in the lower The UV radiation has the potential to cause skin cancer,
stratosphere, in contrast to the much smaller ozone eye cataract, suppress body’s immune system, decrease
depletion through homogeneous gas phase reactions, crop yield etc., which led to the adoption of the Vienna
which occurs primarily in the upper stratosphere. Warming Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer in 1985
temperatures near the end of spring break up the vortex and the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the
around mid­December. As warm, ozone­rich air flows in Ozone Layer in 1987. India ratified the Montreal Protocol
from lower latitudes, the PSCs are destroyed, the ozone and its London Amendment on 19th June, 1992. India also
depletion process shuts down, and the ozone hole closes. ratified the Copenhagen Amendment (1992), the Montreal
Amendment (1997) and the Beijing Amendment (1999) on
Effects Of Ozone Depletion 3rd March, 2003.
 Even minor problems of ozone depletion can have
India’s Stand
major effects. Every time even a small amount of
the ozone layer is lost, more ultraviolet light from India was mainly producing and using nine of the 96 Ozone
the sun can reach the Earth. Depleting Substances (ODSs) controlled under the
Montreal Protocol. These are CFC­11, CFC­12, CFC­113,
 Every time 1% of the ozone layer is depleted, 2%
Carbontetrachloride (CTC), Hydrochlorof­luorocarbons­22
more UV­B is able to reach the surface of the planet.
(HCFC­22), Halon­1211, Halon­1301, Methyl Chloroform
UV­B increase is one of the most harmful
and Methyl Bromide. The Government of India has
consequences of ozone depletion because it can
entrusted the work relating to Ozone layer protection and
cause skin cancer.
implementation of the Montreal Protocol on substances
 The increased cancer levels caused by exposure to that deplete the Ozone Layer to the Ministry.
this ultraviolet light could be enormous. The EPA
A detailed Program for phase out of ODSs was
estimates that 60 million Americans born by the year
prepared in 1993 to ensure the phase out of ODS according
2075 will get skin cancer because of ozone depletion. to the National Industrial Development Strategy, without
About one million of these people will die. undue burden to both consumers and industry by accessing
 In addition to cancer, some research shows that a the Protocol’s Financial Mechanism in accordance with the
decreased ozone layer will increase rates of malaria requirements stipulated in the Montreal Protocol. The
and other infectious diseases. According to the EPA, Country Program was updated in 2006.
17 million more cases of cataracts can also be
The Ministry has set up the Ozone Cell as a National
expected.
Ozone Unit to render necessary services for effective and
 The environment will also be negatively affected by timely implementation of the Protocol and its ODS phase­
ozone depletion. The life cycles of plants will change, out program in India. The Ministry has also established an
disrupting the food chain. Effects on animals will also Empowered Steering Committee (ESC) Chaired by the
be severe, and are very difficult to foresee. Secretary (E&F) which is supported by two Standing
 Oceans will be hit hard as well. The most basic Committees, Technology and Finance Standing Committee
microscopic organisms such as plankton may not be (TFSC) and Standing Committee on Monitoring. The ESC is
able to survive. If that happened, it would mean that overall responsible for the implementation of the Montreal
all of the other animals that are above plankton in Protocol provisions, review of various policy and
the food chain would also die out. Other ecosystems implementation options, project approval and
such as forests and deserts will also be harmed. monitoring.

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Regulatory Measures In addition to adjusting the Protocol, the Parties to
The Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) the Montreal Protocol have amended the Protocol to
Rules, 2000 under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 enable, among other things, the control of new chemicals
has been notified in the Gazette of India on 19th July, 2000. and the creation of a financial mechanism to enable
These Rules set the deadlines for phasing out of various developing countries to comply.
ODSs, besides regulating production, consumption, trade,
Appendix B - Kyoto Protocol
import and export of ODSs and the products containing
ODSs, Besides regulating production, consumption, trade, The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement linked
import and export of ODSs and the products containing to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
ODSs. The ODS Rules were amended in 2001, 2003, 2004, Change, which commits its Parties by setting internationally
2005 and 2007 to facilitate implementation of ODS phase­ binding emission reduction targets.Recognizing that
out by the enterprises in various sectors. developed countries are principally responsible for the
current high levels of GHG emissions in the atmosphere
These Rules prohibit the production and
as a result of more than 150 years of industrial activity,
consumption of CFCs, CTC and Halons beyond 1st January
the Protocol places a heavier burden on developed nations
2010 except use of pharmaceutical grade CFCs in
under the principle of “common but differentiated
manufacturing of Metered Dose Inhalers (MDIs) Further,
responsibilities.”
the use of methyl bromide has been allowed upto 1st
January, 2015. Since, IICFCs are used as interim substitute The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on
to replace CFCs, their production and consumption is 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February
allowed upto 1st January, 2030. 2005. The detailed rules for the implementation of the
Protocol were adopted at COP 7 in Marrakesh, Morocco,
Appendix A- The Montreal Protocol in 2001, and are referred to as the “Marrakesh Accords.”
The Montreal Protocol on Substances that deplete the Its first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in
Ozone Layer was designed to reduce the production and 2012.
consumption of ozone depleting substances in order to THE KYOTO MECHANISMS
reduce their abundance in the atmosphere, and thereby
Under the Protocol, countries must meet their targets
protect the earth’s fragile ozone Layer. The original
primarily through national measures. However, the
Montreal Protocol was agreed on 16 September 1987 and
Protocol also offers them an additional means to meet
entered into force on 1 January 1989. their targets by way of three market­based mechanism:
The Montreal Protocol includes a unique adjustment The Kyoto mechanisms are:
provision that enables the Parties to the Protocol to
1. International Emissions Trading
respond quickly to new scientific information and agree
Parties with commitments under the Kyoto Protocol
to accelerate the reductions required on chemicals already
(Annex B Parties) have accepted targets for limiting or
covered by the Protocol. These adjustments are then
reducing emissions. These targets are expressed as levels
automatically applicable to all countries that ratified the
of allowed emissions, or “assigned amounts,” over the
Protocol. Since its initial adoption, the Montreal Protocol 2008­2012 commitment period. The allowed emissions are
has been adjusted five times. Specifically, the Second, divided into “Assigned Amount Units” (AAUs).
Fourth, Seventh, Ninth, Eleventh and Nineteenth Meetings
Emissions trading as set out in Article 17 of the Kyoto
of the Parties to the Montreal Protocol adopted, in Protocol, allows countries that have emissions permitted
accordance with the procedure laid down in paragraph 9 them but not “used” ­ to sell this excess capacity to
of Article 2 of the Montreal Protocol certain adjustments countries that are over their targets. Thus, a new
and reductions of production and consumption of the commodity was created in the form of emission reductions
controlled substances listed in the Annexes of the Protocol. or removals. Since carbon dioxide is the principal
These adjustments entered into force, for all the Parties, greenhouse gas, people speak simply of trading in carbon.
on 7 March 1991, 23 September 1993, 5 August 1996, 4 Carbon is now tracked and traded like any other
June 1998. 28 July 2000 and 14 May 2008, respectively. commodity. This is known as the “carbon market.”

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2. Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) force at the twenty­first session of the Conference of the
The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), defined in Parties and for it to come into effect and be implemented
Article 12 of the Protocol, allows a country with an from 2020.
emission­reduction or emission­ limitation commitment
under the Kyoto Protocol (Annex B Party) to implement
What is the Cartagena Protocol?
an emission­reduction project in developing countries. The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on
Such projects can earn saleable certified emission Biological Diversity is an international treaty governing the
reduction (CER) credits, each equivalent to one tonne of movements of Living Modified Organisms (LMOs) resulting
CO 2, which can be counted towards meeting Kyoto from modern biotechnology from one country to another.
targets. It was adopted in 2000 as a supplementary agreement to
D The mechanism is seen by many as a trailblazer. It the the Convention on Biological Diversity and entered into
first global, environment investment and credit scheme force in 2003.
of its kind, providing a standardized emissions offset The Protocol seeks to protect biological diversity from
instrument, CERs.A CDM project activity might involve, for the potential risks posed by LMOs resulting from modern
example, a rural electrification project using solar panels biotechnology. It establishes an Advance Informed
or the installation of more energy­efficient boilers. Agreement (AIA) procedure for ensuring that countries are
The mechanism stimulates sustainable development and provided with the information necessary to make informed
emission reductions, while giving industrialized outcries decisions before agreeing to the import of such organisms
some flexibility in how they meet their emission reduction into their territory. The Protocol contains reference to the
or limitation targets. Precautionary Principle, and reaffirms the precaution
3. Joint Implementation (JI) language in Principle 15 of the Rio Declaration on
The mechanism known as “joint implementation,” defined Environment and Development. The Protocol also
in Article 6 of the Kyoto Protocol, allows a country with an establishes a Bio­safety Clearing­ House to facilitate the
emission reduction or limitation commitment under the exchange of information on living modified organisms and
Kyoto Protocol (Annex B Party) to earn emission reduction to assist countries in the implementation of the Protocol.
units (ERUs) from an emission­reduction or emission
removal project in another Annex B Party, each equivalent What is CBD’s Strategic Plan for Biodiversity
to one tonne of CO 2 which can be counted towards 2011-2020?
meeting its Kyoto target. The tenth meeting of the CBD Conference of the Parties,
Joint implementation offers Parties a flexible and cost­ held in 2010, in Nagoya, Aichi Prefecture, Japan, adopted
efficient means of fulfilling a part of their Kyoto a revised and updated Strategic Plan for Biodiversity,
commitments, while the host Party benefits from foreign including the Aichi Biodiversity Targets, for the 2011­2020
investment and technology transfer. The mechanisms help period.
to stimulate green investment and help Parties meet their This plan provides an overarching framework on
emission targets in a cost­effective way. biodiversity, not only for the biodiversity­related
conventions, but also for the entire UN system and all other
The road ahead partners engaged in biodiversity management and policy
development.
The Kyoto Protocol is seen as an important first step
towards a truly global emission reduction regime that will Rationale
stabilize GHG emissions, and can provide the architecture
for the future international agreement on climate change. The rationale for the new plan is that biological diversity
In Durban, the Ad Hoc Working Group on the Durban underpins ecosystem functioning and the provision of
Platform for Enhanced Action (ADP) was established to ecosystem services essential for human well­being. It
develop a protocol, another legal instrument or an agreed provides for food security, human health, the provision of
outcome with legal force under the Convention, applicable clean air and water; it contributes to local livelihoods and
to all Parties. The ADP is to complete its work as early as economic development and is essential for the
possible, but no later than 2015, in order to adopt this achievement of the Millennium Development Goals
protocol, legal instrument or agreed outcome with legal (Chapter 17), including poverty reduction.

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Vision  Explanation of the target
The vision for the new plan is: ‘Living in Harmony with  Implications for setting national targets
Nature’ where, by 2050, biodiversity is valued, conserved,  Guiding questions for setting national targets
restored, and wisely used, maintaining ecosystem services,  Actions and milestones
sustaining a healthy planet, and delivering benefits
 Possible indicators
essential for all people.
 Resources
Mission
Doha Amendments 2012
The mission of the new plan is to: ‘take effective and urgent
In Doha, Qatar, on 8 December 2012, the “ Doha
action to halt the loss of biodiversity in order to ensure
Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol” was adopted. The
that by 2020 ecosystems are resilient and continue to
amendment includes:
provide essential services thereby, securing the planet’s
variety of life and contributing to human well-being, and  New commitments for Annex I Parties to the Kyoto
poverty eradication. To ensure this, pressures on Protocol who agreed to take on commitments in a
biodiversity are reduced, ecosystems are restored, second commitment period from I January 201 3 to
biological resources are sustainably used and benefits 31 December 2020;
arising out of utilization of genetic resources are shared in  A revised list of greenhouse gases (GHG) to be
a fair and equitable manner; adequate financial resources reported on by Parties in the second commitment
are provided, capacities are enhanced, biodiversity issues period; and
and values mainstreamed, appropriate policies are  Amendments to several articles of the Kyoto Protocol
effectively implemented and decision-making is based on which specifically referenced issues pertaining to the
sound science and the precautionary approach’. first commitment period and which needed to be
The countries agreed to translate this overarching updated for the second commitment period.
international framework into revised and updated national During the first commitment period, 37 industrialized
biodiversity strategies and action plans within two years. countries and the European Community committed to
reduce GHG emissions to an average of five percent against
What are the Aichi Biodiversity Targets? 1990 levels. During the second commitment period, Parties
The 20 Aichi Biodiversity Targets, approved in 2010, are committed to reduce GHG emissions by at least 18 percent
based on the following five strategic goals: below 1990 levels in the eight­year period from 2013 to
2020; however, the composition of Parties in the second
 Strategic Goal A: Address the underlying causes of
commitment period is different from the first.
biodiversity loss by mainstreaming biodiversity across
government and society Human Population and The Environment
 Strategic Goal B: Reduce the direct pressures on Human beings are part of the environment and important
biodiversity and promote sustainable use components of biosphere. Like any other living organism
 Strategic Goal C: Improve the status of biodiversity humans exchange materials with the surroundings. Besides
by safeguarding ecosystems, species and genetic this give and take from the environment, human influence
diversity on other life forms and ability to change and control the
environment to some degree, has affected the global
 Strategic Goal D: Enhance the benefits to all from
environment drastically. Hence, one can say that humans
biodiversity and ecosystem services
population and human activity has immense impact on
 Strategic Goal E: Enhance implementation through the environment.
participatory planning, knowledge management and
capacity building Impact on environment
There are specific targets under each Strategic Goal. Human activities have had lasting impact on the
For each target, the CBD Secretariat has provided the environment. Some of such activities that have modified
following: or degraded the environment are:
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 Ability to produce food through agriculture. Thus, you should be able to imagine the tussle
 Transfer excess food to regions of food shortage. between man to change environment to his liking and the
 Store excess food in warehouses, cold storage and environment striking back in one form or the other. If,
canneries, thereby preventing food deterioration. humans are able to interact with the environment
 Impressive and innovative efficiency of energy judiciously, an environment friendly life can be led by them.
utilization has caused shift from wood energy to fossil
Standard of living
energy to electric energy to atomic energy.
 Ability to provide shelter for self (housing), elderly A population is also characterized by certain parameters,
and the young, protection against for unfavorable such as:
weather or enemies.  life expectancy (should be high)
 Ability to destroy animal enemies e.g.. lions, tigers,  infant mortality rate (should be low)
wolves, snakes, rats, mice, household insects etc.  income per head (should be high)
 Ability to reduce competition from other animals by  literacy (maximum of individuals be literate)
fencing crops and live­stock. consumption of food, natural resources (should be
 Reducing the mortality rate by controlling a number balanced)
of life threatening diseases through proper sanitation,
 kind of energy used (eco­friendly)
medication, immunization etc.
 eco­friendly activity.
Inspite of all the intelligence at its source, human
beings have not been able to conquer the environment Such parameters decide the standard of living of a
completely. National as well as human­made modifications population. The developed rich countries have better
in the environment have, through various periods, offered standard of living and underdeveloped, poor countries
fatal blows to the human population. Some such problems have a poor standard of living.
confronting us are:
Urbanisation and Environmental Problems
(1) Food shortage or famine: It could be because of less
agricultural production; transfer of agricultural land With economic development comes urbanization and with
for utilization; improper and inadequate storage, urbanization comes destruction of the environment. What
transport­ facilities; economic poverty to purchase happens when cities grow? Urbanization causes
food etc. environmental and social upheaval.
(2) Inadequate shelter: Every individual is not provided
with safe shelter and is exposed to extremes of high Urbanization and limited energy resources
and cold temperatures of atmosphere, and falling Energy is a critical input for most of the production
prey to tigers, lions, wolves, leopards, rats, snakes processes and consumption activities. With urbanization
etc. comes increased need for energy sources. In last sixty years
(3) Diseases : Malnutirion, inadequate sanitation, lack we have had more than four­fold increase in total energy
of medical facilities, increased susceptibility to use for less than one­third rise in the population. However,
disease especially among young and old, as well as the commercial activity has shown a manifold rise during
invasion and mutation of the pathogens leads to the same period. This shows that the bulk of non­
epidemic/fatal attacks of bubonic plague, malaria, commercial energy use has had shifted to commercial
yellow fever, typhoid, tuberculosis, HIV­AIDS, dengue, use(mostly, due to urbanization). Of the various sectors
influenza etc. that use commercial energy around 70­75% is consumed
(4) Calamities: Natural calamities such as floods, by industry and transport.
cyclones, earthquakes, volcanoes, tsunami, Our country has three major kinds of generating
avalanches etc. uproot human settlements and plants: hydroelectric, thermal and nuclear. They roughly
damage property. contribute about 21%, 75% and 4% of our energy
(5) Miscellaneous: Various mostly human­made, requirement. As of now, non conventional resources of
accidents involving explosions, fire, pollution, ship energy such as solar,, garbage, wind are negligible and
wrecks, air and road accidents wipe out lives. insignificant.With growing population and increasing rural

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migration to cities, our country must cope with increased The 8oo km long Cauvery river, which originates
energy requirement. Production of energy is very costly. in Karnataka, flows mainly through Karnataka and Tamil
At individual levels prevention of wasteful expenditure of Nadu. Its basin, however, covers areas in Kerala and Karaikal
energy can contribute to national cause. (Puducherry) too. The river is fed by seasonal monsoon
India is world’s 6th largest energy consumers rains and several tributaries. Plence, when the monsoon
accounting for 3.4% of global energy consumption. This is heavy, there is excessive flow of water in the river and
demand is growing at an average of 3.6% per year over all the four states get enough water. When the monsoon
past 30 years. Although India generated 680 billion kwh of fails, however, Karnataka tries to hold the water in its dams
power during the year 2006, about 5000 million Indians and prevent it from flowing downstream to Tamil Nadu.
still have no access to electricity. As compared to the Then the conflict comes out in the open.
world’s average of 2200 kwh per capita power
Year (s) Events
consumption, in our country the per capita power
consumption is about 600 kwh. The total demand for 1892 Agreement between the princely state of
electricity in India is expected to cross 9,50,000 MW by Mysore and the Madras Presidency.
the year 2030, If we have to succeed as a nation, we must 1924 Second Agreement between the princely
attain the capability to either generate or purchase the state of Mysore and the Madras
required per capita power consumption comparable to a Presidency: Madras had objected to
developed, industrialized country. In the mean time, we Mysore building the Krishnarajasagar dam
must optimize the use of the power available and minimize across the Cauvery and the Agreement
the wasteful expenditure. allowed Madras to build the Mettur dam.
It also put restrictions on the extent of area
Urbanisation and scarcity of water that could be safely irrigated by the two
Regular supply of water on earth is maintained through its states by using the Cauvery waters.
circulation in the atmosphere. Precipitation of water Interpreting the 1892 and 1924
vapour, in the form of rain, snow, dew, hail etc. is the main agreements according to the current
source of water in the environment. Water vapours present boundaries of the concerned states, t e
in the atmosphere, in turn, come from the water bodies approximate river water allotments were
such as lakes, streams, oceans, ponds, moist earth as well as follows: 75% to Tamil Nadu and
as from living organisms. Of the total water present on Puducherry, 23% to Karnataka and the rest
the earth, oceans have 97% and only 3% of total water is to Kerala.
available as fresh water. Water on earth is classified into 1959 Tamil Nadu objected to Karnataka
following three types: onwards building two dams but the latter went
(i) Fresh water: It is inland water and its salt ahead.
content is less than 5 ppt or 0.5%; 1974 Karnataka declared: (1) The 1924
(ii) Marine water: It occurs in seas, oceans and its agreement entailed a discontinuation of
salt content is more than 3.5 ppt or 3.5%. the water supply to Tamil Nadu after 50
(iii) Brackish water: It’s salt content is more than 5 years. (2) Karnataka was entitled to make
ppt but less than 35ppt. It is present in estuaries, best use of the river’s water and was not
salt marshes and salt lakes. A lot of underground bound by the agreements imposed on the
water in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana and Maharaja of Mysore by the colonial
Punjab is brackish. government, which were skewed heavily
in favour of Tamil Nadu.Tamil Nadu
What is the Cauvery Waters Dispute? responded: It had already developed
The Cauvery Waters Dispute is mainly between Tamil Nadu millions of ha for agriculture and was
and Karnataka, though Kerala and Puducherry are also heavily dependent on the existing pattern
involved. The dispute is a long­standing one, primarily over of usage. Any change in this pattern would
the amount of Cauvery water that Karnataka would release adversely affect the livelihood of millions
every year for Tamil Nadu to use. of farmers in the state.

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1976 Draft agreement prepared, based on 1991 Karnataka government also rejected the
findings of the Cauvery Fact Finding interim award and issued an ordinance
Committee (CFFC); accepted by all states seeking to annul the award. However, the
and the Union government. But Tamil SC struck down the ordinance and upheld
Nadu came under President’s rule and the the Tribunal’s award, which was
agreement was put on hold. Later, the subsequently gazetted by the Government
MGR government rejected the draft of India (Gol).
agreement; demanded going back to the 1992­1994 Rain was sufficient and the dispute cooled
Agreements of 1892 and 1924. down.
1986 A farmer’s association from Thanjavur in 1995 Monsoon failed badly in Karnataka and it
Tamil Nadu moved the Supreme Court (SC) could not implement the interim order.
Tamil Nadu approached the SC demanding
demanding the constitution of a tribunal
the immediate release of at least 30 TMC,
for adjudication on the dispute.
which the Court refused to accept. The
1990 SC directed the Union government to Tribunal recommended that Karnataka
constitute a tribunal to adjudicate the release only 11 TMC, which was again
dispute, pass an award and allocate water rejected by Karnataka. Tamil Nadu went
among the four states. back to the SC demanding that Karnataka
1990 Former PM V.P. Singh constituted the be forced to obey the Tribunal’s order. The
Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal. SC asked the then PM, P. V. Narasimha Rao
The demands of the states to the Tribunal: to intervene and find a political solution.
Karnataka: 465 TMC (Thousand million cu. The PM convened a meeting with the
ft.) Kerala: 99.8 TMC Puducherry: 9.3 TMC Chief Ministers of the two states and
recommended that Karnataka release 6
Tamil Nadu: Flow of the water should be
TMC instead of the 11 TMC and Karnataka
in accordance with the Agreements of
complied.
1892 and 1924, i.e., 566 TMC for Tamil
1998 Cauvery River Authority (CRA) was formed
Nadu and Puducherry; 177 TMC for
with the PM as its chairperson and the
Karnataka, and 5 TMC for Kerala. Chief Ministers of the four states as its
1991 On SC’s instruction and Tamil Nadu’s plea, members to give effect to the
the Tribunal gave an interim award. The implementation of the interim order and
Tribunal calculated the average inflows the related subsequent orders. A Cauvery
into Tamil Nadu over a period of 10 years Monitoring Committee was also formed
between 1980­81 and 1989­90, ignoring as an expert body of engineers,
the extreme years (of drought and floods). technocrats, and other officers who would
The average worked out to 205 TMC, take stock of the ‘ground realities’ and
which Karnataka had to release to Tamil report to the CRA.
Nadu in a­ water year. The award also 2007 The Tribunal delivered its 1000­page final
stipulated the weekly and monthly flows award: Considering that ‘the total
to be ensured by Karnataka for each availability of water in the Cauvery as 740
month of the water year. The Tribunal TMC in a ‘normal year7, the Tribunal
allocated the water as follows: Tamil Nadu:
further directed Karnataka not to increase
419 TMC (against its demand of 512 TMC)
its irrigated land area from the existing
Karnataka: 270 TMC (against its demand
11.2 lakh acres.
of 465 TMC), Kerala: 30 TMC Puducherry:
1991 Anti­Tamil riots in Bangalore, in which 7 TMCTo regulate the release of water, a
many were killed; thousands fled the state. monitoring authority was to be
Chennai and few other parts of Tamil Nadu constituted. During years of
also saw sporadic instances­of violence. insufficientrain, the allocated shares

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should be proportionally reduced.All the the years, several agreements and executive orders have
states filed review petitions in SC against given a substantial share of the Ravi­Beas Waters to the
the Award. two states.
2012 Former PM Manmohan Singh, as In 1976, the Union Government also ordered the
Chairman of CRA, directed Karnataka to construction of a Sutlej­Yamuna­Link Canal (SYL) to link the
release 9,000 cusecs to Tamil Nadu daily. Sutlej and Yamuna Rivers in order to take the surplus Ravi­
Karnataka filed a petition before CRA Beas waters to Haryana and Delhi. Punjab was against SYL,
seeking a review. Following a SC order, but it had to sign the 1981 tripartite agreement with
Karnataka started releasing water. This led Haryana and Rajasthan for water sharing and the building
to protests and violence in Karnataka. of SYL. Work on SYL was, however, stopped in 1990 after
Then Karnataka filed a review petition the completion of 90% work as terrorists killed 2 top
before the SC seeking a stay. The Court engineers and 35 workers engaged in the project.
ruled the release of 9,000 cusecs to be
Over the next six years, the matter was dormant and
continued. But Karnataka stopped release
SYL remained incomplete. In 1996, Haryana moved the
of water.
Supreme Court (SC) seeking the completion of SYL. When,
2013 Government notified the final award of
in 2004, SC ordered the Union Government to complete
the Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal
SYL, Punjab enacted the Punjab Termination of Agreements
(CWDT). In response to the Special Leave
Act, annulling all inter­state agreements signed by the state
Petition by Tamil Nadu, SC directed the
relating to sharing of the Ravi and Beas water, including
Government of India to establish a
the December 1981 tripartite agreement. The Centre
temporary Supervisory Committee to
sought SC’s opinion on Punjab’s action and the issue
implement the tribunal order till the
dragged on for more years. Haryana filed a case against
constitution of ‘Cauvery Management
the Punjab Act.
Board’ as stated in the tribunal order. Gol
established the Supervisory Committee. In early 2016, the Punjab Assembly passed the Punjab
Sutlej­Yamuna Link Canal (Rehabilitation and Re­vesting of
2015 Protests in Tamil Nadu against Karnataka’s
Proprietary Rights) Bill 2016, seeking to return land
alleged efforts to construct check dams
acquired for the canal’s construction to the original owners
across river Cauvery at Mekadatu.
free of cost and thereby to completely destroy the work
2016 Protest in Karnatka against release of
(still incomplete after more than three decades).
Cauvery water as per direction of SC.
And so, the political and court battles go on. It is said
Why has the Couvery dispute not been resolved? that farmers both in Punjab and Haryana are now
indifferent to the fate of SYL. It is only the politicians who
The reason is mainly political, with each state not willing
keep the conflict going.
to be seen as having succumbed to the pressure of the
other or the Union government. The ruling party is always URBANISATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL
afraid of being challenged by the opposition and chauvinist DEGRADATION
groups within the state.  Since cities are located near rivers, along coastlines,
At one stage, farmer groups from Tamil Nadu and the expanded urban inhabitants often consume the
Karnataka tried to get together and come up with an good agricultural land for housing, industry etc.
agreement. Though it did not succeed, that may well be  Loss of such an important and delicate habitat
the way to go. effects many rare and endangered species.
 Forests are cut.
What is the Ravi and Beas Waters Dispute?  Wetlands are Filled with soil.
This dispute between Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan again  Soil is removed from productive use.
has a long history. The dispute is over sharing the waters  Many hazardous materials are released into
of Ravi and Beas by Rajasthan and Haryana, who are not surroundings.
riparian states as far as these rivers are concerned. Over  Air, water and soil are polluted.

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URBANISATION AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS effluents are also rich in nitrates and phosphates (from
 Population is redistributed; laundry detergents). These’ deteriorate the water quality
and promote growth aquatic organism making water unfit
 Peasant society changes to factory/business
dependent community; for human consumption.
 Automobiles/industries pollute air; Therefore, India as a nation has to now initiate action
 Civic amenities are unable to cope with increased on all fronts for developing its water resource. Can you
sewage disposal; imagine the consequences for not meeting this challenge
 Poor sanitation leads to water and soil pollution in the next few decades? Our well­being depends on
 Poor sanitation breed pathogens/vectors resulting in combined efforts of all citizens of the nation.
rise of communicable diseases;
 Over crowding, unemployment INTERLINKING RIVERS: THE ROLE OF THE
SUPREME COURT
With rapid population growth and rising migration
It is a megaproject, initiated by a former President, the
from villages to cities, expectation for better life, the Supreme Court, and a simple petition. More than a decade
natural resources of our earth face even increasing later, it is still on the drawing board.
pressure. Along with air and land, water especially the fresh
Recall from Chapter 7 that in 1980 the then Ministry of
water resource is the one that we must protect for our
Irrigation formulated a National Perspective Plan for Water
own survival. Of all the 3% fresh water resource that we
Resources Development envisaging inter­basin transfer of
have glaciers and ice­caps account for about 2%. The rest
water from surplus basins to deficit basins/areas through
of the fresh water is beneath the earth surface. Rivers and
30 river links. The plan, however, remained on paper and
lakes contain only l/5th of the total 1% of earth’s fresh water
there was no Interlinking Rivers Project until 2002. In that
(i.e. about 37 million km)3.
year, President Abdul Kalam made a speech advocating
To meet the growing requirements of water, it is the interlinking of India’s rivers to solve the water problem.
imperative not only to develop the new water resources
Arising out of that speech, the amicus curiae in a certain
but also to conserve recycle and reuse water whenever or
case (which related to other matters) submitted an
wherever possible. It has also been shown that
application to the Supreme Court praying for a mandamus
conservation of water through rain water harvesting and
on the subject of river linking. The court converted the
artificial ground water recharge can generate about
application into a writ petition and asked the Government
125km3/yr of additional water. of India to accelerate the implementation of the project.
Augmentation of existing water supply through It was not entirely clear whether this was in the nature of
desalination of sea water in an additional posibility. a direction, but it was virtually treated so by the
Similarly, recycling of municipal and industrial waste water Government of India. The court itself called for regular
can, regenerate another 177km3/ yr water. How does the status reports and began monitoring the progress of the
water gets polluted? Can you imagine? Drinking , bathing, project. Notice was also issued to all the States, inviting
swimming, recreation, irrigation, all require good, affidavits regarding their stance on the issue of networking
uncontaminated, potable water. Domestic effluents too of rivers.
cause water pollution. It develops fowl smell and create The then Prime Minister, Atal Behari Vajpayee, seized the
unhygienic condition in the surrounding affecting our court’s suggestion (or direction) as a political opportunity
health. In most of our cities and towns, the liquid waste and announced in the Parliament that the project would
produced daily in kitchen, bathroom and toilet are be taken up and appointed a Task Force to build a national
discharged directly or indirectly without any treatment, consensus, work out the detailed plans, and complete the
into rivers or any other water bodies. Even in our cities entire work by 2016.
only half of the population has access to sewage system. There was a heated debate in the country over the project.
Therefore, raw sewage effluent are discharged into fresh The government and the other proponents cited major
water bodies. The conditions in the villages is not better. advantages for the scheme:
Such domestic wastes (effluents) contain pathogens that
 Droughts will never occur.
cause various viral, bacterial and other parasitic diseases.
 There will be no more floods in rivers like the Ganga
Cholera, dysentery, typhoid, jaundice, worm­related
and the Brahmaputra.
diseases affect the health of the population. House­hold
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 35 million ha of land will be irrigated. mandated to submit a bi­annual report to the Cabinet of
 An additional 34,000 MW of hydropower will be the Government of India, placing before it the status and
generated. progress reports. The Cabinet would then be expected to
The critics pointed out the disadvantages: expedite the matter within thirty days from the date the
 The budget for the project will be huge, ranges from matters are first placed before it for consideration.
5600 to 10,000 billion (at the 2002 price levels). Even Once again the UPA government did not pursue the project
the lower estimate equals 25% of our GDP and 2.5 seriously. With the return of the NDA government in 2014,
times our tax collection. however, the project was revived. The government set up
 Funds will have to be borrowed from international a new Task Force in April 2015 to look into various
sources and the annual interest alone would be contentious issues relating to inter­linking of rivers and to
unmanageable. forge a consensus among states that are not on in favour
 Water from the project will have to be priced high to of the plan.
meet the financial burden. Will the farmers and other The status as of June 2016:
users be ready to pay the charges?
 Feasibility reports have been prepared for 16 of the
 The ecological and social consequences of building 200 30 links.
reservoirs and a network of crisscrossing canals will
 A Special Committee, a Task Force, and a Group on
be very severe and will include:
inter­state links are in place.
– Large­scale submergence of habitats, forests, and
 Some progress has been made with regard to the Ken­
fertile land
Betwa Link, which will transfer surplus water from the
– Heavy destruction of wildlife habitats and Ken river to the Betwa basin through a 221­km canal
biodiversity and meet the irrigation, drinking water, and electricity
– Displacement of large populations needs of people across six districts in Uttar Pradesh
– Need for enormous amounts of energy in some and Madhya Pradesh.
places for pumping water uphill.  In September 2015, Godavari and Krishna Rivers in
 A political consensus can never be achieved on .the Andhra Pradesh were linked by a 174­km canal.
project. Many states would not be willing to share What can we learn from the River Interlinking Case?
freely all the river waters. Even the current inter­state  Even a casual petition to the Supreme Court could lead
water problems have defied amicable solutions. to a mega project changing the whole country.
 It is not even clear that the rivers like the Ganga,  Whi le public interest litigation has been
Brahmaputra, Mahanadi, and Godavari are water­ enormously useful in environmental conservation,
surplus. The sources of such rivers are drying up and sometimes judicial intervention could replace
the rivers themselves are choked with silt. executive action.
 In the past, every single irrigation project in India has  There are no simple solutions to major issues like the
resulted in heavy cost and time overruns. This project water crisis. Even if the Supreme Court of India passes
is likely to meet a similar fate. orders on such an issue, the government may not
The UPA government, which came to power in 2004, did implement them.
not support the idea and it seemed that the project was
dead. The original petitions in the Supreme Court were, Flood and drought
however, alive and the court gave a final judgement on 27 Floods and drought are also important events connected
February, 2012. The judgement mandated the formation with water that affect our lives.
of a Committee to ‘take firm steps and fix a definite time
line to lay down the guidelines for completion of feasibility The scarcity of urban water is due to:
reports or other reports’ and ‘ensure the completion of (i) Careless attitude: Release of untreated sewage
projects so that the benefits accrue within reasonable time and other waters into rivers ands lakes;
and cost’. (ii) Lowering of water table: Due to excessive
The Court’s orders said that the Committee, with pumping of ground water;
representation from various government departments, (iii) Waste in agriculture: Water is lost due to
and nominated civil society representatives, must meet seepage or evaporation during irrigation and
at .least once in two months. The Committee was poor water

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(iv) Increase in water demand: Due to increased respectively, and merge to become the Ganga downstream
urbanization and increased population and at Devprayag. Along with Yamunotri, the three temples
increase in per capita water consumption. form the Char Dham, which Hindu pilgrims visit annually
in great numbers. In the floods that followed over 6000
(v) Water pollution: Pollution of ground water by
people died, there was heavy loss of property, and 28
nitrates, fertilizers, toxic chemicals, sewage,
million tourists were affected.
industrial effluents, domestic wastes etc.
Was it just the fury of nature, an unavoidable natural event,
Flood: Flood is a body of water that covers normal or did human activities have a role in it? According to Prof.
dry lands. Consequences of most floods are as follows. Maharaj Pandit, the Head of the Department of
They­ Environmental Studies of Delhi University, the devastation
 destroy homes and valuable property. and human misery was largely man­made. The rampant,
unauthorize, and mindless building activities on the river
 carry top fertile soil, leaving the land barren.
flood plains in the Himalayas were the prime causes of
 destroy both food and cash crops. the disaster.
 cause huge losses to human ­lives and cattle. We cannot ‘prove’ that the Uttarakhand floods were
 cause landslide in the hilly­areas. indeed man­made. However, if we go on mining river beds
 cause dam burst. for sand and gravel, if we indiscriminately cut down forests
How the flood occurs? Floods occur when these is for mining, and if we do not desilt rivers on time, we can
only expect extreme soil erosion, landslides, and huge flash
too much rain. Heavy rains cause flash­floods. Sudden
floods.
melting of ice also results in flood. In deserts the floods
are caused by thunderstorms. Certain human activities Another factor in Uttarakhand is the construction of many
hydroelectric projects in the region. Many
such as deforestation and over­intensive farming are also
environmentalists (including the South Asia Network on
the causes of flood. Floods along the sea­coasts are caused
Dams, Rivers, and People) had been pointing out the
by hurricane, cyclones or development of low pressure potential dangers of constructing so many dams in
zones in the atmosphere. Floods can be controlled by Uttarakhand and several petitions had been filed against
building dams to store water; planting trees on eroded them in the Supreme Court. On 13 August, 2013, the court
land and by building dykes, flood walls, hurricane­barriers directed MoEFCC as well as State of Uttarakhand not to
along the coast line. grant environmental or forest clearances for any
Floods, however can be controlled by proper planning hydroelectric power project in the State of Uttarakhand,
until further orders.
involving (a) storage of water when it is in plenty; (b)
migrating people from the affected areas; (c) storing In December 2014, MoEFCC admitted in the Supreme
plentiful stocks of food and fodder during good times; (d) Court for the first time that hydropower projects had
‘direct and indirect impact in the aggravation of floods’
cloud seeding; (e) proper and effective watershed/
that hit Uttarakhand in 2013. It also said that the projects
catchment area management’ (f) afforestation etc.
caused ‘irreversible damage’ to the environment and
enhanced landslides and other disasters. MoEFCC
UTTARAKHAND FLOODS: NATURE’S FURY OR
conceded that the sites that suffered maximum damage
HUMAN FOLLY?
in the disaster were located either upstream or
On 13 June, 2011, Swami Nigamanand passed away at the immediately downstream from these projects.
Himalayan Institute of Medical Sciences at Dehradun. it Even the orders of the Supreme Court are not
was the 76th day of his indefinite fast, which was a protest implemented by the authorities. On 26 August, 2013, the
against the rampant stone crushing and strip mining along National Green Tribunal took MoEFCC, the state
the banks of the Ganga in Uttarakhand. His fast had no government, and other authorities to task for not filing
impact on the issue and his death was ignored by the affidavits on the implementation of the court orders. And
media. so the cases go on.
Almost exactly two years later, on 16 June, 2013, a totally The final question is: Did climate change cause the
unexpected cloud burst and flashfloods hit the upper Uttarakhand floods? While a single event like the
reaches of Uttarakhand. They caused a deluge in the Uttarakhand floods cannot be directly linked to climate
Bhagirathi, Mandakini, and Alaknanda, the rivers that change, scientists would definitely agree that the floods
originate in Gangotri, Kedarnath, and Badrinath would have been less severe if there was no climate

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change. Given the history of so many recent extreme unsustainable manner led to the generation of huge
events in the world, there is little doubt that climate amounts of chemical and synthetic wastes and pollutants
change is making natural calamities much worse. as by­products of the development. These synthetic
Beyond the search for the causes of the floods, the materials generated as a by­product or as waste after their
question is whether the state government provided timely use cannot be decomposed in nature and hence their safe
relief to the affected people. It did not, because it had no disposal is creating extraordinary technical, health,
action plan to handle any such emergency. But that is environmental, economic, political and social problems.
another story. Another serious concern is that all living organisms
What can we learn for the Uttarakhand floods? including human beings have been exposed to such
 Extreme events, spurred by climate change, are clearly synthetic and toxic materials on the road to technological
with us. development for which there has been no evolutionary
 Human activities such as mindless construction on all adoption and experience.
lands, unceasing extraction of natural resources, and Thus today, the social pressure is working towards
the building of hydroelectric dams increase the
evolving environment friendly technologies for the
severity of floods and other natural calamities.
sustainable development. Thus development is redefined
 We must implement all our environmental laws as well
as court judgements seriously and conduct proper
as the “Development to meet the needs of the present
environmental impact assessment of new projects. without compromising with the abilities of the future
generations to meet their own needs and a system of stable
economic development that should improve the total
Drought
quality of life on earth now and in the future too, while
Drought is the condition that results when the average maintaining the social and ecological integrity of the earth
rainfall for an area drops below the normal amount for a
upon which all life depends”.
long time. The consequences of drought are:
 streams/ponds/well dry up; ECO CLUBS (NATIONAL GREEK CORPS)
 water supply for agriculture, industry, personal use The main objectives of this programme are to educate
is greatly reduced; children about their immediate environment and impart
 dry top soil is blown away by hot, dry winds; livestocks knowledge about the ecosystems, their inter­dependence
die; and their need for survival, through visits and
 increase susceptibility to vulnerable diseases demonstrations and to mobilise youngsters by instilling
especially diarrhoea. in them the spirit of scientific inquiry into environmental
problems and involving them in the conservation efforts.
Urbanisation and Pollution Since the modification of the scheme in 1993, large
With urbanization population gets unevenly dispersed. This number of Eco­ clubs have been provided grants in various
results in unbalanced demand for resources and even parts of the country. Keeping in view the potential of this
unbalanced release of harmful matter into the programme in sensitizing the school students, this
surroundings. Such harmful and often hazardous material programme is being intensely covered in each and every
comes from industrial, domestic, transport, vehicles etc. district of the country.
When released, they severely affect the soil, water and A programme of raising ‘National Green Corps’ (NGC)
air. through the Eco clubs was, launched during 2001­2002.
Under this programme, Eco­clubs are being set up in more
Green Technology than 100 schools of each District of the country. Almost
Technology in the 20th century was a boon for mankind. It 50,000 Eco­clubs have been set up so far in the country.
brought prosperity and modernization in the society by This programme is being implemented in each State/Union
the utilization of natural environmental resources. The Territory through the Nodal agency appointed by the State/
advancement in science & technology threatened the Union Territory Govt.
ecological security of the earth due to over utilization and The Government of India Provides financial assistance for
indiscriminate exploitation of scarce and exhaustible establishment of Eco clubs, training of Master Trainers,
resources. The use of natural resources in such teacher training and distribution of resource materials.

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Thus “green technology” abbreviated as Clean Tech This is targeted mainly on the ‘governmental
(Clean Technology) is the application of Environmental purchasing’ where care should be taken to avoid buying
Sciences to conserve the natural environment and of toxic substances.
resources and by curbing the negative impacts of human
Green Nanotechnology
involvement. It is a continuous process of development of
materials and methods for generating energy to give non­ Nanotechnology measns when the materials used are
toxic products. It is believed that the changes which this reduced to the nano scale i.e. one billionth of a meter.
technology will bring, will be of similar magnitude to that The application of Green technology to hand scale will
of Information Technology. bring a lot of development changes.

Expected Goals from this Technology Green Chemistry

Chemists are addressing complicated environmental issues
Sustainability: It will help to meet the present needs of
the society without compromising the needs of future in safe and profitable manner under various names like
generation. clean chemistry, environmentally benign or favourable
chemistry, sustainable chemistry and more popularly green
Cradle to Cradle Design chemistry, which means the judicious use of chemistry for
prevention of pollution. It involves modified engineering
The products obtained by this technology should not have
practices, bioremediation, eco firendly reaction media and
any toxic effects on the environment. On the contrary, if
concepts of atom economy leading to almost zero waste.
any by­products are obtained, they should be used in other
processes. All green environmental technologies for sustainable
development have to be cost­effective, economically
Source Reduction viable, ecologically sustainable and socially acceptable.
Acceptance of a technology by the society plays a very
Emphasis is laid here on ‘atom economy’ so that the waste
crucial role in its implementation and promotion. Cheaper
generated (by products or the unreacted reactants) are
and cost effective technology and technological products
minimum in the reaction technology.
are easily acceptable by society. Sometimes the technology
Innovation and its product appears costly, but is environmental
friendly, it will be benefitial for the society. Thus it is the
This technology will look into the alternatives to the existing responsibility of the mankind to decide their future. For
technologies which are harmful to human health and example, we should understand that use of fossil fuels and
environment, for instance these days a lot of research is non­biodegradable plastic bags, which are apparently
being done on biofuels which can be used instead of the cheaper than the alternatives available, are proving very
existing fossil fuels causing global warming. expensive in terms of degrading the environment and
affecting human health.
Viability
Some green technologies developed in the past
The technology used should not only be environmentally decades which have proved to be environment friendly
benign but also at the same time be economical to enhance are:
its implementation.
 A significant reduction in the air­borne lead and
Areas Covered Under Green Technology sulphur by developing un­leaded petrol and sulphur
free clean coal technology. More fuel efficient and
Energy
less polluting automobiles driven on Compressed
This is one of the most important areas of green technology Natural Gas (CNG), Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG),
which lays emphasis on the opportunities for development biofuels, and hybrid vehicles driven on rapidly
of the future alternative fuels for generating energy. chargeable electric batteries have further reduced
Green Buildings the emissions of CO, HC and NOx from transport
This includes the substances used as building materials and sectors.
the location of the building. Environmentally Preferred  The development of “genetically engineered crops”
Purchasing. have brought significant reduction in the use of

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chemical pesticides due to their high genetic (a) Industries especially the small scale industries which
resistance against pests and diseases. Use of do not have adequate pollution control system and
biodegradable pesticides and fertilizers have further hence cause violations to the existing norms.
reduced the degradation of the environment from (b) Illegal filling of water bodies/lakes and direct effluent
agriculture sectors. discharge into the rivers etc.
More efficient air pollution control equipments and (c) Cutting/felling of trees
devices for industries such as electrostatic precipitators,
(d) Automobile emissions causing tremendous air
flue­gas desulphurization units etc. to reduce particulates
pollution
and S02 emissions.
(e) Hazardous wastes (from hospitals etc.) which are not
 Use of alternate renewable sources of energy such
segregated and directly mixed with the Municipal
as solar energy, hydro energy, geothermal energy,
solid waste
Ocean energy etc. have further reduced the pollution
in the Environment from industrial sectors. (f) Ineffective waste collection system by the
municipalities of various state (garbage is dumped
 Recycling of community wastes such as paper, metal,
on the streets directly).
glass and some hazardous industrial wastes like fly
ash, slag, phospho­gypsum and red mud for (g) Construction of dams (famous Nannada dam) for
developing construction materials and useful development and in turn causing environmental
consumer products. degradation and may others.
Green technology promises mankind to One 23rd July 2007, the centre has asked bluntly the
‘Supreme Court’ to wind up its Green Bench because it
 Deliver clean, non polluting and renewable sources
feels that the Bench has outlived its utility. In a special
of energy.
case concerning the preservation of forests the Centre feels
 Work towards food security by developing safe and that the hearings in the apex court clearly favours the
nutritive crops, which have short harvest cycles, are people who are experts in law and not in forestry. Hence
pest and disease resistant, without harming the it has asked the court to wind up the “Forest Bench’ and
natural ecosystems. dispose of the writ petitions seeking a direction to the
 Optimise the use of natural resources and improve Centre and States and to take more adequate and effective
the efficiency of resource use, specially of water and steps to conserve and increase the forest cover of the
electricity. country.
 Manage all the wastes generated by their reduction,
re­use and re­ cycling and through cleaner production CARBON CREDITS
technologies which focus on zero­waste production.
One of the environmental threats our planet is racing today
Green Bench are the long term changes in the earth’s temperature and
Environmental Pollution has become a global problem. climatic pattern. This is known as Global Climate Change.
Hence every country developed/developing are putting Scientists are estimating that as a result of global climatic
emphasis on ways to minimize the environmental changes, the Earth’s temperature could increase by as
degradations. Laws are made in many countries for the much as six and a half degree (6.5°) Fahrenheit by the year
protection of the environment. The Supreme Court of India 2100. This increase in temperature could result in the
also felt the need to establishing the Green Benches in melting of glaciers, increase in the rise of sea levels to more
different High courts in various states of India to deal with than three feet and many other changes in the natural
the environmental issues within the state. The first Green and human systems. To prevent this sort of disruption, on
Bench was established in the Kolkata high court and started our planet efforts should be made to control global climatic
functioning in 1996. Till 2000 there are about 900 cases changes. An important step in this process was made in
reported to the Green Bench. 1995 when over 2500 scientists from the world agreed that
The cases reported to Green Bench are related to emissions of the six green house gases (Carbon dioxide,
various kinds of environment related issues such as: Methane, Nitrous Oxide, Hydrofluoric carbons (HCFs),

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Perflouro carbons (PFCs), Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6) from Carbon Credits for Indian Scenario
human activities have influenced the global climate. Thus India being a developing country is exempted from the
on 16ft February 2005, the ‘Kyoto Protocol’ finally came into requirement of adhering to the Kyoto Protocol, However
force. This protocol aims to solve the problem of global it can sell the carbon credits to the developed countries.
warming by setting target levels for nations to reduce the The sectors which can generate the carbon credits are
green house gas emissions to 5.2 per cent below 1990 level projects in wind mills, Bio­diesel, co­generation, Bio­gas,
by the year 2012. forestation etc.
The protocol is designed not only to reduce the
The Kyoto Mechanism
climatic ill effects of the industrialization but identify the
The Kyoto Protocol has three innovative mechanisms for economic beneficiaries (i.e. the developing countries) and
reducing the green house gas emissions. They are: make them more accountable in the damage

(i) Joint Implementation (ji) Carbon Trading and Carbon Credits

It is a project based mechanisms in which the developed Carbon trading is part of the large emission trading which
countries (Annexure 1 countries) can reduce their is a method to control pollution by using economic
incentives. In emission trading a central authority such as
emissions targets through joint projects with other
a government or an international body like the European
Annexure 1 developed countries. Here the investors could
Union sets a limit on the amount of the emitted pollutants.
be Government, companies, Private sectors etc. which will
The allowance to emit pollution is called ‘credit’ and if the
participate in the project activities of the host country to pollutant emitted is carbon dioxide, it is called carbon
generate Emission Reduction Units (ERUs) to use them for credit, if an industry or a company exceeds its emission
compliance with targets under the Kyoto Protocol. level it will have to buy the extra allowance or credits from
the countries which pollute less.
(ii) Clean Development Mechanism (CDM):
This mechanism is established by Article 12 of the Kyoto Merits of Carbon Credits
Protocol for project based emissions reduction activities The following are the advantages of carbon credits:
in the developing country. The main objective of the  This allows the total quantum of emissions to be
mechanism is to meet the sustainable development needs controlled without having to micromanage emissions
of the host country which is a developing county. This by each firm.
would also help in reducing the emissions level of green  This concept penalizes the party polluting the
house gases of the developed country which has invested environment by making it pay for the credit while
in the projects in the host country. the seller is rewarded monetarily.

(iii) International Emission Trading (IET): Demerits of carbon Credits

 Instead of policies that reduce emission, strict
In this mechanism, a country may allocate permits to
regulations, and penalties for polluters, this trading
individual companies for the emission of a certain quantity provides elaborate get out clauses for the biggest
of green house gases allotted by the Kyoto commitments. polluters.
If a country is incapable of meeting its target, it could buy
 Carbon trading is a new form of colonialism where
permits from other countries. Similarly companies within the developed countries would continue to pollute
a country that can reduce there emissions limits to a level the atmosphere by buying the credits from the
lower than the allowed limit can ‘sell’ or ‘trade’ their excess developing countries.
carbon credits to other polluting countries.  Licenses and credits well have no value without
Carbon credits as defined by the Kyoto Protocol are effective enforcement as the industries or companies
one metric ton of carbon dioxide emitted. The current may find it for less expensive to corrupt inspectors
prices of credits ranges from 12 Euros to 15 Euros. than to purchase emission licenses.

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Markets Set up for the Trading Meteorologists have attributed the heavy rain to the
Different markets have been set up for different emissions. phenomenon of El Nino, which is an oscillation of the
For carbon trading, the European Union is the largest ocean­atmosphere system in the tropical Pacific.
multinational trading centre where all the 27 members of Whenever it occurs, it has major consequences for the
the union are involved. The programs covered under this, weather around the globe.
caps the amount of carbon dioxide that can be emitted A very strong El Nino, perhaps the strongest in the history,
from large installations such as the power plants. The was prevailing in 2015 and it was expected to bring a
markets to reduce the acid rain is in the US where trading significantly above­normal rainfall during our North East
of nitrous oxide takes place. Markets for other pollutants Monsoon. But, El Nino alone cannot explain the formation
tend to be smaller and more localised. of a quick succession of rain­bearing weather systems,
which caused virtually non­stop downpour in November
CASE STUDY OF CHENNAI FLOOD : CLIMATE and early December.
CHANGE, EL NINO, AND HUMAN FOLLY
Did global warming cause the heavy rain? A single extreme
If was a perfect storm. It was also a man­made disaster weather event cannot be directly linked to global warming
that was waiting to happen. and climate change. Across the world, however, there has
On 1 December, 2015, Chennai received the season’s been a clear upward trend, in the past few decades,
heaviest rainfall. During the 24 hours before 0030 hours towards more unprecedented daily rainfall events that
on 2 December, 345 mm of rain fell on the city. Chennai cause high­impact flooding. The Indian Institute of Tropical
had not seen such rains in December since more than 100 Meteorology has found a definite increase in intense
years. And this downpour came on the heels of 1200 mm rainfall events associated with the North East Monsoon
of rain in November, which was three times the normal
over the past six decades. Also, El Nino itself might be
for that month and also a record for over 100 years.
influenced by climate change.
Large areas remained inundated for a few weeks, ground
floors were flooded and thousands of families lost their Why did the rain cause such unprecedented flooding?
belongings. Many were stranded in upper floors and There are two connected reasons for the flooding. First,
rooftops and went without adequate food and water for much of the flooding and subsequent water logging was a
several days. There was no power supply for three days consequence of the outflows from major reservoirs, which
and mobile communication was disrupted. Schools and flooded the Adyar and other waterways and overflowed
colleges were closed, trains and flights cancelled. into the city.
About 4 million out of the 7.2 million people in the city On 17 November, 18,000 cusecs of water was released
were affected. It was clear that it would take at least two from the Chembarambakkam lake, the source of drinking
years for the people to rebuild their lives. water for Chennai. Given the forecast of continuing rains,
In spite of the weather forecasts and the November reasonable amounts of water should have been released
experience, the State Government was caught unawares on the subsequent days. Instead, there was minimal
and was slow in bringing relief to the affected population. release until 1 December, when 29,000 cusecs of water
There was no immediate sign of the National Disaster was let out over 12 hours. All that water flowed into the
Response Force. But volunteers and NGOs were quick to already swollen Adyar river, its banks overflowed, water
act­they saved many lives and provided water and food to filled up the Buckingham canal and Cooum river too, and
the stranded people. There were extraordinary stories of
the entire city was flooded.
courage and selfless service. There were also some darker
stories of exploitation and looting. Now a second factor entered the situation. A few decades
Fishermen lent their boats and the Indian Army arrived ago, any such sudden increase of flow in the Adyar would
with their own boats and equipment. Thousands of have reached the Bay of Bengal without flooding the city.
marooned people were moved to safety, but some Also, excess rainwater would have found its way naturally
drowned in their homes. About 300 people died, but to the many lakes, ponds, and marshes that dotted Chennai
thousands were affected by the traumatic experience and and its surrounding areas.
loss of property. Two major questions arise about the It is said that Chennai and its neighbourhood had 43,000
disaster: water bodies in 1901. The number went down to about
 Why did it rain so much and in such a concentrated 650 in the 1990s and just 27 in 2015. The successive
way? governments in Tamil Nadu allowed rampant and illegal
 Why was the city unable to handle the downpour? construction along and over water bodies by filling them

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up. Almost every builder violated many rules, completed Those organizations which require more general
the construction, and later got it ‘regularized’. The guidance on a broad range of environmental management
government itself implemented such mass regularization system issues are referred to ISO: 14004.
schemes several times since 1988 right up to 2007.
But, the erstwhile lakes and ponds are still in low­lying Requirements of ISO: 14001:2004 Standard
areas and floodwaters tend to collect there. Also, the Adyar The following are the 17 requirements of ISO: 14001 : 2004
river itself is much narrower than what it was while the
standards.
Buckingham canal and Cooum river are just dump yards
for waste.  Environmental Polity: Development of a statement
Chennai has in the past experienced heavier rains on a committed to the environment.
single day. On 25 November, 1976, the city received 452  Environmental Aspects and Impacts: Identificantion
mm of rain. Yet, there was no flooding of this scale during of the activities, products and services of the
that time, because water flowed into the existing lakes organization affecting the environment.
and ponds. This time the water had nowhere to go.
 Legal and other Requirement: Identify and ensure
To sum up, the Chennai floods of December 2015 occurred
access to relevant laws and regulations.
due to the following reasons:
 The formation of low­pressure systems in quick  Objectives and Targets and Environmental
succession. This could be due to a powerful El Nino, Management Program: Setting of Short Term and
climate change, or both. Long Term goals and plan actions to achieve them.
 Unplanned and illegal ‘development’ on water bodies,  Structure and Responsibility: Assigning roles and
allowing no exit route for the water. responsibilities to all the members of the
 The sudden release of huge amount of water from organization.
reservoirs.  Training, Awareness and Competence: Providing
What should be done in Chennai in the aftermath of the training about the programme to the employees so
disaster? that they become competent to implement is.
 Further construction should be strictly regulated in all
 Communication: Development of processes for
the areas of the city.
internal and external communication of
 A Master Plan for the city should be implemented.
environmental management issues.
 A scientific method should be adopted for releasing
water from reservoirs. Computer models for this  EMS Documents: Maintaining written evidences of
purpose already exist. objectives, procedures, responsibilities etc.
 The public should be trained on responding to such  Document Control: Ensure effective management of
disasters. procedure and other documents.
 Operational Control: Identification, planning and
Environmental Management System management of the organizations operation and
Standards Iso 14000 Series activities.
The ISO: 14000 Series, currently being developed by the  Emergency Preparedness and Response:
International Organisation for Standardization (ISO) is a Development of procedures for preventing and
collection of standards and guidance documents to help responding to potential emergencies.
organizations adress environmental issues.  Monitoring and Measuring: Monitoring the key
activities to keep a track of performance.
In Sept. 1996, the International Organization of
standardization published the first edition of ISO: 14001,  Evaluation of compliance: Develop the procedure to
i.e. the Environmental Management System standard. ISO: periodically evaluate compliance with legal and other
14001 is a specification standard to which an organization requirements.
may receive certification or registration and is known to  Non­conformance & corrective and Preventive
be the foundation document of the entire series. A second AcGon: Identify and correct problems so that the
edition of ISO: 14001 was published in 2004. This recurrence of the non­compliance is avoided.
International Standard contains only those requirements  Records: Keep adequate records of EMS
that can be objectively audited. performance.

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 ENVIRONMENT An effort of Team EG
 EMS audits: Periodic verification of the system for  ISO 14020 ­ Goals and Principles of AH Environmental
achievements of objectives and targets. Labeling.
 Management Review: A review of the audit to find if  ISO 14021 - Environmental Labels and Declaration ­
the system is effective or not. Self Declaration Environmental Claims ­ Terms and
Definitions
Benefits of ISO: 14000 Certification  ISO 14024 ­ Environmental Labels and Declaration ­
The manufactures or production houses, who obtain ISO: Type 1 ­Guiding Principles and Procedures
14000 certification generally reap the following benefits:  ISO 14025 - Type 3 Eco­Profile labelling Technical
 Reduction in cost of manufacture/production Report.
 Optimization of management efficiency  ISO14031 – Environmental Management ­
Environmental performance Evaluation ­ Guidelines
 Scrap, solid and hazardous waste reduction
 ISO 14032 - Environmental Management ­
 Improved energy efficiencies
Environmental Performance Evaluation­ case studies
 Streamlining of documentation process Illustrating the use of ISO: 14031 Technical Report.
 Minimize environmental liabilities  ISO 14040 - Environmental Management – Life Cycle
 Demonstrate a good corporate image Assessment – Principles and Framework.
 Generate awareness for environmental concerns  ISO 14041 - Environmental Management ­ Life Cycle
Assessment ­ Goal and Scope definition
International Standards In The Iso 14000  ISO 14042 - Environmental management ­ Life Cycle
The relevant International standards in the ISO 14000 Assessment ­ Impact Assessment.
Family are given below:  ISO 14043 - Environmental Management ­ Life
 ISO 14001 ­ Environmental Management System ­ Cycle Assessment Interpretation
Specification with guidance for use.  ISO 14048 - Environmental Management ­ Life cycle
Assessment ­ Life cycle assessment data
 ISO 14004 ­ Environmental Management Systems
documentation format] ISO 14049 — Environmental
General Guidelines on Principles, Systems and
Management ­ Life cycle assessment ­ Examples of
Supporting Techniques.
Application of ISO: 14041 to Goals and scope.
 ISO 14010 ­ Guidelines for Environmental Auditing ­ Definition of Inventory Analysis Technical Report.
General Principles on Environmental Auditing.  ISO 14050 - Terms and Definitions ­ Guide on the
 ISO 14011 ­ Guidelines for Environmental Auditing ­ Principle for Terminology work.
Audit Procedures­ Auditing of Environmental  ISO 14061 — Information to Assist Forestry
management Systems. Organizations in the use of Environmental –
 ISO 14012 ­ Guidelines for Environmental Auditing ­ Management System Standards ISO I400I and ISO:
Qualification criteria for Environmental Auditors. 14004 Technical Report.

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7
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT

WHAT IS EIA? proceeding with the development, finding alternative

designs or sites which avoid the impacts,
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a process of incorporating safeguards in the design of the project,
evaluating the likely environmental impacts of a proposed or providing compensation for adverse impacts), and
project or development, taking into account inter-related finally to derive terms of reference for the impact
socio-economic, cultural and human-health impacts, both assessment;
beneficial and adverse.
3. Assessment and evaluation of impacts and
UNEP defines Environmental Impact Assessment development of alternatives, to predict and identify
(EIA) as a tool used to identify the environmental, social the likely environmental impacts of a proposed
and economic impacts of a project prior to decision- project or development, including the detailed
making. It aims to predict environmental impacts at an elaboration of alternatives;
early stage in project planning and design, find ways and 4. Reporting the Environmental Impact Statement
means to reduce adverse impacts, shape projects to suit (EIS) or EIA report, including an environmental
the local environment and present the predictions and management plan (EMP), and a non-technical
options to decision-makers. By using EIA both summary for the general audience.
environmental and economic benefits can be achieved,
5. Review of the Environmental Impact Statement
such as reduced cost and time of project implementation
(EIS), based on the terms of reference (scoping) and
and design, avoided treatment/clean-up costs and impacts public (including authority) participation.
of laws and regulations.
6. Decision-making on whether to approve the project
Components of EIA or not, and under what conditions; and

Although legislation and practice vary around the world, 7. Monitoring, compliance, enforcement and
environmental auditing. Monitor whether the
the fundamental components of an EIA would necessarily
predicted impacts and proposed mitigation measures
involve the following stages:
occur as defined in the EMP. Verify the compliance
1. Screening to determine which projects or of proponent with the EMP, to ensure that
developments require a full or partial impact unpredicted impacts or failed mitigation measures
assessment study; are identified and addressed in a timely fashion.
2. Scoping to identify which potential impacts are
relevant to assess (based on legislative requirements, Aims/Objectives Of EIA
international conventions, expert knowledge and Usually, the purpose and objectives of the EIA process
public involvement), to identify alternative solutions will be contained in legislation. The statement of aims
that avoid, mitigate or compensate adverse impacts varies from country to country, but generally includes
on biodiversity (including the option of not instrumental ends relating to sound decision making, and
A manish Singh Sir’s Initiative ENVIRONMENT
substantive ends relating to protection of the  EIA, therefore, is a process rather than a one-time
environment. activity. It should extend throughout and be
The main purpose of EIA is to facilitate the systematic integrated with the project planning and decision-
consideration of environmental issues as part of making process, so that EIA influences many stages
development decision-making. It does so primarily by over a considerable period of time and is not aimed
assembling and analysing information on the potential only at producing a report for the final approval stage
environmental effects of specific development proposals (see next section for critical decision points).
and how they can be best prevented or mitigated. EIA takes However, the approval stage is Still of critical
place before major decisions are taken and, ideally, while importance. As noted earlier, the EIA report
feasible alternatives and options to a proposed action are summarizes the results of this process and provides
still open. In this context, the decision-making process information that relates to project design, condition-
extends from project initiation to implementation. Thus, setting and, in certain systems, permitting and other
there are a number of key stages at which EIA can build types of authorization. In addition, the extent to
environmental considerations into project planning and which EIA-derived information is taken into account
design. and influences project approval or regulatory
decisions determines what happens “on the ground”
 Most attention, however, is given to the final
during project construction and operation. The
decision. With few exceptions, proposed
actions taken at these stages are instrumental to
developments that have undergone EIA are subject
realizing substantive benefits from the use of EIA,
to formal approval or authorization by the competent
particularly protecting the environment and avoiding
authority or other official body. Depending on the
disruption of local communities affected by a project.
EIA system, the approval process may be linked to
For the present purposes, two types of alternatives
regulatory authorization, including the issuance of
can be distinguished, although the difference
permits and licenses without which a project may
between them is not always clear. First, there are
not proceed. Typically, the approval process includes
alternatives to a proposed action, for example, a coal-
deciding whether or not the proposal is acceptable,
fired versus a hydropower generating station,
and if so, setting environmental terms and conditions
changing the site of a proposed dam or, in the case
for project implementation. When making that
of a flood-control proposal, structural and non-
decision, the approval body takes a variety of factors
structural options. Additionally, there are alternatives
into account, including the information provided by
within a proposed action, such as alternative
an EIA.
processes, layouts on site or other design aspects.
 In addition to EIA, other studies on financial,
Finally, and with particular reference to EIA, the “no-
economic and technical aspects of the project will
action” option should be included to provide an objective
be undertaken. By the time a project proponent or
baseline against which the other alternatives can be
initiator applies for an approval, a series of ‘internal”
measured and compared.
decisions will have been taken. At each point, an
explicit or implicit decision will be made on whether The Eight Guiding Principles
a proposal should be abandoned, amended or
There are eight guiding principles that govern the entire
proceed directly to the next stage. It is important that
process of EIA and they are as follows:
environmental issues are considered fully and
appropriately at these stages. Preferably, EIA should  Participation: An appropriate and timely access to
begin before site location and project design have the process for all interested parties.
become “fixed”. Otherwise, a project may have to  Transparency: All assessment decision and their basis
be altered or even abandoned, if an EIA shows that should be open and accessible.
significant adverse impacts will occur and cannot be  Certainty: The process and timing of the assessment
mitigated to make them acceptable. This is a waste should be agreed in advanced and followed by all
of time and money for all concerned. participants.
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 ENVIRONMENT An effort of Team EG
 Accountability: The decision-makers are responsible Transboundary Context; the United Nations Convention on
to all parties for their action and decisions under the the Law of the Sea; the European Union directives on
assessment process. environmental impact assessment; and the Protocol for
 Credibility: Assessment is undertaken with the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea against Pollution
professionalism and objectivity. from Land-based Sources.
 Cost-effectiveness: The assessment process and its Consideration should be given to improving
outcomes will ensure environmental protection at integration of NBSAPs and national development strategies
the least cost to the society. using SEA as a tool for such integration to promote the
 Flexibility: The assessment process should be able establishment of clear conservation targets through
to adapt to deal efficiently with any proposal and theNBSAP process. These targets should then be used for
decision making situation. the screening and scoping of targets of EIA and for
developing mitigation measures.
 Practicality: The information and outputs provided
by the assessment process are readily usable in Applying Eia
decision making and planning.
EIA is considered as a project management tool for
Why it is Important collecting and analyzing information on the environmental
effects of a project. As such, it is used to:
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), the Ramsar
 Identify potential environmental impacts,
Convention and the Convention on the Conservation of
Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS) recognize impact  Examine the significance of environmental
assessment as an important tool for helping ensure that implications,
development is planned and implemented with  Assess whether impacts can be mitigated,
biodiversity in mind. The CBD requests Parties to apply  Recommend preventive and corrective mitigating
impact assessment to projects, programmes, plans and measures,
policies with a potential negative impact on biodiversity.
 Inform decision makers and concerned parties about
Biodiversity is relevant to all types of impact the environmental implications, and
assessment and should be addressed at all levels, from  Advise whether development should go ahead.
environmental impact assessment carried out for individual
projects (EIA) to the strategic environmental assessment Eia and India
of policies, plans and programmes (SEA). Its values should
EIA was made mandatory for all developmental projects,
be addressed in social impact assessment; health impact
since 1980, by the Environmental Appraisal Committees
assessment may need to consider the role of biodiversity
of India. Ministry of Environment & Forests in the main
in disease transmission or biological control. Finally,
agency.
biodiversity provides commodities for international trade
EIA guidelines have been developed for the following:
that may be the subject of study in trade impact assessment
(sometimes referred to as sustainability impact 1. Industry and mining projects
assessment). 2. Thermal power projects
EIA procedures should refer to other relevant 3. River valley projects
national, regional and international legislation, regulations. 4. Rail, Road and Highway projects
guidelines and other policy documents such as the National 5. Port and Harbours
Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) documents, 6. Airports
the CBD and biodiversity-related conventions and
7. Communication Projects
agreements, including, in particular, the Convention on
8. New towns.
International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna
and Flora (CITES); the CMS and related agreements; the The projects for which EIA is essential include:
Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar, Iran, 1971); the (a) Major irrigation projects (b) hydel power projects
Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a (c) Multi purpose river valley projects (d) mining projects

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A manish Singh Sir’s Initiative ENVIRONMENT
(e) industries (f) thermal power projects (g) atomic power based on waste heat recovery boilers without using
plants (h) ports and harbours (i) large transportation and auxiliary fuel from the EC process.
communication projects (j) Settlements including towns/
cantonments, (k) Special projects located in ecologically Environmental Clearance To Developmental
fragile areas, (1) coastal area projects and (m) tourism Projects
projects including beach resorts. As per the provisions of the EIA Notification 2006, several
After detailed scrutiny and assessment, projects are meetings of the Expert Appraisal Committees were
either rejected or accepted (possibly subject to certain convened by the Ministry during the year for appraisal of
safeguards). The projects can be proceeded with only after category “A” projects from sectors of industry, thermal
environmental clearance is received. There has been power, infrastructure, river valley, mining and category “B”
considerable controversy recently over alleged delays and projects from States where SEIAAs have not been
setbacks to development plans due to environmental issues constituted/ reconstituted. As part of appraisal process,
being raised as, for instance, in the case of Tehri and Sardar wherever required, the Expert Appraisal Committees also
Sarovar Projects. visited project sites for obtaining first hand information
about the ground level realities and response of people
Environment Impact Assessment Notification living in the vicinity. Environmental Clearance (EC) was
2006 accorded to three hundred fifty three projects and Terms
The Environmental Impact Assessment has been used as a of Reference (TOR) were assigned to four hundred twenty
management tool to minimize adverse impacts of the three projects (between April to December, 2011).
developmental projects on the environment and to achieve
sustainable development through timely, adequate, Constitution Of State Environment Impact
corrective and protective mitigation measures. The Assessment Authorities (SEIAA)
Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) has used The Ministry has so far constituted twenty seven State/UT
Environmental Impact Assesment Notification 2006 as a level Environmental Impact Assessment Authorities
major tool to regulate rapid industrial development of the [SEIAA51/State Expert Appraisal Committees (SEACs)]
country for minimizing the adverse impact on environment under subsection [3] of section 3 of the Environment
and reversing the trends which may lead to climate change [Protection] Act, 1986 for appraisal of Category ‘B’ projects
in long run. and activities notified in the EIA Notification 2006.
The developmental projects have been re-
Accredition Of The Eia Consultants With
categorised into category ‘A’ and category ‘B’ depending
on their threshold capacity and likely pollution potential
Quality Council Of India (Qci)/ National
in the reengineered Environmental Impact Assessment Accredition Board Of Education And Training
(E1A) Notification of September 2006, requiring prior (NABET)
Environmental Clearance (EC) from MoEF or the concerned The Environmental Appraisal of Development projects is
State Environmental Impact Assessment Authorities undertaken as per the provisions of the Environmental
(SEIAAs). Further the notification provided for screening, Impact Assessment Notification, 2006 based on the EIA/
scoping, public consultation and appraisal of project EMP Reports prepared by the project proponents with the
proposals. assistance of their consultants. Good quality EIA Reports
are a prerequisite for appropriate decision making.
Amended Ela Notification 2009 Therefore, all the Consultants/public Sector Undertakings
With a view to further simplify the procedure for obtaining (PSUs) / Universities and Research Institutes working in
the environmental clearance without compromising or the area of Environmental Impact Assessment were
diluting the regulatory framework, the ETA notification has required to get themselves registered under the scheme
been amended in December, 2009. It exempts the biomass of Accredition and Registration of the National Accredirion
based power plants up to 15 MW, power plants based on Board of Education and Training (NABET) and the Quality
non hazardous municipal solid waste and power plants Council of India (QCI) by 30th June, 2011.
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 ENVIRONMENT An effort of Team EG
Coastal Regulation Zone And Society Of ensure that for the first time, local communities
Integrated Coastal Management (SICOM) including fishermen communities will have a
say in the preparation of the CZMPs.
Ministry has issued the Coastal Regulation Zone
Notification, 2011 in supersession of Coastal Regulation  The notification allows infrastructurai facilities
Zone Notification, 1991 after a series of consultations with for the local fishing communities to be
the various stakeholders including the fishermen constructed in the CRZ-III area.
community.  Port and harbour projects are not permissible
The objective of the new Notification is to ensure in high eroding stretches except for defence
projects.
livelihood security to fishing and other local communities
living in coastal areas, to conserve/protect coastal stretches Further, in view of the livelihood security of coastal
and to promote development based on scientific principles. communities the Ministry of Environment and Forests has
initiated an Integrated Coastal Zone Management Project
The notification covers the categorization of CRZ
with the World Bank assistance at an outlay of about Rs.
areas, permissible and prohibited activities, regulation of
1153 crores. Under this project, various components
permissible activities in CRZ areas, procedure for clearance,
including mangrove afforestation, coral restoration,
preparation of Coastal Zone Management Plans,
shoreline protection, hazard mitigation, alternative
demarcation of hazard line along the coastline including
livelihood are being implemented.
shoreline change, mapping and areas requiring special
consideration etc. To implement the above project, Society of Integrated
Coastal Management (SICOM) has been established as a
The salient provisions of the 2011 Notification are:
registered body. This Society will be implementing the CZM
Water area up to 12 nautical miles and the tidal projects having four major components namely, (i) National
influenced water bodies have been included under the Coastal Management Programme, and three ICZM projects
Coastal Regulation Zone areas in order to: in three States namely, Gujarat, Orissa and West Bengal.
 control the discharge of untreated sewage, effluents, Under the National component the demarcation of
and the disposal of solid wastes as such activities the hazard line has been assigned to Survey of India for
endanger the fish and their ecosystem; mapping the entire coastline of the country based on tides,
 conserve and protect habitats in the marine area such waves, sea level rise and shoreline changes.
as corals and coral reefs and associated biodiversity, In order to build a capacity in the country in the area
marine sanctuaries and biosphere reserves, sea grass of coastal management a National Centre for Sustainable
beds etc., which act as spawning nursery and rearing Coastal Management has been set up within Anna
grounds for fish and fisheries; University, Chennai. The Centre would address the issues
 regulate activities in the marine and coastal waters related to research & development, coastal management
such as dredging, sand mining, discharge of waste and coastal communities. In view of the historical
from ships, construction like groynes, breakwaters, importance of Salt Satyagraha undertaken at Dandi and
etc., including reclamation which have serious surrounding villages and at Vedaranyam by Mahatina
Gandhi and Shri Rajaji respectively, implementation of
impacts on fishing and allied activities;
Integrated Coastal Zone Management Project at these
 enable studies of the coastal and marine waters with
places has been undertaken as a major initiative by SICOM.
regard to the impact of the climate change and the
Under this project, the State level components are
occurrence of disasters which has serious impacts on
being implemented at Gulf of Kachchh in Gujarat (Rs.298
the livelihood and property of the fisher-folk
crores), Paradip-Dhamra and Gopalpur-Chilka stretch in
communities;
Orissa (Rs.202crores) and DighaShankarpur and Sagar
 No restrictions are imposed on any fishing activities islands in West Bengal (Rs.300 crores). The State
and allied activities of the traditional fishing components address the issues relating to coastal
communities in this area. management including improving livelihood of the local
 To invite comments on the draft Coastal Zone communities, disaster mitigation and promoting
Management Plan from stakeholders. This will sustainable alternative livelihoods.
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A manish Singh Sir’s Initiative ENVIRONMENT
EIA Benefits and Flaws Thus, the overall effectiveness of EIA in meeting its
EIA generates huge benefits in selection of project location, aims and objectives can be improved by applying the
process, design, development actions, and decision- process in accordance with the principles and guidelines.
making, however, in the current practice of EIA there are In particular, better delivery of substantive environmental
a number of flaws, shortcomings and deficiencies. The and social benefits can be promoted by the systematic
table below, summarizes apparent benefits and flaws of analysis of reasonable alternatives. Often, development
the EIA. objectives can be achieved in a number of ways.

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8
ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION

The awareness and consideration for environment covers legislation is necessary. Pollution is an important factor
several environmental issues such as pollution of water, and it does not observe political territories or legislative
air and soil, land degradation, industrialization, jurisdictions. Thus environmental problems are intrinsically
urbanization, depletion of natural resources etc. global in nature. Therefore, to prevent such problems
Environmental Law plays a very crucial and important environmental legislation is not needed only at the national
role in regulating the use of natural resources and in level but also at the international level.
protecting the environment. The success of environmental
legislations mainly depends on the way they are enforced. National Legislation
Legislation also serves as a valuable tool for educating At national level serious efforts have been made for the
masses about their responsibility in maintaining healthy improvement and protection of environment by
environment. Numerous legislations have already been put incorporating changes in the constitution of India. Our
forth at national and international levels. constitution, originally, did not contain any direct provision
regarding the protection of natural environment. However,
Environmental Legislation after the United Nations Conference on Human
The genesis of various legislations in the country lies in Environment, held in Stockholm in 1972. Indian
the environmental problems. There should the effective constitution was amended to include protection of the
legislations to protect the environment or else the need environment as a constitutional mandate.
for resources by the growing population will create havoc Although India had an Elephant’s Preservation Act
on the environment. The other important aspect is of 1879 and a Forest Act of 1927, environment related
enforcement of these laws. To safeguard our environment legislation came very late in 1972 with Wild Life Protection
from further degradation and pollution these must be Act 1971.
enforce laws forcefully and effectively. As we all know, India is one of the twelve mega
diversity countries. There are innumerable species, whose
Need for Legislation potential is not even known till date. Biodiversity has direct
In the recent past, numerous environmental problems have consumption value in agriculture, medicine and industry
become threatening for human welfare. An important apart from it being a nations’ wealth. There is constitutional
aspect of environmental problems is that their impact is provision in India for biodiversity conservation. The forty
not confined to the source area but spills over far and wide second amendment Clause (g) to Article 51A of the Indian
area. Effective legislation is needed in order to prevent constitution made it a fundamental duty to protect and
misuse and degradation of the environment. improve the natural environment. “It shall to be duty of
every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural
To curb the destructive practices of unscrupulous environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wild life
people, forest mafia groups, poachers, polluters and over and have compassion for living creatures.” There is a
exploitation of environmental resources, effective directive, given to the state as one of the Directive
A manish Singh Sir’s Initiative ENVIRONMENT
principles of the Policy regarding the protection and discharging pollutants into water bodies. A Central
improvement of the environment. Article 48A states “The Pollution Control Board performs the same functions
State shall Endeavour to protect and improve the for Union Territories and formulate policies and
environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of coordinates activities of different Slate Boards.
the country”.  The State Pollution Control Boards control sewage
The department of Environment was established in and industrial effluent discharge or impose
India in 1980 to ensure a healthy environment for the conditions while granting consent to discharge.
country. This later became the Ministry of Environment  The Act grants power to the Board to ensure
and Forests in 1985. This Ministry has overall responsibility compliance with the Act by including the power of
for administering and enforcing environmental legislations entry for examination, testing of equipment and
and policies. The constitutional provisions are backed by a other purposes and power to take the sample for
number of legislations ­ Acts and rules. Most of our the purpose of analysis of water from any stream or
environmental legislations are Acts of the Parliament or well or sample of any sewage or trade effluents.
the State Legislatures. These Acts generally delegate
 Prior to its amendment in 1988, enforcement under
powers to regulating agencies, to make rules for the
the Water Act was achieved through criminal
purpose of their implementation. The Environment
prosecutions initiated by the Boards, and through
Protection Act of 1986 (EPA) came into force soon after
applications to magistrates for injunctions to restrain
the Bhopal Gas Tragedy and is considered umbrella
polluters. The 1988 amendment strengthened the
legislation as it fills many lacunae in the existing
Act’s implementation the pollution provisions. Board
legislations. Thereafter, a large number of environmental
may close a defaulting industrial plant or withdraw
legislations have been passed to deal with specific
its supply of power or water by an administrative
environmental problems. For example in the recent past
order; the penalties are more stringent, and a citizen’s
the use of CNG for public transport vehicles has been made
suit provision supports the enforcement machinery.
mandatory in Delhi. This has reduced air pollution in Delhi.
(ii) The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution)
Pollution Related Acts
Cess Act of 1977
Among all the components of the environment air and
water are necessary to fulfill the basic survival needs of all The Water Cess Act was passed to generate financial
organisms. So, to protect them from degradation the resources to meet expenses of the Central and State
following acts have been passed. Pollution Boards. The Act creates economic incentives for
pollution control and requires local authorities and certain
 Water Acts
designated industries to pay a cess (tax) for water effluent
 Air Acts discharge. These revenues are used to implement the
 Environment Act Water Act. The Central Government, after deducting the
A few important legislations of each category with expenses of collection, pays the central board and the
brief description are given below: states such sums, as it seems necessary. To encourage
capital investment in pollution control, the Act gives a
(i) The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) polluter a 70% rebate of the applicable cess upon installing
Act of 1974 and Amendment, 1988 effluent treatment equipment.
The main objective of this act is to provide prevention and
control of water pollution and maintaining or restoring of
(iii) The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act
wholesomeness and purity of water (in the streams or wells of 1981 and amendment, 1987
or on land). Some important provisions of this Act are given To implement the decisions taken at the United Nations
below: Conference on the Human Environment held at Stockholm
 The Act vests regulatory authority in State Pollution in June 1972, Parliament enacted the nationwide Air Act.
Control Boards and empowers these Boards to The main objectives of this Act are to improve the
establish and enforce effluent standards for factories quality of air and to prevent, control and abate air pollution
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 ENVIRONMENT An effort of Team EG
in the country. Important provisions of this Act are given of 1972, in so far as they relate to the protection and
below: improvement of the human environment and the
 The Air Act’s framework is similar to that of the Water prevention of hazards to human beings, other living
Act of 1974. To enable an integrated approach to creatures, plants and property. The Act is an “umbrella”
environmental problems, the Air Act expanded the for legislations designed to provide a framework for Central
authority of the central and state boards established Government, coordination of the activities of various
under the Water Act, to include air pollution control. central and state authorities established under previous
Acts, such as the Water Act and the Air Act. In this Act,
 States not having water pollution boards were
main emphasis is given to “Environment”, defined to
required to set up air pollution boards.
include water, air and land and the inter­relationships
 Under the Air Act, all industries operating within which exist among water, air and land and human beings
designated air pollution control areas must obtain a and other living creatures, plants, micro­organisms and
“consent” (permit) from the state Boards. property.
 The states are required to prescribe emission “Environmental pollution” is the presence of
standards for industry and automobiles after pollutant, defined as any solid, liquid or gaseous substance
consulting the central board and noting its ambient present in such a concentration as may be or may tend to
air quality standards. be injurious to the environment. “Hazardous substances”
 Act granted power to the Board to ensure compliance include any substance or preparation, which may cause
with the Act including the power of entry for harm to human beings, other living creatures, plants,
examination, testing of equipment and other microorganisms, property or the environment.
purposes and power to take the sample for the The main provisions of this Act are given below:
purpose of analysis of air or emission from any  Section 3 (1) of the Act empowers the centre to “take
chimney, fly ash or dust or any other outlet in such a all such measures as it deems necessary or expedient
manner as may be prescribed. for the purpose of protecting and improving the
 Prior to its amendment in 1987, the Air Act was quality of the environment and preventing,
enforced through mild court administered penalties controlling and abating environmental pollution”.
on violations. The 1987 amendment strengthened Specifically, the Central Government is authorized
the enforcement machinery and introduced stiffer to set new national standards for the quality of the
penalties. Now, the boards may close down a environment (ambient standards) as well as
defaulting industrial plant or may stop its supply of standards for controlling emissions and effluent
electricity or water. A board may also apply to the discharges; to regulate industrial locations, to
court to restrain emissions that exceed prescribed prescribe procedures for managing hazardous
limits. Notably, the 1987 amendment introduced a substances; to establish safeguards preventing
citizen’s suit provision into the Air Act and extended accidents, and to collect and dismantle information
the Act to include noise pollution. regarding environmental pollution.
 By virtue of this Act, Central Government has armed
Environment Acts itself with considerable powers which include,
The most important legislation in this category is The coordination of action by state, planning and
execution of nation wide programmes, laying down
Environment (Protection) Act of 1986, Through this Act
environmental quality standards, specially those
Central Government gets full power for the purpose of
governing emission or discharge of environmental
protecting and improving the quality of the environment
pollutants, placing restriction on the location of
and preventing, controlling and abating pollution. Details
industries and so on.
of this Act are given below:
 The coverage of powers include handling of
Act of 1986 hazardous substances, prevention of environmental
accidents, inspection of polluting units, research,
The purpose of the Act is to implement the decisions of establishment of laboratories, dissemination of
the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment information, etc.
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A manish Singh Sir’s Initiative ENVIRONMENT
 The Environment (Protection) Act was the first What was COP 21 and the Paris Agreement
environmental legislation to give the Central on Climate Change?
Government authority to issue direct orders, included COP 21 was the 21st Conference of the Parties to UNFCCC
orders to close, prohibit or regulate any industry, held in Paris in December 2015. It was attended by all the
operation or process or to stop or regulate the supply Parties as well as many world leaders including President
of electricity, water or any other service to an Obama of the US and Prime Minister Narendra Modi. After
industry, operation and process. Another power two weeks of negotiations, the conference adopted an
granted to the Central Government was to ensure Agreement. What was agreed upon in Paris will act as a
compliance with the Act which included the power blueprint and catalyst for future international climate
of entry for examination, testing of equipment and action and will largely decide the fate of humanity as a
other purposes and power to analyze the sample of whole.
air, water, soil or any other substance from any place.
Key Provisions of the Paris Agreement on Climate
 The Act explicitly prohibits discharges of
Change
environmental pollutants in excess of prescribed
regulatory standards. There is also a specific The Agreement ends the strict differentiation between
prohibition against handling hazardous substances developed and developing countries that characterized
earlier efforts, replacing it with a common framework that
except those in compliance with regulatory
commits all countries to put forward their best efforts and
procedures and standards. Persons responsible for
to strengthen them in the years ahead.
discharge of pollutants in excess of prescribed
standards must prevent or mitigate the pollution and  Reaffirms the goal of limiting global temperature
increase well below 20°C while urging efforts to limit
must also to report the governmental authorities.
the increase to 1.5 degrees.
 The act provides for penalties. Any person who fails  Establishes binding commitments by all parties to
to comply with any of the provision of the act, or the make ‘nationally determined contributions’ (NDCs),
rules, orders, or directions issued under the Act shall and to pursue domestic measures aimed at achieving
be punished. them.
 For each failure or contravention the punishment  Commits all countries to report regularly on their
included a prison term up to five years or fine up to emissions and progress made in implementing and
Rs. 1 lakh, or both. The Act imposed an additional achieving their NDCs, and to undergo international
review.
fine of up to Rs. 5,000 for every day of continuing
 Commits all countries to submit new NDCs every five
violation. If a failure or contravention, occurs for
years, with the clear expectation that they will
more than one year after the date of conviction, an
‘represent a progression’ beyond previous ones.
offender may punished with imprisonment term,  Reaffirms the obligations of developed countries
which may be extend to seven years. under the UNFCCC to support the efforts of
 The Environment (Protection) Act contains significant developing countries, while for the first time
innovations for its enforcement, not contained in any encouraging voluntary contributions by developing
other pollution control legislation at the time of the countries too.
Act’s adoption. Section 19 provides that any person,  Extends the current goal of mobilizing $100 billion a
in addition to authorized government officials, may year in support by 2020 through 2025, with a new,
file a complaint with a court alleging an offence under higher goal to be set for the period after 2025.
the Act. This “Citizens’ Suit” provision requires that  Extends a mechanism to address ‘loss and damage’
resulting from climate change, which explicity will
the person has to give notice of not less than 60 days
not ‘involve or provide a basis for any liability or
of the alleged offence of pollution to the Central
compensation’.
Government or the competent authority. Under the
 Calls for a new mechanism, similar to the Clean
Act, the Central Government may, by notification in Development Mechanism under the Kyoto Protocol
the office Gazette, make rules for the enforcement enabling emission reductions in one country to be
of the Act. counted toward another country’s NDC.
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What would be a balanced assessment of the Paris environmental problems and differences in their respective
Agreement? economic and technical capacity to tackle these problems.
Despite their common responsibilities, important
Many world leaders, business leaders and environmental
differences exist between the stated responsibilities of
groups hailed the Agreement as a success. On the positive
developed and developing countries.
side, it was a historic and landmark agreement, since 194
countries accepted the need to act on climate change and CBDR was first expressed in the Rio Declaration,
adopted a common deal. issued at the end of the Earth Summit in 1992. It states: ‘In
view of the different contributions to global environmental
There were, however, many voices of dissent.
degradation, States have common but differentiated
According to the critics, the proposed steps, even if fully
responsibilities. The developed countries acknowledge the
implemented, will not prevent severe climate change from
occurring, due to these reasons: responsibility that they bear in the international pursuit
of sustainable development in view of the pressures their
 The agreement does not bind any country (developed
societies place on the global environment and of the
or developing) to specific targets for emission
technologies and financial resources they command.’
reduction. All such targets are voluntary.
Similar language exists in the UNFCCC: Parties
 There is no mention of the global carbon budget and
should act to protect the climate system ‘on the basis of
each country’s fair share.
equality and in accordance with their common but
 There are no clear provisions on financing the differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities.’
mitigation measures.
The principle of common but differentiated
What is the status of the Paris Agreement? responsibility includes two fundamental elements:

 The Agreement was open for signature and  The first concerns the common responsibility of
ratification by each country from 22nd April 2016 States for the protection of the environment, or parts
onwards. India, China and the US were among the of it, at the national, regional, and global levels.
177 Parties who signed the Agreement on the  The second concerns the need to take into account
opening day. the different circumstances, particularly each State’s
contribution to the evolution of a particular problem
 The Agreement shall enter into force on the 30th day
and its ability to prevent, reduce and control the
after the date on which at least 55 Parties to the
Convention accounting in total for at least an threat.
estimated 55% of the total global greenhouse gas Over the years of climate change negotiations, the
emissions have deposited their instruments of concept of CBDR weakened and it was not emphasized at
ratification, acceptance, approval or accession with all in the Paris Agreement.
the Depositary.
TIMELINE OF MAJOR UN CLIMATE
 As of June 2016, 17 of the 177 signatories to the
CHANGE NEGOTIATIONS
Agreement had ratified it. They are mostly the small
island developing states such as Tuvalu and the 1979 The first World Climate Conference (WCC)
Maldives, who are immediately and seriously affected takes place.
by climate change. 1988 The Inter­governmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) is set up.
What is meant by ‘Common But Differentiated 1990 IPCC’s First Assessment Report released. UN
Responsibility’ and what is the status of this General Assembly negotiations on a
concept? framework convention begin.
The principle of CBDR evolved from the notion of the 1992 Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee
‘Common Heritage of Mankind’ and is a manifestation of (INC) adopts text of UN Framework
general principles of equity in international law. The Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
principle recognizes historical differences in the 1992 Earth Summit, Rio de Janeiro: UNFCCC opened
contributions of developed and developing States to global for signature along with CBD and UNCCD.

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A manish Singh Sir’s Initiative ENVIRONMENT
1994 UNFCCC enters into force. trophies, and judicially imposed penalties for violating the
1995 The first Conference of the Parties (COP 1) Act. Harming endangered species listed in Schedule 1 of
takes place in Berlin. the Act is prohibited throughout India. Hunting species,
like those requiring special protection (Schedule II), big
1997 Kyoto, Japan: Kyoto Protocol formally
adopted; concept of carbon credit introduced. game (Schedule III), and small game (Schedule IV), is
regulated through licensing. A few species classified as
2001 IPCC’s Third Assessment Report released.
vermin (Schedule V), may be hunted without restrictions.
Marrakesh Accords adopted at COP 7,
Wildlife wardens and their staff administer the act.
detailing rules for implementation of Kyoto
Protocol, setting up new funding and planning An amendment to the Act in 1982, introduced a
instruments for adaptation, and establishing provision permitting the capture and transportation of wild
a technology transfer framework. animals for the scientific management of animal
2005 Kyoto Protocol enters into force. population. India is a signatory to the Convention of
International Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and
2007 IPCC’s Fourth Assessment Report released.
Climate science entered into popular
Flora (CITES, 1976). Under this convention, export or import
consciousness. COP 13: Bali Road Map agreed of endangered species and their products are governed
on. by the conditions and stipulations laid down therein. Indian
government has also started some conservation projects
2009 COP 15: Copenhagen Accord drafted.
for individual endangered species like Hungal (1970), Lion
Countries submit non­binding pledges for
emissions reductions or mitigation action.
(1972), Tiger (1973), Crocodiles (1974), Brown­antiered
Deer (1981) and Elephant (1991­92).
2010 COP 16: Cancun Agreements.
2011 COP 17: Durban Platform for Enhanced Action (ii) The Forest (Conservation) Act of 1980
accepted.
First Forest Act was enacted in 1927. This is one of the
2012 Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol many surviving colonial legislations. It was enacted to
adopted. consolidate the law related to forest, the transit of forest
2013 COP 19: Green Climate Fund and Long­Term produce and the duty livable on timber and other forest
Finance, the Warsaw Framework for REDD+ produce. Subsequently, the Forest (Conservation) Act was
and the Warsaw International Mechanism for promulgated in 1980 to make certain reforms over the
Loss and Damage. preceding Act of !927.The 1927 Act deals with the four
2014 IPCC’s Fifth Assessment Report released. COP categories of the forests, namely reserved forests, village
20: Lima Call for Action. forests, protected forests and private forests.
2015 COP 21: 195 countries adopt Paris Agreement A state may declare forestlands or waste lands as
on climate change. reserved forest and may sell the produce from these
forests. Any unauthorized felling of trees quarrying, grazing
and hunting in reserved forests is punishable with a fine
BIODIVERSITY RELATED ACTS or imprisonment, or both reserved forests assigned to a
India is one of the few countries, which had a forest policy village community are called village forests.
since 1984. To protect forest and wild life following The state governments are empowered to designate
legislations have been enacted. protected forests and may prohibit the felling of trees.
quarrying and the removal of forest produce from these
(i) The Wild Life (Protection) Act of 1972 and Amend- forests. The preservation of protected forests is enforces
ment, 1982 through rules, licenses and criminal prosecutions. Forest
In 1972, Parliament enacted the Wild Life Act (Protection) officers and their staff administer the Forest Act. Alarmed
Act. The Wild Life Act provides for state wildlife advisory at India’s rapid deforestation and resulting environmental
boards, regulations for hunting wild animals and birds, degradation, Centre Government enacted the Forest
establishment of sanctuaries and national parks, (Conservation) Act in 1980. Under the provisions of this
regulations for trade in wild animals, animal products and Act, prior approval of the Central Government is required

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for diversion of forestlands for non­forest purposes. An projects are exempted provided they are drawn as per the
Advisory Committee constituted under the Act advises the policy guidelines of the Central Government and have its
Centre on these approvals. approval the objectives of conservation, sustainable use
and benefit sharing. However, Indian citizens/entities/local
Biodiversity Act 2000 people including voids and hakims to have free access to
India’s richness in biological resources and indigenous use biological resources within the country for their own
knowledge relating to them is well recognized. One of the use, medicinal purposes and research purposes.
major challenges is in adopting an instrument which helps While granting approvals, NBA will impose terms and
realize the objectives of equitable benefit sharing conditions to secure equitable sharing of benefits. Before
enshrined in the Convention. Towards this, legislation on applying for any form of IPRs (Intellectual Property Rights)
biodiversity was developed following an extensive in or outside India for an invention based on research or
consultative process. The legislation aims at regulating information on a biological resource obtained from India,
access to biological resources so as to ensure equitable prior approval of NBA will be required. There is an enabling
sharing of benefits arising from their use. The Biological provision for setting up a framework for protecting
Diversity Bill, which was introduced in the Parliament on traditional knowledge, The monetary benefits, fees,
15th May, 2000, was referred to the department related royalties as a result of approvals by NBA to be deposited in
Parliamentary Standing Committee for Science, National Biodiversity Fund, which will be used for
Technology, Environment and Forests for examination and conservation and development of areas from where
report. resource has been accessed, in consultation with the local
After examination of witnesses and recording self­government concerned. There is provision for notifying
evidences, the Standing Committee approved the Bill with National Heritage Sites important from standpoint of
some amendments. The Cabinet approved the proposal biodiversity by State Governments in consultation with
for moving the official amendments based upon the local self­government. There also exists provision for
recommendations of the Committee. The Biological notifying items, and areas for exemption provided such
Diversity Bill 2002 has been passed by the Lok Sabha on exclusion does not violate other provisions. This is to
2 nd December, 2002 and by the Rajya Sabha on 11 th exempt normally traded commodities so as not to adversely
December, 2002. affect trade.
This bill seeks to check biopiracy, protect biological
Salient features of the biodiversity legislation diversity and local growers through a three­tier structure
The main intent of this legislation is to protect India’s rich of central and state boards and local committees. These
biodiversity and associated knowledge against their use will regulate access to plant and animal genetic resources
by foreign individuals and organizations without sharing and share the benefits. The proposed National Biodiversity
the benefits arising out of such use, and to check biopiracy. Authority (NBA) will deal with all cases of access by
The Act provides for setting up of a National Biodiversity foreigners. Its approval will be required before obtaining
Authority (NBA), State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs) and any inteliectual property right on an invention based on a
Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs) in local biological resource from India, or on its traditional
bodies. NBA and SBB are required to consult BMCs in knowledge. It will oppose such rights given in other
decisions relating to use of biological resources or related countries. The NBA will enjoy the power of a civil court. In
knowledge within their jurisdiction and BMCs are to addition, centre may issue directives to state if it feels a
promote conservation, sustainable use and documentation naturally rich area is threatened by overuse, abuse or
of biodiversity. neglect.
All foreign nationals or organizations require prior
International Legislations
approval of NBA for obtaining biological resources and
associated knowledge for any use. Indian individuals / There is no international legislation body with authority
entities require approval of NBA for transferring results of to pass legislation similar to national legislations, nor are
research with respect to any biological resources to foreign there international agencies with power to regulate
nationals/organizations. Collaborative research projects resources at a global scale. As a result, international
and exchange of knowledge and resources under these legislation must depend on the agreement of the parties

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A manish Singh Sir’s Initiative ENVIRONMENT
concerned. Certain issues of multinational concern are Montreal Protocol
addressed by collection of policies, agreements, and The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has
treaties that are loosely called International Environmental been addressing this issue since 1977. Under the auspices
Legislations. Most of the international legislations are of UNEP, the nations of the world arrived at The Convention
international agreements to which nations adhere
for the Protection of the Ozone Layer in Vienna in 1985.
voluntarily. These agreements are generally finalized
Through this convention, nations committed themselves
through international conventions or treaties. Nations that
to protecting the ozone layer and to co­operate with each
have agreed to be bound by the convention are known as
other in scientific research to improve the understanding
Parties. Convention provides a framework to be respected
of the atmospheric processes and serious consequences
by each party, which has to adopt its own national
of ozone depletion. The convention provides for future
legislations to make sure that convention is implemented
protocols and specified procedures for amendment and
at national level. To support the conventions, some time
dispute settlement.
protocols are also to be framed,
To pursue the objectives of convention for the
A protocol is an international agreement that stands
protection of ozone layer the Montreal Protocol on
on its own but is linked to an existing convention. This
means that the climate protocol shares the concerns and Substances that deplete the Ozone layer was agreed to by
principles set out in the climate convention. It then builds nations in 1987 and has since been amended five times so
on these by adding new commitments­which are stronger far. Its control provisions were strengthened through five
and far more complex and detailed than those in the amendments to the Protocol adopted in London (1990),
convention. Copenhagen (1992), Vienna (1995), Montreal (1997) and
Beijing (1999). The Protocol aims to reduce and eventually
WETLAND CONVENTION (RAMSAR eliminate the emission of man­made ozone depleting
CONVENTION) substances.
It is an international convention came in force in 1975. The Vienna Convention and Montreal Protocol are
The convention provides the framework for international considered as highly effective regime for reducing and
cooperation for the conservation and wise use of wetland possibly, in the future, climinating ­emissions of ozone
habitats. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and
depleting chemicals into the atmosphere.
Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) serves as the Depositary
for the Conversion, and its secretariat, the Ramsar Bureau, The Montreal Protocol uses three kinds of provisions
is in Gland, Switzerland. India became signatory to this as economic incentives to encourage participation and
convention on in 1981. compliance with the Protocol’s control regime; (1) entry
The convention aims to halt the loss of wetlands and to into force requirements, (2) controls on trade with non­
ensure the conservation of fauna and flora and their parties, and (3) research and technology transfer benefits.
ecological processes. Obligations of parties include: The Protocol promotes technology transfer to developing
 designating one or more wetlands for inclusion in the countries, thereby offering economic incentives for
list of wetlands of international importance (e.g. six developing countries to join and comply through a network
Ramsar wetlands in India). of 507 monitoring stations located all over the country.
 promoting wise judicious use of wetlands, including Under the National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring
mangroves. Programme, 290 station covering over 90 cities/towns are
 promoting conservation of wetlands through being monitored by the CPCB (Central Pollution Control
establishment of nature reserves. Board).
 irrespective of their listing under the Convention and
managing wetlands for the benefit of water fowl. Climate Conventions
 promoting training in the field of wetland research, Global warming (greenhouse effect) is probably the
managing and warding. greatest threat to the future of the planet. It is mainly
 consulting with other parties about implementation caused by gases (gases like carbon dioxide, methane,
of the convention, especially with regard to trans nitrous oxide, CFCs, water vapors) emitted by industrialized
frontier wetlands, shared water systems, shared countries on the burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas)
species, and development of wetland projects. for electricity, heating and transport. Because of gases that
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have been emitted in the past, and are still pouring into interference with the climate system. Such a level should
the atmosphere it is already too late to prevent some be achieved within a time frame sufficient to allow
climate change. However, if we start reducing emissions ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, to ensure
row, we may be able to avoid some of the worst effects. the food production is not threatened and to enable
Today, action occurs at every level to produce, to economic development to proceed in a sustainable
avoid, and to understand the risks associated with climate manner.
change. Many nations have prepared national plans and In pursuance with the objectives of the Convention
are actively pursuing programmes and policies that will of climate change the Kyoto Protocol was agreed upon in
result in green gas emission reduction. At the global level, December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan. The Protocol calls on all
countries, around the world have expressed a firm parties – developed nations and developing nations – to
commitment stop climate change and strengthen take a number of steps to formulate national and regional
international action and broader participation under the programmes to improve “local emission factors”. Activity
auspices of the UN Framework Convention on Climate data, models, and national inventories of greenhouse gas
Change (UNFCCC). emissions and sinks that remove these gases from the
atmosphere. All parties are also committed to formulate,
CARBON TAX publish and update climate change mitigation and adoption
Many countries now impose tax on green house gas measures, and to cooperate in promotion and transfer of
emission from fossil fuel emissions. Taxes motivate environmentally sound techniques and in scientific and
industries to improve efficiency and develop CO2 capturing technical research on the climate system.
technologies.
Biological Diversity Convention
CARBON SEQUESTRATION
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was adopted
Automobiles, power plants and industries add a lot of CO2
during the United Nations Conference on Environment and
from burning of fossil fuels. To mitigate the emission, large
Development (UNCED ­ or the “Earth Summit”) in Rio de
scale tree plantations may be created improving
Janeiro on 5 June 1992. CBD has been instrumental in
agricultural practices also to sequester CO2 from the
highlighting conservation of biodiversity on the
atmosphere.
international agenda and its implementation on national
UN Framework Convention on Climate Change level. More than 150 states have signed the Convention,
(UNFCCC) is the landmark international treaty unveiled at and it entered into force on 29 December 1993. By May
the United Nations Conference on Environment and 1998 a total of 174 states had ratified the Convention,
Development in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992. The UNFCCC making it one of the most widely adopted environmental
commits signatory countries to limit anthropogenic treaties of all times. India ratified the Convention in 1994.
(i.e., human induced) greenhouse gas emissions to levels The CBD places emphasis on decision making at the
that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic national level. The CBD has 42 articles.



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 CHAPTER

9
ENVIRONMENTAL RELATED INSTITUTIONS AND ORGANISATION

The role of national government is critical for control of National Environmental Agencies
environmental pollution control, conservation and The Ministry of Environment and Forest, Central Pollution
improvement of environment for promoting sustainable Control Board. Indian Board for Wildlife are the main
development. To address the diverse environmental issues national environmental agencies.
a number of environment related institutions and
organization have been setup at international, national The Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF)
level by United Nations, national governments and civil
The Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) is the
society. An environmental organization is an organization
nodal agency in the administrative structure of the Central
seeks to protect, analyze or monitor the environment
Government, for planning, promoting, coordinating and
against misuse or degradation or lobby for these goals.
overseeing the implementation of environmental and
Environmental organization may be a government
forestry programmes in the country. The main activities
organization, a nongovernment organization, a charity or
undertaken by the ministry include conservation and
trust. Environmental organizations can be global, national,
survey of the flora and fauna of India, forests and other
or local.
wilderness areas; prevention and control of pollution;
Historical Background To Environmental afforestation and reducing land degradation. It is
Institutions In India responsible for the administration of the national parks of
India. The main tools utilized for this include surveys,
India’s consciousness to protect the environment and to
environmental impact assessment, control of pollution,
restore it, exists since the early days of civilisation. The
regeneration programmes, support to organizations,
vedic and post-vedic history bears testimony to this.
research to find solutions and training to augment the
However, in the modem days, especially in the post
requisite manpower, collection and dissemination of
independent era because of high priority to economic
environmental information and creation of environmental
growth, environment receded to a less important place. It
awareness among all sectors of the country’s population.
is only in 1972 steps were initiated with the formation of
The Ministry is also the nodal agency in the country for
the National Committee on Environmental Planning and
the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
Coordination(NCEPC) that gradually evolved as a separate
department of environment and reached the full-fledged
Central Pollution Control Board
stage of Ministry of Environment and Forests in 1985.
Initially the Constitution of India did not contain any The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), is statutory
provision towards the promotion/protection of organisation, was constituted in September, 1974 under
environment. However, the 42nd amendment of the the Water (Prevention and control of Pollution) Act, 1974.
constitution in 1977 added some important clauses that Further, CPCB was entrusted with the powers and functions
entrusted the government the responsibility of providing under the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act,
a clean and well-protected environment 1981. It serves as a field formation and also provides
A manish Singh Sir’s Initiative ENVIRONMENT
technical services to the Ministry of Environment and In India, states do not pursue independent
Forests of the Provision of the Environment (Protection) environmental policy of their own but adopt the policies
Act, 1986.Principal functions of the CPCB, as spelt out in formulated at the national level subject to such variations
the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, as may be necessary to suit to the local conditions. The
and the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981, central government has also been issuing guidelines to the
(i) to promote cleanliness of streams and wells in different states on various environmental matters.
areas of the States by prevention, control and abatement
of water pollution, and (ii) to improve the quality of air Indian Board for Wildlife (IBWL)
and to prevent, control or abate air pollution in the country. The IBWL is the apex advisory body in the field of Wildlife
Air Quality Monitoring is an important part of the air Conservation in the country and is headed by the
quality management. The National Ambient Air Quality Honorable Prime Minister of India. The IBWL has been
Monitoring (NAAQM) Programme has been established reconstituted w.e.f. 7.12.2001.
with the objectives to determine the present status of air
International Environmental Agencies
quality, for controlling and regulating emission of air
pollutants from industries and other sources to meet the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), World
air quality standards. It also provides background air quality Health Organisation (WHO) and Food and Agriculture
data needed for setting of industries and town planning. Organisation (FAO) are some of the main international
Fresh water is a finite resource essential for use in agencies.
agriculture, industry, propagation of wildlife and fisheries
United Nations Environment Programme
and for human existence. India is a riverine country but
(UNEP)
there are numerous lakes, ponds and wells which are used
as primary source of drinking water even without UNEP was created by United Nations General Assembly,
treatment. Most of the rivers being fed by monsoon rains, as an outgrowth of the United Nations Conference on the
which are limited to only three months of the year, run Human Environment, held in Stockholm, Sweden that same
year. The United Nations Conference on the Environment
dry throughout the rest of the year often carrying
and Development took place in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 and
wastewater discharges from industries or cities or towns
the World Summit on Sustainable Development, held in
endangering the quality of our scarce water resources. The
Johannesburg in 2002.(also known as RIO+10) did not
parliament of India in its wisdom enacted the Water
substantially change its configuration. It is headquartered
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 with a view
in Nairobi (Kenya).
to maintaining and restoring wholesomeness of our water
bodies. One of the mandates of CPCB is to collect, collate UNEP’s main mandate is to coordinate the
development of environmental policy for keeping the
and disseminate technical and statistical data relating to
global environment under review and bringing marginal
water pollution. Hence, Water Quality Monitoring (WQM)
issues to the attention of government and the international
and Surveillance are of utmost importance.
community for action. It activities cover a wide range of
The scheme of labeling of Environment Friendly issues encompassing the atmosphere, marine and
Products is on anvil for household and other consumer terrestrial ecosystems. UNEP has played a significant role
products to meet certain environment criteria along with in developing international environmental conventions,
the quality requirements of Indian Standards. The scheme promoting environmental science and information and
is known as Ecomark Scheme of India. illustrating the way those can work with national
governments and regional institution and Non-
Environmental Governance and State Pollution Con- Governmental Organizations (NGOs). UNEP has also been
trol Board active in funding and implementing environment related
The umbrella Act, EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) development projects for promoting sustainable
1986 added strength to all preceding provisions. Special development through sound environmental practices.
stipulations were made for industrial, vehicular and noise The implementation of UNEP’s work is done by the
pollution control in the country. following seven divisions:

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 Early Warning and Assessment Activities
 Environmental Policy Implementation Activities of WHO includes coordinating international
 Technology, Industry and Economics efforts to monitor outbreaks of infectious diseases, such
 Regional Cooperation as SARS(Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome), malaria,
 Environmental Law and Conventions swine flu, and AIDS as well as to sponsor programs to
 Global Environment Facility Coordination prevent and treat such diseases. The WHO supports the
 Communications and Public Information development and distribution of safe and effective
vaccines, pharmaceutical diagnostics and drugs. After over
Among UNEP’s many initiatives is the “Clean Up the
two decades of fighting smallpox, the WHO declared in
World” campaign, which attempts to build awareness
1980 that the disease had been eradicated - the first disease
throughout the world regarding the huge impacts of our
in history to be eliminated by human effort. WHO aims to
modern life style. UNEP has aided in the development of
eradicate polio within the next few years. In addition to its
guidelines and treaties on issues such as the international
work in eradicating disease. WHO is devoting increasing
trade in potentially harmful chemicals, transboundary air
attention to various health-environment related issues—
pollution, and contamination of international waterways.
for example, campaigns to boost the consumption of fruits
The World Meteorological Organization and the and vegetables worldwide and to discourage tobacco use.
UNEP established the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Environment and health are closely related. The
Change (IPCC) in 1988. UNEP is also one of several
Principle of the Rio Declaration on Environment and
Implementing Agencies for the Global Environment Facility
Development, 1992 states “human beings are at the centre
(GEF).
of concern for sustainable development. They are entitled
Funding to a healthy and productive life in harmony with nature.”
Environmental hazards are responsible for an estimated
UNEP receives the necessary funding for its programs from 25% of the total burden of disease worldwide.
the Environmental Fund, which is maintained by voluntary
contributions of member governments, supplemented by HELI
contributions to more than seventy trust funds and by
To tackle environment related health hazards WHO has
small contributions from the regular budget of the United
developed Health Environment Link Initiative (HELI). HELI
Nations.
is a global effort by WHO and UNEP to support action by
The World Health Organization (WHO) developing country policymakers on environmental threats
to health. HELI encourages countries to address health and
The WHO’s constitution states that its objective “is the
environment issues as integral to economic development.
attainment by all peoples of the highest possible level of
HELI supports valuation of ecosystem ‘services’ to human
health.”. Its major task is to combat disease, especially key
health and wellbeing services ranging from climate
infectious diseases, and to promote the general health of
regulation to provision or replenishment of air, water, food
the people of the world.
and energy sources and generally healthy living and
It is one of the original agencies of the United Nations, working environments- HELI activities include country level
its constitution formally coming into force on the first pilot projects
World Health Day, (7 April 1948), when it was ratified by
the 26th member state. The WHO has 193 Member States. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
The WHO is financed by contributions from member states Nations (FAO)
and from donors. The Regional Offices are:
It is a specialised agency of the United Nations with a
1. Regional Office for Africa (AFRO);
member states that leads international efforts to defeat
2. Regional Office for Europe (EURO); hunger. Serving both developed and developing countries,
3. Regional Office for South East Asia (SEARO); FAO acts as a neutral forum where all nations meet as
4. Regional Office for the Eastern Mediterranean equals to negotiate agreements and debate policy. FAO is
5. Regional Office for Western Pacific (WPRO); also a source of knowledge and information, and helps
6. Regional Office for the Americas (AMRO), developing countries and countries in transition modernise

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and improve agriculture, forestry and fisheries practices,  Wide-spread adoption of an integrated, cross sectoral
ensuring good nutrition and food security for all. Its Latin and broadly participatory approach to sustainable
motto, fiat panis, translates into English as “let there be development;
bread”.  Measurable progress in the implementation of the
The FAO headquarters are located in Rome and has goals and targets of the Johannesburg Plan of
five regional offices. Implementation, it says: “In order to ensure the
1. Regional Office for Africa in Accra, Ghana effective follow-up of the conference, as well as to
enhance international cooperation and
2. Regional Office for Latin America and the
rationalization the intergovernmental decision
Caribbean in Santiago, Chile
making capacity for the integration of environment
3. Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific in and development issues and to examine the progress
Bangkok, Thailand of the implementation of Agenda 21 at the national,
4. Regional Office for the Near East in Cairo, Egypt regional and international levels, a high level
5. Regional Office for Europe in Budapest, Commission on Sustainable Development should be
Hungary established in accordance with Article 68 of the
Charter of the UN.” Agenda 21 (1) The General
WHO member states appoint delegations to the
Assembly met in the autumn of 1992 to debate the
World Health Assembly, WHO’s supreme decision-making
setting up of the CSD; it resolved that the Economic
body. All UN member states are eligible for WHO
and Social Council (ECOSOC)has been requested to
membership and according to the WHO website, “Other
establish a high level commission as a functional
countries may be admitted as members when their council body representatives of 53 states have been
application has been approved by a simple majority vote elected by the council for up to three year terms.
of the World Health Assembly.”
 the commission will meet once a year for two or three
Commission On Sustainable Development weeks. It is a functional ECOSOC commission with a
full time secretariat based in New York.
(CSD)
It was established in December 1992 by General Assembly The CSD’s mandate (Resolution 1993/207) is:
as a functional commission of the UN Economic and Social  To monitor progress on the implementation of
Council (ECOSOC), Implementing Agenda 21, non binding Agenda 21 (deals with environment and
voluntarify implemented action plan of the UN with regard development issues) and activities related to the
to sustainable development. it is a product of the with integration of environmental and developmental
summit held in Rio de Janeiro Brazil in 1992. goals by governments, NGOs, and other UN bodies.
 To monitor progress towards the target of 0.7% GNP
Mission from developed countries for Overseas Development
The Division for Sustainable Development (DSD) provides Aid.
leadership and is an authoritative source of expertise within  To review the adequacy of financing and the transfer
the United Nations system on sustainable development, It of technologies as outlined in Agenda 21.
promotes sustainable development as the UN Commission  To receive and analyse relevant information from
on Sustainable Development (CSD) and through technical competent NGOs in the context of Agenda 21
cooperation and capacity building at international, regional implementation.
and national levels.  To enhance dialogue with NGOs, the independent
sector, and other entities outside the UN system,
Goal within the UN framework.
 Integration of the social, economic and Sustainable development to satisfy the needs of
environmental dimensions of sustainable present generations without endangering the needs of
development in policy making at international, future generations will not be brought about by policies
national and regional levels; only it must be taken up by society at large and the choices

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each citizen makes every day, as well as the big political set as 1990. Developing countries also are encouraged to
and economic decisions of the countries. This requires carry out inventories. The Convention recognizes that it is
profound changes in thinking, in economic and social a “framework” document something to be amended or
structures and in consumption and production patterns. augmented over time so that efforts to deal with global
warming and climate change can be focused and made
United Nations Framework Convention On more effective. The first addition to the treaty, the Kyoto
Climate Change (UNFCCC) Protocol, was adopted in 1997.

The convention and the protocol Kyoto Protocol What It Means ?

Over a decade ago, most countries joined an international The Kyoto Protocol, an international and legally binding
treaty the United Nations Framework Convention on agreement to reduce greenhouse gas emissions worldwide,
Climate Change (UNFCCC) to begin to consider what can entered into force on 16 February 2005.
be done to reduce global warming and to cope with
whatever temperature increases are inevitable. More Responsibility and vulnerability
recently, a number of nations approved an addition to the  The Convention places the heaviest burden for
treaty: the Kyoto Protocol, which has more powerful (and fighting climate change on industrialized nations,
legally binding) measures. This section contains numerous since they are the source of most of the past and
resources for beginners or experts such as introductory current greenhouse gas emissions. These countries
and in-depth publications, the official UNFCCC and Kyoto are asked to do the most to cut what comes out of
Protocol texts and a search engine to the UNFCCC library. smokestacks and tailpipes, and to provide most of
the money for efforts elsewhere. For the most part,
Facing and surveying the problem these developed nations, called “Annex I” countries
A major accomplishment of the Convention, which is because they are listed in the first annex to the treaty,
general and flexible in character, is that it recognizes that belong to the Organization for Economic Cooperation
there is a problem. That was no small thing in 1994. when and Development (OECD).
the treaty took effect and less scientific evidence was  These advanced nations, as well as 12 “economies in
available. (And mere are still those who dispute that global transition” (countries in Central and Eastern Europe,
warming is real and that climate change is a problem.) It is including some states formerly belonging to the
hard to get the nations of the world to agree on anything, Soviet Union) were expected by the year 2000 to
let alone a common approach to a difficulty which is reduce emissions to 1990 levels. As a group, they
complicated, whose consequences aren’t entirely clear, and succeeded.
which will have its most severe effects decades and even  Industrialized nations agree under the Convention
centuries in the future. to support climate change activities in developing
The Convention sets an ultimate objective of countries by providing financial support to these
stabilizing greenhouse gas concentrations “at a level that countries. A system of grants and loans has been set
would prevent dangerous anthropogenic (human induced) up through the Convention and is managed by the
interference with the climate system.” It states that “such Global Environment Facility. Industrialized countries
a level should be achieved within a time-frame sufficient also agree to share technology with less-advanced
to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, nations.
to ensure that food production is not threatened, and to Because economic development is vital for the
enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable world’s poorer countries and because such progress is
manner.” difficult to achieve even without the complications added
The Convention requires precise and regularly by climate change the Convention accepts that the share
updated inventories of greenhouse gas emissions from of greenhouse gas emissions produced by developing
industrialized countries. The first step in solving a problem nations will grow in the coming years. It nonetheless seeks
is knowing its dimensions. With a few exceptions, the “base to help such countries limit emissions in ways that will not
year” for tabulating greenhouse gas emissions has been hinder their economic progress, The Convention

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acknowledges the vulnerability of developing countries to  The backbone of all life on earth, including our own,
climate change and calls for special efforts to ease the is biodiversity the intricate network of animals, plants
consequences. and the places where they live. Conserving
biodiversity stopping the extinction of animal and
Non Governmental Organisation plant species, and stopping the destruction of natural
A non-governmental organization (NGO) is an organization places is the core of IUCN’s work.
that is not part of a government. It is largely funded by  Profoundly linked to biodiversity are four of
private contributions that operate outside of humankind’s great challengers: climate changes.
institutionalized government or political structures. NGOs Energy, Livelihoods and economics. IUCN Therefore
are therefore typically independent of governments. In works on each of these four areas though its core
general, NGOs have their agendas. There are many NGOs work remains concentrated on biodiversity.
that are committed to the cause of wildlife conservation,
environmental protection, resource conservation and Functions of IUCN
sustainable development. Activities and areas of important
1. Knowledge: IUCN develops and supports cutting edge
international and national NGOs working in environmental
conservation science, particularly in species,
field are given below.
ecosystems, biodiversity, and the impact these have
International Union For Conseervation Of on human livelihoods.
Nature (IUCN) 2. Action: IUCN runs thousands of field projects around
the world to better manage natural environments.
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is
3. Influence: IUCN supports governments, NGOs,
the world’s oldest and largest global environmental
international conventions, UN organizations,
network a democratic membership union with more than
companies and communities to develop laws, policy
1,000 government and NGO member organizations, and
and best-practice.
almost 11,000 volunteer scientists in more than 160
countries. IUCN’s work is supported by over 1,000 4. Empowerment: IUCN helps implement laws,
professional staff in 60 offices and hundreds of partners in policy and best-practice by mobilizing
public, NGO and private sectors around the world. organizations, providing resources, training people
and monitoring results.
The Union’s headquarters are located in Gland, near
Geneva, in Switzerland. IUCN works to develop pragmatic WORLDWIDE FUND FOR NATURE (WWF)
solutions to the most pressing environment and
The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) is an international
development challenges. It supports scientific research,
non-governmental organization working issues regarding
manages field projects all over the world and brings
the conservation, research and restoration of the
governments, non-government organizations, United
environment, formerly named the World Wildlife Fund,
Nations agencies, companies and local communities
which remains its official name in the United States and
together to develop and implement policy, laws and best
Canada. It is the world’s largest independent conservation
practice. organization with over 5 million supporters worldwide,
working in more than 90 countries, supporting around
IUCN’S VISION AMD MISSION
1300 conservation and environmental projects around the
 To influence, encourage and assist societies world. It is a charity, with approximately 60% of its funding
throughout the world to conserve the integrity and coming from voluntary donations by private individuals.
diversity of nature and to ensure that any. use of 45% of the fund’s income comes from the United States,
natural resources is equitable and ecologically the United Kingdom and the Netherlands.
sustainable. The mission of WWF is “to halt and reverse the destruction
 The nature provides all the basic requirements of life of our environment” Currently, much of its work focuses
including water, food, clean air, energy and shelter on the conservation of three biomes that contain most of
so it must be protected and used wisely. But social the world’s biodiversity forests, freshwater ecosystems
and economic development must also continue to and oceans and coasts. Among other issues, it is also
reduce poverty and improve people’s lives. concerned with endangered species, pollution and climate

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change. The organization was formed as a charitable trust environmental and social issues, Based in Amsterdam, the
on September 11, 1961, in Morges, Switzerland, under the Netherlands, Greenpeace has 2.8 million supporters
name World Wildlife Fund. It was an initiative of Julian worldwide, and national as well as regional offices in 41
Huxley and Max Nicholson, who had thirty years countries. Today, Greenpeace is an international
experience of linking progressive intellectuals with big organisation that prioritises global environmental
business interests through the Political and Economic campaigns. Greenpeace’s cornerstone principles and core
Planning think tank. There is also a head office in Toronto. values are:
Canada for the Canadian Fund.
 to prevent environmental destruction in a peaceful,
In its deed of foundation, the organization stated its non-violent manner;
original mission to be the “conservation of world fauna,
flora, forests, landscape, water, soils and other natural  financial independence from political or commercial
resources by the management of land, research and interests;
investigation, and publicity, coordination of efforts,  seek solutions for and promote open, informed
cooperation with other interested parties and all other debate about society’s environmental choices.
appropriate means.” In the last few years, the organization
set up offices and operations around the world. The initial Vision and Mission
focus of its activities was the protection of endangered
A peaceful and sustainable world based on societies living
species. As more resources became available, its
in harmony with nature. A society of interdependent
operations expanded into other areas such as the
people living in dignity, wholeness and fulfillment in which
preservation of biological diversity, sustainable use of
natural resources, and the reduction of pollution and equity and human rights are realized.
wasteful consumption.  To collectively ensure environmental and social
In 1986, the organization changed its name to World Wide justice, human dignity, and respect for human rights
Fund for Nature, retaining the WWF initials, to better and peoples’ rights so as to secure sustainable
reflect the scope of its activities. However, it continues to societies.
operate under the original name in the United States and  To halt and reverse environmental degradation and
Canada. depletion of natural resources, nurture the earth’s
ecological and cultural diversity and secure
Green Peace sustainable livelihoods.
In 1971, motivated by their vision of a green and peaceful  To secure the empowerment of indigenous peoples,
world, a small team of activists set sail from Vancouver, local communities, women, groups and individuals,
Canada, in an old fishing boat. These activists, the founders and to ensure public participation in decision making.
of Greenpeace, believed a few individuals could make a  To engage in vibrant campaigns, raise awareness,
difference. Their mission was to “bear witness” to US mobilize people and build alliances with diverse
underground nuclear testing at Amchitka, a tiny island off movements, linking grassroots, national and global
the West Coast of Alaska, which is one of the world’s most struggles.
earthquake-prone regions. Amchitka was the last refuge
for 3000 endangered sea otters, and home to bald eagles, The Energy and Resources Institute- (TERI)
peregrine falcons and other wildlife. Even though their old
TERI is a public interest research and advocacy organisation
boat, the Phyllis Cormack, was intercepted before it got to
that promotes environmentally sound and equitable
Amchitka, the journey sparked a flurry of public interest.
development strategies. It was formally established in 1974
The US still detonated the bomb, but the voice of reason
with the purpose of tackling and dealing with the rapid
had been heard. Nuclear testing on Amchitka ended that
depletion of the earth’s finite energy resources which are
same year, and the island was later declared a bird
largely non-renewable, and on account of the existing
sanctuary. Greenpeace is the world’s largest grassroots
methods of their use which are polluting.
environmental network, uniting 77 national member
groups and some 5,000 local activist groups on every TERI has been actively working for developing
continent. With over 2 million members and supporters solutions to global problems in the fields of energy,
around the world, they campaign on today’s most urgent environment and current patterns of development, which

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are largely unsustainable. The Institute has grown green area (the Ridge), treks through the Himalayan region
substantially over the years, particularly, since it launched with the Chipko Andolan, the first detailed study of the
its own research activities and established a base in New impacts of the Narmada projects, investigations into police
Delhi, its registered headquarters. TERI has its branches in firing in Bharatpur bird reserve, and all this while
North America, Europe, Japan, Malaysia and the Gulf. continuing nature walks and lobbying for wildlife
TERI not only has offices in different parts of the conservation and animal rights. With such a background,
world, but its activities has wide geographical relevance. it is not surprising that the NGO has continued to
It organizes annual Delhi Sustainable Development Summit participate in mass movements challenging the state and
(DSDS), a major event focusing on sustainable its policies, while episodically supporting elements of the
development, the pursuit of the Millennium Development state that have moved progressively on environmental and
Goals (MDGs) and assessment of worldwide progress in development fronts. Kalpavriksh believes that a country
these critical areas. TERI has also established a World can develop meaningfully only when ecological
Sustainable Development Forum (WSDF), which is guided sustainability and social equity are guaranteed, and a sense
by the patronage of a group of select world leaders. WSDF of respect for, and oneness with nature, and fellow humans
would extend the experience of each DSDS to other parts is achieved. It is a non-hierarchical organisation and the
of the world and carry out careful evaluation and group takes all decisions after appropriate debate and
monitoring of developments worldwide, particularly in discussion.
meeting the MDGs.
Development Alternatives
NGO’S Non-governmnetal Indian (NCOS) It is a non-profit organization engaged in research and
action for sustainable development. It was established in
Centre for Science and Environment (CSE)
1983 and is registered under the Societies Registration Act
The Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) is a public with the Government of India.
interest research and advocacy organisation based in New Development Alternatives believes that
Delhi. CSE researches into lobbies for and communicates ‘development’, being a dynamic process, is all about
the urgency of development that is both sustainable and evolving inter-relationship between social and
equitable. The challenge of environmental degradation due environmental factors, particularly interactions between
to extreme exploitation of natural resources on one hand nature, machines, institutions and people. The activities
and problems created by rapid industrialization on the of development Alternatives Group broadly cover the three
other hand, is one of the important task taken up by CSE primary areas that underlie any form of sustainable
to bring about a balance of the two. CSE makes efforts to development process:
create awareness about problems and propose sustainable
 The design and largescale dissemination of
solutions. There is a growing interest amongst all sections
appropriate technologies.
of people including students in environmental issues. With
this in mind, CSE has been developing non-formal  Environmental management systems
environmental education. Their tools for creating  effective people oriented institutions and policies.
awareness are periodicals, publications, films, exhibitions Development Alternatives and its associate
and other products. organisations operate on the philosophy that sustainable
development benefits not only the economy, but also the
Kalpavriksh environment and above all the people. The Development
An NGO estabislied in 1979 and works on environmental Alternatives Group is, therefore, dedicated to bring about
awareness, campaigns, litigation, research, and other areas. a better balance among the basic prerequisites of
It has taken a position on a number of environment- sustainable development: social equity, environmental
development issues, more often than not confronting the quality and economic efficiency. The mission of the
state through measures ranging from protest letters to Development Alternatives Group is to promote sustainable
street demonstrations. Many of its members have been national development.
through an intense and diverse learning process: initiating The corporate objectives are to innovate and
local protests against the destruction of Delhi’s largest disseminate the means for creating sustainable livelihoods
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on a large scale, and thus to mobilise widespread action achieve Sulabh’s vision in the foreseeable fulure. Sulabh
to eradicate poverty and regenerate the environment. The has been also working for changing the attitude of people
activities of Development Alternatives cover a broad array towards those who clean human excreta manually (known
of development issues. And these issues are complex, as scavengers). Respectability has been lent to discussion
requiring sophisticated, trans-disciplinary responses. The and writing about toilet practices. Untouchables (before
Group has built up a strong capacity to identify the priority independence) engaged in the profession of cleaning
issues confronting the nation and devise effective ways to excreta have acquired social acceptance and people do
solve them, it has therefore brought together a cadre of not hesitate associating with them in their day-today
professional staff members with a wide range of skills and routine and social gatherings. Sulabh’s approach to restore
backgrounds but a common, solid commitment to human dignity to the scavengers has five distinct stages:
excellence and team work.
 Liberation;
Sulabh International  Rehabilitation;
Sulabh International is a social service organization which  Vocational training;
works to promote human rights, environmental sanitation,  Social elevation; and,
non-conventional sources of energy, waste management  Proper education to next generation.
and social reforms through education. It was founded by
Sulabh innovations include a scavenging-free two-pit
Dr Bindeshwar Pathak in 1970. It has played a defining role
in changing the mindset of the people of India towards pourfiush toilet (Sulabh Shauchalaya); safe and hygienic
sanitation. It has played an important role in preventing on-site human waste disposal technology; a new concept
the practice of defecation in the open and have motivated of maintenance and construction of pay-and-use public
people for using of toilets and following sanitation toilets, popularly known as Sulabh Complexes with bath,
practices. Prior to intervention of Sulabh in 1970 toilet was laundry and urinal facilities being used by about ten million
a subject of cultural taboo. A healthy and hygienic India, people every day and generates biogas and biofertiliser
free of the practice of defecation in the open and faecal produced from excreta-based plants, low maintenance
pollution of environment. A society free of untouchability, waste water treatment plants of medium capacity for
social discrimination and prevalence of the sub-human institutions and industries. Other work includes setting up
practice of manual cleaning of human excreta (scavenging). English-medium public school in New Delhi and also a
network of centres all over the country to train boys and
Mission girls from poor families, specially scavengers, so that they
To educate and motivate the people, sensitize policy can compete in open job market. In October 2007, Sulabh
makers and functionaries and promote activities and announced the design of a cheap toilet system that recycles
programmes of the Govt. and as well as the people, to human waste into biogas and fertiliser.



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 CHAPTER

10
NATURAL DISASTER

Introduction disasters kill 1,00,000 persons on an average and cause

Humans have been coping with natural disasters since time property damage of Rs 20,000 crores world wide per year.
immemorial. There are so many disaster which can not be Among the top ten natural disaster-prone countries, India
controlled by human intervention. They are destined to stands second after China.Therefore, there is a need for
bring their tragic consequences of human destruction. Due creating awareness among all sections of the people about
to human intervention in the natural processes, the it's causes, consequences as well as preventive measures
destructive power and frequency of natural disasters have so that they can handle as an individual, and as a members
increased considerably. According to U N statistics, natural of society.
A manish Singh Sir’s Initiative ENVIRONMENT
DISASTERS IN INDIA- A BACKGROUND MAJOR DISASTERS IN INDIA
India is struggling with disasters from many years. How
SINCE 1970
can we forget the day when killer waves (tsunami) struck Almost everyday, newspapers, radio and television
the coastal parts of India on 26th December 2004 in the channels carry reports on disaster striking several parts of
morning of 26th January 2001, when western part of India the world. But what is a disaster? The term disaster owes
was badly affected by earthquake. These are just few its origin to the French word "Desastre" which is a
examples. We always listen such kind of news in print or combination of two words 'des' meaning bad and 'aster'
electronic media that one part of India is affected by flood meaning star. Thus the term refers to 'Bad or Evil star'. A
where as another faces drought. disaster can be defined as "A serious disruption in the
Due to vulnerability of different kinds of disasters, functioning of the community or a society causing wide
it is said that India is a disaster prone country, the
reasons are:
1. Over 55% of the land area is vulnerable to
earthquakes,
2. 12% is flood prone,
3. 8% is vulnerable to cyclones and
4. 70% of the land under cultivation is drought
prone.
Apart from this the hilly regions are vulnerable to
avalanches/ landslides/hailstorms/cloudbursts. Table 1.1
shows a list of some of the major disasters that have caused
colossal impact on the community.

S. No. Disaster Impact

Cyclone
1 29th October 1971, Orissa Cyclone and tidal waves killed 10,000people
2 19th November, 1977, Andhra Pradesh Cyclone and tidal waves killed 20,000People
3 29th and 30th October 1999, Orissa Cyclone and tidal waves killed 9,000 and 18 million people were
affected
Earthquake
4 20th October 1991 Uttarkashi An earthquake of magnitude 6.6 killed723 people
5 30th September 1993 Latur Approximately 8000 people died and there was a heavy loss to
infrastructure
6 22 May 1997 Jabalpur 39 people dead
7 29th March 1997, Chamoli 100 people dead
8 26th January, 2001, Bhuj, Gujrat More than 10,000 dead and heavy loss to infrastructure
Landslide
9 July 1991, Assam 300 people killed, heavy loss to roads and infrastructure
10 August 1993, Nagaland 500 killed and more than 200 houses destroyed and about 5kms.
Roaddamaged.
11 18th August 1998, Malpa 210 people killed. Villages were ashedaway
Flood
12 1978 Floods in North East India 3,800 people killed and heavy loss toproperty.
13 1994 Floods in Assam, and Arunachal More than 2000 people killed and thousands affected
Pradesh, Jammu Kashmir, Himachal
Pradesh,Panjab, Uttar Pradesh, Goa,
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spread material, economic, social or environmental losses DISASTER
which exceed the ability of the affected society to cope
1. A disaster disrupts the normal function of the society
using its own resources".
caused by a hazard.
A disaster is a result from the combination of hazard, 2. It causes damage to property and loss of life
vulnerability and insufficient capacity or measures to 3. A large number of people are affected by it
reduce the potential chances of risk. 4. It causes wide spread loss to life and property
A disaster happens when a hazard impacts on the 5. It affects the society to such an extent that external
vulnerable population and causes damage, casualties and aid becomes necessary to compensate the losses.
disruption. would give a better illustration of what a
Difference between Natural Hazard and
disaster is. Any hazard - flood, earthquake or cyclone which
Disaster
is a triggering event along with greater vulnerability
(inadequate access to resources, sick and old people, lack Disaster Management Cycle
of awareness etc) would lead to disaster causing greater Disaster Risk Management includes sum total of all
loss to life and property. For example; an earthquake in activities, programmes and measures which can be taken
an uninhabited desert cannot be considered a disaster, no up before, during and after a disaster with the purpose to
matter how strong the intensities produced. avoid a disaster, reduce its impact or recover from its losses.
The three key stages of activities that are taken up within
Natural Hazards and Disasters disaster risk management are:
The vulnerability of enviornment has been increasing 1. Before a disaster (pre-disaster)
continuously due to human activities. But this is not one Activities taken to reduce human and property losses
sided relationship. Humans are also the components of caused by a potential hazard. For example carrying out
the enviornment. Hence they can't escape from the effects awareness campaigns, strengthening the existing weak
of environmental change processes. When local, regional structures, preparation of the disaster management plans
or global processes of environment pose danger to humans at household and community level etc. Such risk reduction
or their property, they are simply natural events. For measures taken under this stage are termed as mitigation
example, the blizzard blowing in the Antarctica is a natural and preparedness activities.
event. But if this blizzard pose as a imminent danger to
2. During a disaster (disaster occurrence)
our lives and property, then it becomes a disaster.
Initiatives taken to ensure that the needs and provisions
For instance, tsunami was caused by an earthquake
of victims are met and suffering is minimized. Activities
that occurred in the sea near Sumatra Indonesia on 26
December, 2004. It turned into a disaster for India, Srilanka
and some other countries of Southeast Asia. It caused wide
spread loss to human life and property in Andaman and
Nicobar Islands and on the coasts of Andhra Pradesh and
Tamil Nadu.

HAZARD
1. A hazard is a dangerous physical condition or event.
2. Earthquakes, floods, volcanic eruption, landslides,
droughts etc are called natural hazards before they
causes damage to property and loss of life
3. Small number of people are affected
4. It may cause injury, loss of life or damage of property
5. Earthquake, floods, volcano, tsunami, landslide,
drought etc are natural hazards.

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A manish Singh Sir’s Initiative ENVIRONMENT
taken under this stage are called emergency response of deforestation, the land becomes obstruction free
activities. and water flows with greater speed into the rivers
and causes flood.
3. After a disaster (post-disaster)
(iv) Cyclone: Cyclone generated seawaves of abnormal
Initiatives taken in response to a disaster with a purpose
height spreads the water in the adjoining coastal
to achieve early recovery and rehabilitation of affected
areas. In October 1994 Orissa cyclone generated
communities, immediately after a disaster strikes. These
severe floods and caused unprecedented loss of life
are called as response and recovery activities.
and property.
(v) Interference in drainage system: Drainage
FLOODS congestion caused by badly planned construction of
With the arrival of Monsoon, people living in 4 crore bridges, roads, railway tracks, canals etc. hampers the
hectares area of the country become extremely nervous. flow of water and the result is flood.
No one knows when there will be a flood in the river and (vi) Change in the course of the river: Meanders and
their hard earned belongings will be washed away. In change in the course of the river cause floods.
comparison to other disasters flood cause more damage
(vii) Tsunami: Large coastal areas are flooded by rising
to life and property. Twenty percent of deaths caused by
sea water, when a tsunami strikes the coast.
floods in the world, occur in India.
Losses by Flood
What is a Flood
Humans and animals both are affected by flood. People
The inundation of an area by water is called a flood. In
are rendered homeless. Houses are damaged or they may
other words, when a river over flows its banks and water
collapse. Industries are crippled. Crops are submerged in
spreads in the surrounding areas is a flood.
flood water. Domestic as well as wild animals die. Boats
There are different types of floods namely: flash and fishing nets etc. are lost or damaged in coastal areas.
flood, riverine flood, urban flood, etc. Flash floods can be
Out break of epidemics like malaria and diarrhoea etc. are
defined as floods which occur within six hours of the
common after flood. Potable water is contaminated and
beginning of heavy rainfall, and are usually associated with
sometimes becomes scarce. Food grains are lost or spoiled,
cloud bursts, storms and cyclones requiring rapid localized
their supplies from outside become difficult. Losses by
warnings and immediate response to reduce damage.
annual floods, instead of decreasing are increasing every
Wireless network and telephone connections are used to
year. In 1953 2.43 crores of people were affected. By 1987
monitor flood conditions. In case of flash floods, warnings
the number of flood affected people rose to 4.83 crore.
for timely evacuation may not always be possible.
According to an estimate on an-average property worth
Various causes of flood, losses by flood and flood Rs. 210 crores is lost in floods every year. Flood affects
control measures are described below: about 6 crore people and crops of one crore hectare are
damaged.
Cause of Flood
The causes of flood in India are as follows: Flood Prone Areas
(i) Heavy rainfall: Heavy rain in the catchment area of a About 4 crore hectare area of our country is flood-prone,
river causes water to over flow its banks, which results which is one eighth of the total area. The most flood prone
in the flooding of nearby areas. areas are the Brahmputra, Ganga and Indus basins. As far
(ii) Sediment deposition: River beds become shallow as states are concerned, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal
due to sedimentation. The water carrying capacity and Orissa are the most flood affected states followed by
of such river is reduced. As a result the heavy rain Haryana, Punjab and Andhra Pradesh. Now a days
water over flows the river banks. Rajasthan and Gujarat also feel the fury of floods.
(iii) Deforestation: Vegetation hampers the flow of water Karnataka and Maharashtra are no-longer immune to
and forces it to percolate in the ground. As a result floods.
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constructed. Protection of towns and cities have been
adopted. Villages are relocated on comparative by higher
ground. The approved outlay for Flood Control during the
Eleventh Plan was Rs. 3300 lakh. The projected outlay for
the Twelfth Five Year Plan is 2100 lakhs. Pending
finalization of the Annual Plan 2012-13, the tentative
budget of 310 lakh has been provided.
Some do's and donts before, during and after the
flood
(i) Listen to the radio for advance information and
advise.
(ii) Disconnect all electrical appliances, move all valuable
household goods and clothing out of reach of flood
water. Adopt such measures only when there is a
forecast of flood or you suspect that flood water may
reach the house.
(iii) Move vehicles, farm animals and moveable goods to
the higher ground.
(iv) Prevent dangerous pollution.

India: Flood Prone

(v) Keep all insecticides, pesticides etc. out of the reach
Area of flood water.

Flood Control Measures (vi) Switch off electricity and gas, in case you have to leave
the house.
(i) Reservoirs: By constructing reservoirs in the courses
(vii) Lock all door and windows if you have to leave the
of rivers could stores extra water at the time of flood.
Such measures adopted till now however, have not house.
been successful. Dams built to control floods of (viii) Do not enter flood water on foot or in a vehicle as
Damodar could not control the flood. far as possible.
(ii) Embankments: By building flood protection (ix) Never wander in the flooded area on your own.
embankments, floods water can be controlled from
overflowing the banks and spreading in near by areas. Warning
Building of embankments on Yamuna, near Delhi, has Flood forecasting and warning has been highly developed
been successful in controlling the flood. in the past two decades. With the advancement of
(iii) Afforestation: The fury of flood could be minimized technology such as satellite and remote-sensing
by planting trees in catchment areas of rivers. equipments flood waves can be tracked as the waterlevel
(iv) Restoration of original drainage system: Drainage rises. Except for flash floods there is usually a reasonable
system is generally choked by the construction of warning period. Heavy precipitation will give sufficient
roads, canals railway tracks etc. Floods could be warning of the coming river flood. High tides with high
checked if the original form of drainage system is winds may indicate flooding in the coastal areas. Evacuation
restored. is possible with suitable monitoring and warning. Warning
is issued by the Central Water Commission (CWC),Irrigation
Flood Management & Flood Control Department, and Water Resources
About 4 crore hectare area is flood prone. Out of this, 1.44 Department. CWC maintains close liaison with the
crore hectare areas has been made secure to some extent administrative and state engineering agencies, local civil
from the devastation by floods. To achieve this goal, authorities to communicate advance warning for
embankments and drainge channels have been appropriate mitigation and preparedness measures.
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Possible Risk Reduction Measures Programme of Flood Management in 1954. During
 Mapping of the flood prone areas is a primary step the last 62 years, different methods of flood
involved in reducing the risk of the region. Historical protection structural as well as nonstructural have
records give the indication of the flood inundation been adopted in different states depending upon the
areas and the period of occurrence and the extent nature of the problem and local conditions. Structural
of the coverage. Warning can be issued looking into measures include storage reservoirs, flood
the earlier marked heights of the water levels in case embankments, drainage channels, anti erosion
of potential threat. In the coastal areas the tide levels works, channel improvement works, detention basins
and the land characteristics will determine the etc. and non-structural measures which includes
submergence areas. Flood hazard mapping will give flood forecasting, flood plain zoning, flood proofing,
the proper indication of water flow during floods. disaster preparedness etc. The flood management
measures undertaken so far have provided
 Land use control will reduce danger of life and
reasonable degree of protection to an area of 15.81
property when waters inundate the floodplains and
million hectares through out the country.
the coastal areas. The number of casualties is related
to the population in the area at risk. In areas where
people already have built their settlements, measures DROUGHT
should be taken to relocate to better sites so as to
The tragedy caused by drought affects the people slowly
reduce vulnerability. No major development should
and vastly. What is a drought? According to meteorologists
be permitted in the areas which are subjected to high
the rainfall deficiency during a long period over a large
flooding. Important facilities like hospitals, schools
area is called a drought. Drought can also occur when
should be built in safe areas. In urban areas, water
ground water level is not within reach of agricultural
holding areas can be created like ponds, lakes or low-
communities. The government also declares on area
lying areas.
affected by drought, if more than 50 percent crop loss
 Construction of engineered structures in the flood happens in an area due to meteorological condition.
plains and strengthening of structures to withstand Drought is either absence or deficiency of rainfall from its
flood forces and seepage. The buildings should be normal pattern in a region for an extended period of time
constructed on an elevated area. If necessary build leading to general suffering in the society. It is interplay
on stilts or platform Flood Control aims to reduce between demand that people place on natural supply of
flood damage. This can be done by decreasing the water and natural event that provides the water in a given
amount of runoff with the help of reforestation (to geographical region. The following will help to explain the
increase absorption could be a mitigation strategy in general definition of the drought further.
certain areas), protection of vegetation, clearing of  It is a slow on-set disaster and it is difficult to
debris from streams and other water holding areas, demarcate the time of its onset and the end.
conservation of ponds and lakes etc. Flood Diversion
 Any unusual dry period which results in a shortage
include levees, embankments, dams and channel
of useful water.
improvement. Dams can store water and can release
water at a manageable rate. But failure of dams in  Drought is a normal, recurrent feature of climate.
earthquakes and operation of releasing the water can Climate is expected to show some aberrations and
cause floods in the lower areas. Flood Proofing drought is just a part of it.
reduces the risk of damage. Measures include use of  Drought can occur by improper distribution of rain
sand bags to keep flood water away, blocking or in time and space, and not just by its amount.
sealing of doors and windows of houses etc. Houses  Drought is negative balance between precipitation
may be elevated by building on raised land. Buildings and water use (through evaporation, transpiration
should be constructed away from water bodies. by plants, domestic and industrial uses etc) in a
 Flood Management In India, systematic planning for geographical region.
flood management commenced with the Five Year The effects of drought accumulate slowly over a
Plans, particularly with the launching of National considerable period of time.
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Types of Droughts force it to percolate in the ground. Humans have dug lakhs
Drought proceeds in sequential manner. Its impacts are of tube wells and depleted the ground water reservoirs.
spread across different domains as listed below.
Some more vulnerability factors to Drought?
Meteorological Drought  Low soil moisture holding capacity
Meteorological drought is simple absence/deficit of rainfall  Absence of irrigation facilities
from the normal. It is the least severe form of drought  Livestock without adequate fodder storage facilities
and is often identified by sunny days and hot weather.  Poor water management
 Deforestation
Hydrological Drought
 Over grazing
Hydrological drought often leads to reduction of natural
 Water consuming cropping patterns
stream flows or ground water levels, plus stored water
supplies. The main impact is on water resource systems.  Excessive ground water draft
 Soil erosion
Agricultural Drought  Population growth and urbanization
This form of drought occurs when moisture level in soil is  Industrialization
insufficient to maintain average crop yields. Initial  Global warming
consequences are in the reduced seasonal output of crops
and other related production. An extreme agricultural Impact of Drought
drought can lead to a famine, which is a prolonged shortage Droughts cause scarcity of food and water. Hungry and
of food in a restricted region causing widespread disease thirsty people cry for help. People die of hunger,
and death from starvation. malnutrition and epidemics. People are forced to migrate
from their area of residence. Crops fail due to scarcity of
Socio-economic Drought water. Cattle because fodder and water are not easily
Socio-economic drought correlates the supply and demand available. Farmers are deprived of their employment.
of goods and services with the three above-mentioned People leave their villages with their families for a long,
types of drought. When the supply of some goods or unknown and uncertain journey in the pursuit of food,
services such as water and electricity are weather water, green fodder and employment.
dependant then drought may cause shortages in supply of
these economic goods. Drought Prone Areas of India
Study the map carefully given below. There is a major
IMD’s Drought Categorisation reason that lies between South Rajasthan and Tamilnadu.
The following criteria have been set by the Indian It includes west south Rajasthan and Tamilnadu. It includes
Meteorological Division (IMD) for identifying the drought. areas of west Madhya Pradesh, central Maharashtra,
 Onset of drought: Deficiency of a particular year's Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. Due to deficiency in
rainfall exceeding 25 per cent of normal. Monsoon rainfall and environmental degradation,
Rajasthan and Gujrat are generally affected by drought.
 Moderate drought: Deficit of rainfall between 26-
Out of 593 districts in India, 193 districts are severely
50 per cent of normal.
drought prone. In 2003 most parts of Rajasthan
 Severe drought: Deficit of rainfall more than 50 per
experienced drought for the fourth consecutive year.
cent of normal.
Distribution Pattern
Causes of Drought
Major cause of drought in India is scarcity of rain. But
Drought Prone Areas
humans have interfered in the environment processes by  Around 68 per cent of India's total area is prone to
their activities. People have filled up the natural resources drought.
like ponds and lakes. They have destroyed the vegetation  315 out of a total of 725 Talukas in 99 districts are
cover. Vegetation cover impedes the flow of rainwater and drought prone.
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3. Water supply augmentation and conservation:
through rainwater harvesting in houses and farmers'
fields increases the content of water available. Water
harvesting by either allowing the runoff water from
all the fields to a common point (e.g. Farm ponds,
see the picture) or allowing it to infiltrate into the
soil where it has fallen (in situ) (e.g. contour bunds,
contour cultivation, raised bed planting etc) helps
increase water availability for sustained agricultural
production.
4. Expansion of irrigation: Irrigation facilities reduces
the drought vulnerability. Land use based on its
capability helps in optimum use of land and water
and can avoid the undue demand created due to their
misuse.
5. Livelihood planning: It identifies those livelihoods
 50 million people are annually affected by drought.
which are least affected by the drought. Some of such
 In 2001 more than eight states suffered the impact of livelihoods include increased off-farm employment
severe drought. opportunities, collection of non-timber forest
 In 2003 most parts of Rajasthan experienced the produce from the community forests, raising goats,
fourth consecutive year of drought. carpentry etc.
6. Drought planning: The basic goal of drought planning
Possible Risk Reduction Measures is to improve the effectiveness of preparedness and
There are various mitigation strategies to cope up with response efforts by enhancing monitoring, mitigation
drought. and responsemeasures. Planning would help in
1. Public Awareness and education: If the community effective coordination among state and national
is aware of the do's and don'ts, then half of the agencies in dealing with the drought. Components
problem is solved. This includes awareness on the of drought plan include establishing drought
availability of safe drinking water, water conservation taskforce which is a team of specialists who can
techniques, agricultural drought management advise the government in taking decision to deal with
drought situation, establishing coordination
strategies like crop contingency plans, construction
mechanism among various agencies which deal with
of rain water harvesting structure. Awareness can be
the droughts, providing crop insurance schemes to
generated by the print, electronic and folk media.
the farmers to cope with the drought related crop
2. Drought Monitoring: It is continuous observation of losses, and public awareness generation.
the rainfall situation, availability of water in the
reservoirs, lakes, rivers etc and comparing with the
existing water needs in various sectors of the society.

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Measures to Cope with Drought square km. Thus a lake was created in which the water
(i) Suitable farming methods for arid areas: By adopting was flowing. Some pilgrims going to Kailash Mansarovar
the following methods it is possible to mitigate the were resting here in this fateful night. This landslide killed
intensity of drought. The methods are Production of 60 pilgrims.
coarse and hardy cereals; conservation of soil
What is a Landslide
moisture by deep ploughing, storing water behind
small dams, collecting water in ponds and tanks and The slipping of masses of rocks, earth or debris downwards
use of sprinklers for irrigation. on the mountain slopes or banks of the rivers is called a
landslide. The occurance of landslides in mountainous
(ii) Sowing drought resistant crops: By sowing drought
areas is increasing day by day. The impact of landslides on
resistant crops of cotton, Moong, pearl millet, wheat
the people in the mountains is clearly visible.
etc, the impact of drought could be mitigated to a
certain extent. The term' landslide' includes all varieties of mass
movements of hill slopes and can be defined as the
(iii) Water harvesting: Collection of each and every drop
downward and outward movement of slope forming
of rain could help in coping with the drought. By
materials composed of rocks, soils, artificial fills or
making high bunds around the fields, adoption of
combination of all these materials along surfaces of
terrace cultivation, planting trees on the bunds of
separation by falling, sliding and flowing, either slowly or
fields, the use of rainwater can be maximised. Water
quickly from one place to another. Although the landslides
can also be conserved by taming the irrigation canals
are primarily associated with mountainous terrains, these
with mortar and bricks.
can also occur in areas where an activity such as surface
(vi) Drip Irrigation: Small quantity of water can irrigate excavations for highways, buildings and open pit mines
comparatively larger area by using drip irrigation takes place. They often take place in conjunction with
method. earthquakes, floods and volcanoes. At times, prolonged
rainfall causing landslide may block the flow of river for
Drought prone area programme
quite some time. The formation of river blocks can cause
This programme was initiated in 1973. The objectives of havoc to the settlements downstream on its bursting.
the programme are as follows:
(i) To minimise the adverse impact of drought on crops, Causes of Landslide
domestic animals, productivity of land, water and There are several causes of landslide. Some of the major
human resources. This could be done by integrated causes are as follows:
development by using appropriate technologies as 1. Geological Weak material: Weakness in the
it was done for the natural resources of Gujrat. composition and structure of rock or soil may also
(ii) By developing, conserving and suitably using the cause landslides.
rainwater, the ecological balance could be maintained 2. Erosion: Erosion of slope toe due to cutting down of
for a longer period. vegetation, construction of roads might increase the
(iii) To improve the economic and social conditions of vulnerability of the terrain to slide down.
the section of society who do not have access to 3. Intense rainfall: Storms that produce intense rainfall
resources and facilities. for periods as short as several hours or have a more
moderate intensity lasting several days have triggered
abundant landslides. Heavy melting of snow in the
LAND SLIDE
hilly terrains also results in landslide.
A major landslide occurred in the midnight in a place 4. Excavation: Human Excavation of slope and its toe,
called Lamari on the foot path leading to Kailash loading of slope/toe, draw down in reservoir, mining,
Mansarover about 60 km away from Dharchula, in August deforestation, irrigation, vibration/blast, can trigger
1998. Lamari is situated between Bendi and Malpa. The land slides.
debris of this landslide slipped into river Kali and blocked 5. Earthquake: Earthquake shaking has triggered
its flow. The water of the river spread over an area of 1½ landslides in many different topographic and geologic
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settings. Rock falls, soil slides and rockslides from  Flows: General term including many types of mass
steep slopes involving relatively thin or shallow movement, such as debris flow, debris avalanche,
disaggregated soils or rock, or both have been the lahar, and mudflow.
most abundant types of landslides triggered by  Creep: Slow, steady downslope movement of soil or
historical earthquakes. rock, often indicated by curved tree trunks, bent
6. Volcanic Activity: Causes Deposition Volcanic fences or retaining walls, tilted poles or fences.
eruption Deposition of loose volcanic ash on hillsides  Debris flow Rapid mass movement in which loose
commonly it is followed by accelerated erosion and soils, rocks, and organic matter combine with
frequent mud or debris flows triggered by intense entrained air and water to form slurry that then flows
rainfall. down slope, usually associated with steep gullies.
7. Building of roads: Roads are built in mountainous  Debris avalanche A variety of very rapid to extremely
areas for development. During the process of the rapid debris flow.
construction of road, a large amount of rocks and  Lahar Mudflow or debris flow that originates on the
debris has to be removed. This process dislodges the slope of a volcano, usually triggered by heavy rainfall
rock structure and changes the angle of slopes. eroding volcanic deposits, sudden melting of snow
Consequently landslides are triggered. and ice due to heat from volcanic vents, or the
8. Shifting agriculture: In the North Eastern part of breakout of water from glaciers, crater lakes or lakes
India, the number and frequency of landslides has dammed by volcanic eruptions
increased due to the practice of shifting agriculture.  Mudflow Rapidly flowing mass of wet material that
9. Construction of houses and other buildings: For contains at least 50 per cent sand, silt, and clay-sized
giving shelter to the ever-increasing population and particles.
promotion of tourism more and more house and  Lateral spreads Often occur on very gentle slopes
hotels are being built. In building processes large and result in nearly horizontal movement of earth
amount of debris created. This causes landslides. materials. Lateral spreads usually are caused by
liquefaction, where saturated sediments (usually
Type of Landslides sands and silts) are transformed from a solid into a
The common types of landslides are described below. liquefied state, usually triggered by an earthquake.

 Falls: Abrupt movements of materials that become

detached from steep slopes or cliffs, moving by free-
fall, bouncing, and rolling.

Landslide: Adverse Effects of Landslide

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 Slides Many types of mass movement are included Distributional Pattern
in the general term "landslide." The two major types Landslides constitute a major natural hazard in our country,
of landslides are rotational slides and translational which accounts for considerable loss of life and damage
landslides. to communication routes, human settlements, agricultural
 Topple A block of rock that tilts or rotates forward fields and forest lands. The Indian subcontinent, with
and falls, bounces, or rolls down the slope. diverse physiographic, seismic, tectonic and climatological
conditions is subjected to varying degree of landslide
Adverse Effects hazards; the Himalayas including Northeastern mountains
The most common elements at risk are the settlements ranges being the worst affected, followed by a section of
built on the steep slopes, built at the toe and those built Western Ghats and the Vindhyas. Removal of vegetation
at the mouth of the streams emerging from the mountain and toe erosion have also triggered slides. Torrential rainfall
valley. All those buildings constructed without appropriate on the deforested slopes is the main factor in the
foundation for a given soil and in sloppy areas are also at Peninsular India namely in Western Ghat and Nilgiris.
Human intervention by way of slope modification has
risk. Roads, communication lines are vulnerable.
added to this effect.
Impact of landslide One of the worst tragedies took place at Malpa
(i) Degrading of environment: Landslides are degrading Uttarakhand (UP) on 11th and 17th August 1998 when
the environment of mountains. Natural beauty is nearly 380 people were killed when massive landslides
deminishing slowly and slowly. washed away the entire village. This included 60 pilgrims
going to Lake Mansarovar in Tibet. Consequently various
(ii) Sources of water are drying up.
land management measures have been initiated as
(iii) Flooding in rivers is increasing. mitigation measures.
(iv) Roads are blocked.
(v) Life and property are lost Possible Risk Reduction Measures
Hazard mapping locates areas prone to slope failures. This
Measures to control landslides and to mitigate their will help to avoid building settlements in such areas. These
impact maps will also serve as a tool for mitigation planning.
(i) Afforestation: Trees and brushes help in binding the Land use practices such as:
soil particles.
 Areas covered by degraded natural vegetation in
(ii) New technology in road construction : Roads should
upper slopes are to be afforested with suitable
be constructed in such a way, that lesser amount of
species. Existing patches of natural vegetation (forest
debrisses are generated.
and natural grass land) in good condition, should be
(iii) Ban on quarrying of stones and mining of minerals preserved
(iv) Instead of exploitation of forests, they should be used  Any developmental activity initiated in the area
scientifically. should be taken up only after a detailed study of the
(v) Permanent crops like orchards of fruits should replace region has been carried out.
the seasonal or annual Drops.  In construction of roads, irrigation canals etc. proper
(vi) By controlling the surface flow of water, seepage of care is to be taken to avoid blockage of natural
water should be minimised. drainage
(vii) Retaining walls can be built of mountain slopes to  Total avoidance of settlement in the risk zone should
stop land from slipping. be made mandatory.
(viii) Hazard mapping should be done to locate areas  Relocate settlements and infrastructure that fall in
commonly prone to landslides. Building and the possible path of the landslide
construction activities may be banned in such  No construction of buildings in areas beyond a certain
areas. degree of slope

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Retaining Walls High risk earthquake prone areas: Bureau of Indian
Standard has prepared a map of India, showing earthquake
Can be built to stop land from slipping (these walls are
seisnic zones of different intensity. India has been divided
commonly seen along roads in hill stations). These are
into four zones. The intensity of each zone, result and losses
constructed to prevent smaller sized and secondary
caused by earthquake are described below:
landslides that often occur along the toe portion of the
 Zone II - The earthquake is felt by all, some people
larger landslides.
run outdoor. Heavy furniture may possibly move a
little small pieces of plaster fall. Cracks in chimneys.
Surface Drainage Control Works
 Zone III - Everyone runs out of doors, slight damage
The surface drainage control works are implemented to is there even in better designed and strongly built
control the movement of landslides accompanied by building. More breakage in ordinary bridges houses
infiltration of rain water and spring flows. etc. Considerable damage to poorly designed and
sub-standard buildings bridges etc.
Engineered Structures
 Zone IV - Slight damage in specially designed and
Engineered Structures with strong foundations can well built building bridges etc. Heavy damage to
withstand or take the ground movement forces. poorly designed and badly built structures. Chimneys,
Underground installations (pipes, cables, etc.) should be poles, memorials, walls etc. fall down.
made flexible to move in order to withstand forces caused  Zone V - Severe damage to even well built bridges,
by the landslide buildings, foundations are displaced. Cracks and
fissures develop in the ground. Practically all
Increasing structures fall or small are greatly damaged or
Increasing vegetation cover is the cheapest and most destroyed.
effective way of arresting landslides. This helps to bind the
top layer of the soil with layers below, while preventing
excessive run-off and soil erosion.
Insurance will assist individuals whose homes are
likely to be damaged by landslides or by any other natural
hazards.

EARTHQUAKE
In simple words sudden shaking or trembling of the
earthsurface is an earthquake. Most earthquake are a
minor tremor. Larger earthquakes usually begin with slight
tremors but suddenly they turn into violent shocks and
after that the intensity of shocks deminishes. Tremors or
shocks are felt for a few seconds only. Earthquake is a
hazard that strikes suddenly. A hindi poet described the
earthquake in these word. "Earthquakes strikes without
pre information but the breathing stops without informing
the man." Earthquake Prone Area
Earthquake can occur at any time of the year, day or
night. Its impact is very sudden. There are no warning signs Delhi and Mumbai are situated in high risk zone no.
of earthquakes. Extensive and sincere research has been IV. The whole of North East India, Kachchh, Gujrat,
conducted but success has eluded humans in the forcast Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir are
or prediction of earthquake. in the very high risk zone no. V. Now peninsular plateau is

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not safe from earthquakes. Earthquake of Latur (1993, called seismic (from the Greek 'seismos' meaning shock or
intensity on rich for scale 6.4) and Koyna (1967 intensity earthquake) waves, which radiates from the focus in all
6.5) in Maharashtra testify it. directions.

Cause of Earthquake
The earth's crust is a rocky layer of varying thickness
ranging from a depth of about 10 kilometers under the
sea to 65 kilometers under the continents. The crust is not
one piece but consists of portions called 'plates' which
vary in size from a few hundred to thousands of kilometers
(Fig 2.1.1). The 'theory of plate tectonics' holds that the
plates ride up on the more mobile mantle, and are driven
by some yet unconfirmed mechanisms, perhaps thermal
convection currents. When these plates contact each other,
stress arises in the crust (Fig 2.1.2). These stresses can be
classified according to the type of movement along the
plate's boundaries:
(a) pulling away from each other, Tectonic Plates
(b) pushing against one another and
(c) sliding sideways relative to each other. Seven major plates and several minor ones- They
All these movements are associated with move a few inches a year, riding on semi-molten layers of
earthquakes. rock underneath the crust.
The areas of stress at plate boundaries which release The point of rupture is called the 'focus' and may be
accumulated energy by slipping or rupturing are known located near the surface or deep below it. The point on
as 'faults'. The theory of 'elasticity' says that the crust is the surface directly above the focus is termed as the
continuously stressed by the movement of the tectonic 'epicenter' of the earthquake (see Fig below).
plates; it eventually reaches a point of maximum
supportable strain. A rupture then occurs along the fault
and the rock rebounds under its own elastic stresses until
the strain is relieved. The fault rupture generates vibration

Earthquake Centre

Possible risk reduction measures

 Community preparedness: Community
preparedness is vital for mitigating earthquake
impact. The most effective way to save you even in a
Tectonic Plates slightest shaking is 'DROP, COVER and HOLD'.

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A manish Singh Sir’s Initiative ENVIRONMENT
 Planning: The Bureau of Indian Standards has construction. Building structures on soft soil should
published building codes and guidelines for safe be avoided. Buildings on soft soil are more likely to
construction of buildings against earthquakes. Before get damaged even if the magnitude of the
the buildings are constructed the building plans have earthquake is not strong as shown in Figure below.
to be checked by the Municipality, according to the Similar problems persist in the buildings constructed
laid down by laws. Many existing lifeline buildings on the river banks which have alluvial soil.
such as hospitals, schools and fire stations may not
be built with earthquake safety measures. Their Impact of Earthquake
earthquake safety needs to be upgraded by
(i) Damage of property
retrofitting techniques.
when earthquake occurs, all buildings from cottage to
 Public education is educating the public on causes
palaces and stronger skyscrapers are greatly damaged or
and characteristics of an earthquake and
totally destroyed. Underground pipelines and railway lines
preparedness measures. It can be created through
are damaged or broken. Dams on river collapse, resultant
sensitization and training programme for community,
floods cause havoc. The earthquake in 1967 in Koyna
architects, engineers, builders, masons, teachers,
damaged the Dam.
government functionaries teachers and students.
 Engineered structures: Buildings need to be designed (ii) Human loss
and constructed as per the building by laws to Duration of tremors of earthquake is normally of only few
withstand ground shaking. Architectural and seconds, but thousands of people may die in this short
engineering inputs need to be put together to period. Five severely devastating earthquakes have
improve building design and construction practices. occurred in India between 1988 and January 26, 2001.
The soil type needs to be analyzed before Nearly 31000 people lost their lives prematurely. Bihar
earthquake of 1934 and Kangra earthquake of 1905, 10,000
and 20,000 people died respectively. Numerous people lost
their shelter and many became orphans. The earthquake
that occurred in Gujarat on 26 January, 2001 was
devastating and disastrous. More than 25,000 people died
due to the impact of this earthquake. The destruction of
property was tremendous and could not be estimated
properly and exactly.

(iii) Changes in River Courses

Sometimes river channels are blocked or their courses are
changed due to the impact of earthquake.

(iv) Tsunamis
Tsunamis are caused by earthquake. This is a Japanese
word, meaning extremely high sea wave. It wreaks havoc
on settlement of coastal areas. It sinks large ships. Tsunami
that occurred on 26-12-2004 near coast of Sumatra
(Indonesia) destroyed property worth billions of rupee.
More than two lakh people lost their lives in Southeast
Asia, India and Sri Lanka.

(v) Fountains of mud

Due to the intense impact of earthquake hotwater and
mud appear on the surface and take a form of fountains.
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In Bihar earthquake of 1934 some cracks and fissures had There are numerous causes of fires. Some important
developed. The fields of farmer were covered by knee- ones are given here-
deep mud and the crops were destroyed.  Throwing burning matchsticks or cigarettes
irresponsibility.
(vi) Cracks and fissures
 Heating sources can cause fire in houses e.g. clothes
Sometimes cracks and fissures develop in roads railway may catch fire while cooking on
tracks, and fields, making them useless. Well known san
 Kerosene stove or gas stove.
Andreas fault formed during the earthquake of San
 Cooking accidents are a major cause of fire at home.
Fransisco (California).
Fire can result due to unattended cooking.
(vii) Landslides and avalanches are triggered  A short circuit in an electric wiring can cause fire.
Overheating of electric appliances, poor wiring
Outside the house
connections, use of sub-standard quality appliances
 Don't go near the buildings, high walls, or electric
can also result in a fire.
wires.
 Rubbish and waste materials often lying on roadsides
While driving or near houses may catch fire
If an earthquake occurs stop driving and keep sitting in  Storage and transportation of inflammable material
the vehicle. or explosive chemicals without
To be done immediately  proper precautions may cause fires.
(i) Put off domestic fire, and all electrical switches.  Forest fires may result from human negligence or
carelessness.
(ii) Leave the house if possible and go to open space.
(iii) Leave the house if a gas leak is detected after the gas (ii) Effects
is turned off.
Death of humans and livestock may occur due to burning
(iv) Save water or serious injuries from fire. In rural areas often the entire
(v) Untie and free pets and domestic animals (dogs, cats harvested crop stored securely may catch fire and burn to
and cattles) ashes resulting in heavy loss to the owner.

(iii) Management
MAN MADE DISASTER IN INDIA
 Obey fire safety rules and remember the evacuation
route in case of fire.
Fires
 Keep and handle inflammable materials with utmost
Fires are events of burning something. They are often
care.
destructive taking up toll of life and property. It is observed
 Keep a fire extinguisher in the house and learn how
that more people die in a fire than in a cyclone, earthquake,
to use it.
floods and other natural disasters combined. Fires are a
 When you leave home, make sure to shut off all
great threat to forests and wild life because they spread
electrical and gas appliances.
speedily and cause tremendous damage in a short time.
In cities fires break out in home, jhuggis, buildings specially  Do not plug several devices into one socket.
godowns and factories. Fire can spread to a large area.  Keep matches away from children.
Many people may die of burns and asphyxiation. It may  Do not block access routes by cupboards or any
also cause contamination of air, water and soil, which may furniture.
affect the crops, plants and animals, and soil fertility.  In the event of a fire call the fire department
immediately.
(i) Causes  In the smoke filled corridor, crawl on all floors or on
During summer months such fires results in casualties and your belly as the smoke is less on the floor.
enormous economic losses.  Find at least two ways to escape from your home.

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 Make sure that you remove all the waste material (ii) Rail Accident
from work place and home on regular basis.
The most common type of rail accident is derailment due
 Hazardous materials such as paints, solvents, to human error, sabotage or natural landslide in a hilly
adhesives, chemicals or gas cylinders should be kept track, or fire. Rail accidents lead to large number of
in separate storage, well away from fire. casualties and material damage. Indian Railways incur
• Fire crackers on Diwali is a major cause of fire in our heavy loss due to such accidents every year.
country. Use them carefully under supervision of
elders. Some of the common safety measures are
 At railway crossings pay attention to the signal and
Road, Rail and Air Traffic Accidents the swing barrier. Do not get underneath and try to
(i) Road Accidents get across.
 In case of a unmanned crossing, get down from the
Road networks are developed for better connectivity and
vehicle and look at either sides of the track before
service. Increased number of vehicles, violation of traffic
crossing.
rules, speeding, drunken driving and poor maintenance of
 Do not stop the train on a bridge or tunnel where
vehicles as well as of roads are some of the main causes of
evacuation is not possible.
road accidents. In order to avoid accidents following safety
measures can be adopted:  Do not carry inflammable material in a train.
 Do not lean out of a moving train.
 Look on either side of the road before crossing.
 Do not smoke in train.
 Use zebra crossing while crossing the road by foot.
 Do not pull the emergency cord unnecessarily.
 Wear helmet while riding a two-wheeler.
 Use seat belt provided in your car. (iii) Air Plane Accidents
 Drive only if you possess a proper driving license. Air accidents may occur due to technical problems, fire,
 Be familiar with road markings and honour them. poor landing and take-off, weather conditions, hijacking,
 Maintain a safety distance from the vehicle in front. bombing etc. Some of the common safety measures are:
 Do not jump lanes. It becomes difficult for other  Pay attention to the flight crew safety demonstration.
vehicles, on the road to anticipate your move.  Carefully read the safety card in the pocket.
 Do not be rash and do not try to overtake  Know where is the nearest emergency exit and learn
unnecessarily. how to open it.
 The best way to be safe on roads is to follow "lane  Always keep your seatbelt fastened when seated.
driving"  Stay calm, listen to the crew members and follow
 While driving avoid sudden acceleration and their instructions.
deceleration.  Before you try to open any emergency door yourself,
 Replace the worn tyres and faulty headlamps. look outside the window. If you see a fire outside
 Check the tyre pressure, radiator water, brake oil and the door, do not open it or the flame may spread
into the cabin. Try to use an alternate route for
fuel frequently.
escape.
 Dip your beam whenever you spot an oncoming
 Remember, smoke rises. So try to stay down if there
vehicle.
is smoke in the cabin.
 Follow the maintenance schedule prescribed by the
 If you have a cloth, put it over your nose and mouth.
manufacturer.
 Overcome impatience, anger and intoxication during Industrial Accidents
driving. Road rage is dangerous. Industrial accidents can be due to explosion, fire and
 In case a mishap occurs stay calm. leakage of toxic or hazardous chemicals that lead to heavy
 In case of fire, try to get out as early as possible and loss of life and material. Leakage of chemicals and explosion
do not worry about the baggage. may be due to human error, technological failure or

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geological hazards like earthquakes, flood etc. Fire in an Community preparedness
industry may result from human error or electrical faults The community should be aware of the hazardous
(short circuit). installations and know how to combat the situation. Some
members of the community should monitor the potential
(i) Effects risk and participate in safety training organised by
The industrial premises and immediate surroundings are industries.
at high risk in the event of an industrial accident.
Other measures
Employees and residents of nearby localities and their live-
Limit storage capacity of the toxic chemicals. Improve
stock and crops in nearby areas are severely affected. The
firefighting capability, warning systems and measures for
environment over a large area gets polluted. Hazardous
preventing pollution dispersion. Develop emergency relief
chemicals released into the atmosphere or into a water
and evacuation planning for employees and nearby
body may travel long distances and may even damage the
settlements. Adopt insurance for employees and
entire ecosystem around the industrial area. This is what
surrounding population which is mandatory under the law.
has happened in Bhopal in the year 1984, when about 45
tonnes of methyl isocyanide (MIC) gas leaked into the
atmosphere killing more than 2500 people. BIOLOGICAL DISASTERS
Explosion or fire or leakage of corrosive chemicals
Epidemics
severely damage structures. If the chemical is in gaseous
form the geographical spread is fast and wide . Many Epidemic is defined as occurrence of an illness or other
people may die either due to mechanical damage from health related event that is unusually affecting a large
explosion or fire or due to toxicity of the poisonous population. An epidemic can be anticipated by a sudden
chemicals. The routes of exposure to chemical released increase in the number of people suffering from a
from an accidents are from inhalation, eye exposure, skin particular disease, increase in the population disease
contact and ingestion. The polluting agents can have both carrier. In order to control the spread of epidemics urgent
immediate or long term effects. The immediate effects measures are essential. Outbreaks of communicable
include death or other symptoms like dizziness, headache, disease to reach epidemic level are potentially high after
irritation etc. The long term effects may include cancer, a disaster.
heart failure, brain damage, disfunction of immune system,
(i) Cause
deformation, genetic disorders or congenital(by birth)
disorders in children. The outbreak of diseases is mainly due to poor sanitary
condition leading to contamination of water or spread of
(ii) Management disease form breeding of the disease vectors. Other factors
include seasonal changes that favour breeding of insects.
Inventory of hazardous chemicals Vectors, exposure of a non-immune population (eg tourists
It is important to have an inventory of hazardous chemicals or migrants), poverty and overcrowding.
along with their quality, storage locations, characteristics
along with possible hazard associated with hazardous (ii) Effects
chemicals and this informed all employees and people Epidemic may cause mass illness or death. There are
living in the neighbourhood should informed about the secondary effects such as disruption in the society and
potential risk. The inventory as far as possible high risk economic losses. Vulnerability is high among those who
areas demarcated and displayed along with indicating are poorly nourished, people living in unhygienic or
affected zone and safe routes for evacuation in the event insanitary conditions, poor quality of water supply, lack of
of emergency. access to health services.
Location of industries
Industries should not be sited in residential areas. A large
(iii) Management Measures
buffer zone, in form of a green belt, for separating an Preventive public health measures needs to be
industrial area from residential areas. strengthened. Personal protection through vaccination is

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an effective mitigation measure. Improvement of sanitary particularly in southern England. After the emergence of
conditions, fumigation of vector breeding sites and proper mad cow disease, concern grew over a possible relationship
disposal of domestic and municipal wastes greatly reduce between the animal disease and the occurrence of brain
chances of epidemic spread of diseases. Contingency plan fever disease in man (Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease). Possibly
for dealing with the epidemics that are likely to occur in due to consumption of infected beef.
the region. Early warning system and regular surveillance
are primary requirements so as to mount an effective
NATIONAL POLICY ON DISASTER
control response in early stages to prevent any outbreaks.
MANAGEMENT (NPDM)
Some common diseases that may reach epidemic
proportions are described below:- India is vulnerable, in varying degrees, to a large number
of natural as well as man-made disasters. 58.6 per cent of
(a) Dengue
the landmass is prone to earthquakes of moderate to very
Dengue is also called Breakbone Fever, or Dandy Fever. It
high intensity; over 40 million hectares (12 per cent of land)
is an acute, infectious, mosquito- borne hemorrhagic fever.
is prone to floods and river erosion; of the 7,516 km long
Besides fever, the disease is characterized by an extreme coastline, close to 5,700 km is prone to cyclones and
pain and stiffness of the joints (hence the name "breakbone tsunamis; 68 per cent of the cultivable area is vulnerable
fever"). Dengue is caused by a virus transmitted through a to drought and hilly areas are at risk from landslides and
mosquito called Aedes aegypti or Asian tiger mosquito. A avalanches. Vulnerability to disasters/ emergencies of
mosquito becomes infected only if it bites an infected Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear (CBRN)
individual (humans) during the first three days of the origin also exists. Heightened vulnerabilities to disaster
victim's illness. It then requires 8 to 11 days to incubate risks can be related to expanding population, urbanization
the virus before the disease can be transmitted to another and industrialization, development within high-risk zones,
individual. Thereafter, the mosquito remains infected for environmental degradation and climate change.
life. The virus is injected into the skin of the victim. There
In the context of human vulnerability to disasters,
is no specific therapy; therefore attention is focused on
the economically and socially weaker segments of the
preventive measures involving mosquito control is only
population are the ones that are most seriously affected.
effective way to prevent spread of dengue.
Within the vulnerable groups, elderly persons, women,
(b) HIV and AIDS children - especially women rendered destitute and
The year 2001 was the 20th anniversary of the initial children orphaned on account of disasters and the
reports of a mysterious deadly immune-system disorder differently abled persons are exposed to higher risks.
that came to be known as AIDS (Acquired Immuno
Deficiency Syndrome). The disease epidemic that had killed Paradigm shift in Disaster Management (DM)
more than 21 million people in the World. On 23 December, 2005, the Government of India (GoI) took
In 2001 an estimated 36 million people were living a defining step by enacting the Disaster Management Act,
with HIV infection. This disease is caused by virus, called 2005, (here in after referred to as the Act) which envisaged
HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) which is mostly the creation of the National Disaster Management
transmitted through sexual union and blood transmission Authority (NDMA), headed by the Prime Minister, State
Disaster Management Authorities (SDMAs) headed by the
(c) Mad Cow Disease (Bovine spongiform
Chief Ministers, and District Disaster Management
encephalopathy)
Authorities (DDMAs) headed by the Collector or District
Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE or mad cow Magistrate or Deputy Commissioner as the case may be,
disease) in cattle is caused by an infectious agent that has to spearhead and adopt a holistic and integrated approach
a long incubation period, between two and five years. to DM. There will be a paradigm shift, from the erstwhile
Death usually follows within a year of the onset of relief-centric response to a proactive prevention, mitigation
symptoms. No treatment or palliative measures are known. and preparedness-driven approach for conserving
First recognized in cattle in the United Kingdom in developmental gains and also to minimise losses of life,
1986, Mad cow disease (BSE) became epidemic there, livelihoods and property.

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LEVEL Headed by:- Objectives
National Disaster Management The objectives of the national policy on disaster
Nation Prime Minister
Authority (NDMA)
management are:
 Promoting a culture of prevention, preparedness and
State Disaster Management
resilience at all levels through knowledge, innovation
State Chief Minister
Authorities (SDMA) and education.
 Encouraging mitigation measures based on
technology, traditional wisdom and environmental
District District Disaster Management District Magistrate/ sustainability.
Authorities (DDMA) Deputy Commissioner  Mainstreaming disaster management into the
developmental planning process.
Disaster Management Structure  Establishing institutional and techno-legal
frameworks to create an enabling regulatory
Approach and Objectives environment and a compliance regime.
 Ensuring efficient mechanism for identification,
Vision
assessment and monitoring of disaster risks.
To build a safe and disaster resilient India by developing a  Developing contemporary forecasting and early
holistic, proactive, multi-disaster oriented and technology warning systems backed by responsive and fail safe
driven strategy through a culture of prevention, mitigation, communication with information technology
preparedness and response. support.
 Promoting a productive partnership with the media
Disaster Management to create awareness and contributing towards
A disaster refers to a catastrophe, mishap, calamity or grave capacity development.
occurrence from natural or man-made causes, which is  Ensuring efficient response and relief with a caring
beyond the coping capacity of the affected community. approach towards the needs of the vulnerable
DM involves a continuous and integrated process of sections of the society.
planning, organising, coordinating and implementing
measures which are necessary or expedient for:
 Prevention of danger or threat of any disaster.
 Mitigation or reduction of risk of any disaster or its
severity or consequences.
 Capacity building including research and knowledge
management.
 Preparedness to deal with any disaster.
 Prompt response to any threatening disaster situation
or disaster.
 Assessing the severity or magnitude of effects of any
disaster.
 Evacuation, rescue and relief.
 Rehabilitation and reconstruction.
A typical DM continuum comprises six elements; the
pre-disaster phase includes prevention, mitigation and
preparedness, while the post-disaster phase includes A legal and institutional framework binds all
response, rehabilitation, reconstruction and recovery. these elements together (Diagram I).

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 Undertaking reconstruction as an opportunity to State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA)
build disaster resilient structures and habitat for At the State level, the SDMA, headed by the Chief Minister,
ensuring safer living.
will lay down policies and plans for DM in the State. It will,
 Promoting productive and proactive partnership with inter alia approve the State Plan in accordance with the
media in disaster management. guidelines laid down by the NDMA, coordinate the
implementation of the State Plan, recommend provision
INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK of funds for mitigation and preparedness measures and
UNDER THE DM ACT review the developmental plans of the different
departments of the State to ensure integration of
National Disaster Management Authority prevention, preparedness and mitigation measures.
(NDMA) The State Government shall constitute a State
The NDMA, as the apex body for disaster management, is Executive Committee (SEC) to assist the SDMA in the
headed by the Prime Minister and has the responsibility performance of its functions. The SEC will be headed by
for laying down policies, plans and guidelines for DM (and the Chief Secretary to the State Government and
coordinating their enforcement and implementation for coordinate and monitor the implementation of the
ensuring timely and effective response to disasters) . The National Policy, the National Plan and the State Plan. The
guidelines will assist the Central Ministries, Departments SEC will also provide information to the NDMA relating to
and States to formulate their respective DM plans. It will different aspects of DM.
approve the National Disaster Management and DM plans
of the Central Ministries/Departments. It will take such District Disaster Management Authority
other measures as it may consider necessary, for the (DDMA)
prevention of disasters, or mitigation, or preparedness and
The DDMA will be headed by the District Collector, Deputy
capacity building, for dealing with a threatening disaster
Commissioner or District Magistrate as the case may be,
situation or disaster. Central ministries/ Departments and
with the elected representative of the local authority as
State Governments will extend necessary cooperation and
the Co-Chairperson. DDMA will act as the planning,
assistance to NDMA for carrying out its mandate. It will
oversee the provision and application of funds for coordinating and implementing body for DM at District
mitigation and preparedness measures. NDMA has the level and take all necessary measures for the purposes of
power to authorize the Departments or authorities DM in accordance with the guidelines laid down by the
concerned, to make emergency procurement of provisions NDMA and SDMA. It will, inter alia prepare the District
or materials for rescue and relief in a threatening disaster DM plan for the district and monitor the implementation
situation or disaster. The general superintendence, of the National Policy, the State Policy, the National Plan,
direction and control of National Disaster Response Force the State Plan and the District Plan. DDMA will also ensure
(NDRF) are vested in and will be exercised by the NDMA. that the guidelines for prevention, mitigation,
The National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM) preparedness and response measures laid down by the
works within the framework of broad policies and NDMA and the SDMA are followed by all Departments of
guidelines laid down by NDMA. the State Government at the District level and the local
The NDMA is mandated to deal with all types of authorities in the district.
disasters, natural or man-made. Whereas, such other
Local Authorities
emergencies including those requiring close involvement
of the security forces and/or intelligence agencies such as For the purpose of this policy, local authorities would
terrorism (counter-insurgency), law and order situation, include Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRI), Municipalities,
serial bomb blasts, hijacking, air accidents, Chemical, District and Cantonment Boards and Town Planning
Biological, Radiological and Nuclear (CBRN) weapon Authorities which control and manage civic services. These
systems, mine disasters, ports and harbour emergencies, bodies will ensure capacity building of their officers and
forest fires, oil field fires, and oil spills will continue to be employees for managing disasters, carry out relief,
handled by the extant mechanism i.e., National Crisis rehabilitation and reconstruction activities in the affected
Management Committee. areas and will prepare DM Plans in consonance with

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guidelines of the NDMA, SDMAs and DDMAs. Specific Experience in major disasters in the last decade has
institutional framework for dealing with disaster clearly established the need for pre-positioning of some
management issues in mega cities will be put in place. essential reserves at crucial locations, including some for
the high altitude areas. These reserves are intended to
National Institute of Disaster Management augment the resources at the State level. Mitigation
(NIDM) reserves will be placed at the disposal of National Disaster
The NIDM, in partnership with other research institutions Response Force for enhancing their emergency responding
has capacity development as one of its major capabilities for assisting the State Governments during a
responsibilities, along with training, research, disaster or disaster like situation.
documentation and development of a national level
information base. It will network with other knowledge- DISASTER MANAGEMENT
based institutions. and function within the broad policies
and guidelines laid down by the NDMA. It will organize Disaster is a sudden adverse or unfortunate extreme event
training of trainers, DM officials and other stakeholders. which causes great damage to human beings as well as
The NIDM will strive to emerge as a 'Centre of Excellence' plants and animals. Disasters occur rapidly, instantaneously
in the field of Disaster Management. and indiscriminately. These extreme events either natural
or man induced exceed the tolerable magnitude within or
National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) beyond certain time limits, make adjustment difficult,
For the purpose of specialised response to a threatening result in catastrophic losses of property and income and
disaster situation or disasters/emergencies both natural life is paralyzed. These events which occur aggravate
and man-made such as those of Chemical, Biological, natural environmental processes to cause disasters to
Radiological and Nuclear origin, the Act has mandated the human society such as sudden tectonic movements leading
constitution of a National Disaster Response Force (NDRF). to earthquake and volcanic eruptions, continued dry
The general superintendence, direction and control of this conditions leading to prolonged droughts, floods,
force shall be vested in and exercised by the NDMA and atmospheric disturbances, collision of celestial bodies, etc.
the command and supervision of the Force shall vest in an Disasters have always co-existed with civilizations.
officer to be appointed by the Central Government as the With technological advancement, development initiatives
Director General of Civil Defence and National Disaster resulted in the creation of a lot of infrastructure and
Response Force. Presently, the NDRF comprises eight permanent assets. Gradually material development
battalions and further expansion may be considered in due detached man from nature on one hand, and increased
course. These battalions will be positioned at different vulnerability of the human population, on the other. The
locations as may be required. NDRF units will maintain progressive increase in loss of life, property and deleterious
close liaison with the designated State Governments and effect on environment due to disasters moved the
will be available to them in the event of any serious international community to look at disaster management
threatening disaster situation. While the handling of in a new perspective, which transcends international
natural disasters rests with all the NDRF battalions, four barriers, anticipates possible threats and enables tackling
battalions will also be equipped and trained to respond to of disasters from the pre-stage. The decade (1990-1999)
situations arising out of Chemical, Biological, Radiological was observed by the International Community as the
and Nuclear emergencies. Training centres will be set up 'International Decade for natural disaster reduction', a
by respective para-military forces to train personnel from decade dedicated to promoting solutions to reduce risks
NDRF battalions of respective Forces and will also meet from natural hazards. The international dimension of
the training requirement of State/UT Disaster Response disasters was realized and a protocol sought to be
Forces. The NDRF units will also impart basic training to all established so that when it comes to suffering of humanity,
the stakeholders identified by the State Governments in help from the International community flow in right
their respective locations. Further, a National Academy will earnest.
be set up to provide training for trainers in disaster The United Nations defined Disasters as 'A serious
management and to meet related national and disruption of the functioning of a community or a society
international commitments. causing widespread human, material, economic and
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environmental losses which exceed the ability of the What is a Hazard? How is it classified?
affected community / society to cope using its own Hazard may be defined as "a dangerous condition or event,
resources'. that threat or have the potential for causing injury to life
A disaster is a result from the combination of hazard, or damage to property or the environment." Hazards can
vulnerability and insufficient capacity or measures to be grouped into two broad categories namely natural and
reduce the potential chances of risk. A disaster happens manmade.
when a hazard impacts on the vulnerable population and 1. Natural hazards are hazards which are caused
causes damage, casualties and disruption. Figure 1 gives a because of natural phenomena (hazards with
better illustration of what a disaster is. Any hazard - flood, meteorological, geological or even biological origin).
earthquake or cyclone which is a triggering event along Examples of natural hazards are cyclones, tsunamis,
with greater vulnerability (inadequate access to resources, earthquake and volcanic eruptions which are
sick and old people, lack of awareness etc) would lead to exclusively of natural origin. Landslides, floods,
disaster causing greater loss to life and property. For drought, fires are socio-natural hazards since their
example; an earthquake in an uninhabited desert cannot causes are both natural and man made. For example
be considered a disaster, no matter how strong the flooding may be caused because of heavy rains,
intensities produced. An earthquake is disastrous only landslide or blocking of drains with human waste.
when it affects people, their properties and activities. Thus, 2. Manmade hazards are hazards which are due to
disaster occurs only when hazards and vulnerability meet. human negligence. Manmade hazards are associated
But it is also to be noted that with greater capacity of the with industries or energy generation facilities and
individual/community and environment to face these include explosions, leakage of toxic waste, pollution,
disasters, the impact of a hazard reduces. Therefore, we dam failure, wars or civil strife, etc. The list of hazards
need to understand the three major components namely is very long. Many occur frequently while others take
hazard, vulnerability and capacity with suitable examples place occasionally. However, on the basis of their
to have a basic understanding of disaster management. genesis, they can be categorized as follows:

VARIOUS TYPES OF HAZARDS

Type Hazard
Geological Hazards 1. Earthquake 4. Landslide
2. Tsunami 5. Dam burst
3. Volcanic Eruption 6. Mine Fire
Water & Climatic Hazards 1. Tropical Cyclone 6. Cloudburst
2. Tornado and Hurricane 7. Landslide
3. Floods 8. Heat & Cold wave
4. Drought 9. Snow Avalanche
5. Hailstorm 10. Sea erosion

Environmental Hazards 1. Environmental pollutions 3. Desertification

2. Deforestation 4. Pest Infection
Biological 1. Human/Animal Epidemics 3. Food poisoning
2. Pest attacks 4. Weapons of Mass Destruction
Chemical, Industrial and Nuclear Accidents 1. Chemical disasters 3. Oil spills/Fires
2. Industrial disasters 4. Nuclear
Accident Related 1. Boat/Road/Train accidents/ 3. Building collapse
/ air crash Rural/Urban fires bomb 4. Electric Accidents
/ Serial bomb disasters blasts 5. Festival related
2. Forest Fires 6. Mine flooding

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What is Vulnerability? What is Risk?
Vulnerability may be defined as "The extent to which a Risk is a "measure of the expected losses due to a hazard
community, structure, services or geographic area is likely event occurring in a given area over a specific time period.
to be damaged or disrupted by the impact of particular Risk is a function of the probability of particular hazardous
hazard, on account of their nature, construction and event and the losses it would cause." The level of risk
proximity to hazardous terrains or a disaster prone area." depends upon:
Vulnerabilities can be categorized into physical and socio-  Nature of the hazard
economic vulnerability. Physical Vulnerability: It includes  Vulnerability of the elements which are affected
notions of whom and what may be damaged or destroyed
 Economic value of those elements
by natural hazard such as earthquakes or floods. It is
A community/locality is said to be at 'risk' when it is
based on the physical condition of people and elements at
exposed to hazards and is likely to be adversely affected
risk, such as buildings, infrastructure etc; and their
by its impact. Whenever we discuss 'disaster management'
proximity, location and nature of the hazard. It also relates
it is basically 'disaster risk management'. Disaster risk
to the technical capability of building and structures to
management includes all measures which reduce disaster
resist the forces acting upon them during a hazard event.
related losses of life, property or assets by either reducing
The degree to which a population is affected by a the hazard or vulnerability of the elements at risk.
hazard will not merely lie in the physical components of
vulnerability but also on the socioeconomic conditions.
The socio-economic conditions of the people also DISASTER MANAGEMENT CYCLE
determine the intensity of the impact. For example, people
Disaster Risk Management includes sum total of all
who are poor and living in the sea coast don't have the
activities, programmes and measures which can be taken
money to construct strong concrete houses. They are
up before, during and after a disaster with the purpose to
generally at risk and loose their shelters when ever there
avoid a disaster, reduce its impact or recover from its
is strong wind or cyclone. Because of their poverty they
losses. The three key stages of activities that are taken up
too are not able to rebuild their houses.
within disaster risk management are as follows (See Figure
below):
What is Capacity?
Capacity can be defined as "resources, means and strengths Before a Disaster (Pre-Disaster)
which exist in households and communities and which Pre-disaster activities those which are taken to reduce
enable them to cope with, withstand, prepare for, prevent, human and property losses caused by a potential hazard.
mitigate or quickly recover from a disaster". People's For example, carrying out awareness campaigns,
capacity can also be taken into account. Capacities could strengthening the existing weak structures, preparation of
be classified into physical and socio-economic capacities. the disaster management plans at household and
 Physical Capacity: People whose houses have been community level, etc. Such risk reduction measures taken
destroyed by the cyclone or crops have been under this stage are termed as mitigation and preparedness
destroyed by the flood can salvage things from their activities.
homes and from their farms. Some family members
have skills, which enable them to find employment if During a Disaster (Disaster Occurrence)
they migrate, either temporarily or permanently.
These include initiatives taken to ensure that the needs
 Socio-economic Capacity: In most of the disasters,
and provisions of victims are met and suffering is
people suffer their greatest losses in the physical
minimized. Activities taken under this stage are called
and material realm. Rich people have the capacity to
emergency response activities.
recover soon because of their wealth. In fact, they are
seldom hit by disasters because they live in safe areas After a Disaster (Post-Disaster)
and their houses are built with stronger materials.
However, even when everything is destroyed they have There are initiatives taken in response to a disaster with a
the capacity to cope up with it. purpose to achieve early recovery and rehabilitation of
Hazards are always prevalent, but the hazard becomes affected communities, immediately after a disaster strikes.
a disaster only when the frequency or likelihood of a These are called as response and recovery activities.
hazard and the vulnerability of the community The Disaster risk management cycle diagram (DRMC)
increases the risk of being severely affected. highlights the range of initiatives which normally occur

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during both the Emergency response and Recovery stages  Recovery - Returning the community to normal.
of a disaster. Some of these cut across both stages (such Examples: temporary housing; grants; medical care.
things as coordination and the provision of ongoing To analyze the scope of disaster management in the
assistance); whilst other activities are unique to each stage revised context, let us study the cycle of the phenomenon
(e.g. Early Warning and Evacuation during Emergency (Figure below).
Response; and Reconstruction and Economic and Social
Recovery as part of Recovery). The DRMC also highlights
the role of the media, where there is a strong relationship
between this and funding opportunities. This diagram
works best for relatively sudden-onset disasters, such as
floods, earthquakes, bushfires, tsunamis, cyclones etc, but
is less reflective of slow-onset disasters, such as drought,
where there is no obviously recognizable single event which
triggers the movement into the Emergency Response stage.
Disaster management aims to reduce, or avoid the
potential losses from hazards, assure prompt and
appropriate assistance to victims of disaster, and achieve
rapid and effective recovery. The disaster management
cycle illustrates the ongoing process by which governments, Disasters are as old as human history but the
businesses, and civil society plan for and reduce the dramatic increase and the damage caused by them in the
impact of disasters, react during and immediately recent past have become a cause of national and
following a disaster, and take steps to recover after a international concern. Over the past decade, the number
disaster has occurred. Appropriate actions at all points in of natural and manmade disasters has climbed inexorably.
the cycle lead to greater preparedness, better warnings, From 1994 to 1998, reported disasters average was 428
reduced vulnerability or the prevention of disasters during per year but from 1999 to 2003, this figure went up to an
the next iteration of the cycle. The complete disaster average of 707 disaster events per year showing an increase
management cycle includes the shaping of public policies
of about 60 per cent over the previous years. The biggest
and plans that either modify the causes of disasters or
rise was in countries of low human development, which
mitigate their effects on people, property, and
suffered an increase of 142 per cent.
infrastructure. The mitigation and preparedness phases
occur as disaster management improvements are made in
anticipation of a disaster event. Developmental COMMUNITY LEVEL DISASTER
considerations play a key role in contributing to the MANAGEMENT
mitigation and preparation of a community to effectively
confront a disaster. As a disaster occurs, disaster At the time of disaster, various agencies such as
management actors, in particular humanitarian government, NGOs and community plays an important role
organizations become involved in the immediate response for disaster management. These are preparedness,
and long-term recovery phases. The four disaster response, recovery and prevention details are on follows:
management phases illustrated here do not always, or
even generally, occur in isolation or in this precise order.
Often phases of the cycle overlap and the length of each
phase greatly depends on the severity of the disaster.
  Mitigation - Minimizing the effects of disaster.
Examples: building codes and zoning; vulnerability
analyses; public education.
 Preparedness - Planning how to respond. Examples:
preparedness plans; emergency exercises/training;
warning systems.
 Response - Efforts to minimize the hazards created
by a disaster. Examples: search and rescue;
emergency relief.

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Disaster Management has Four Basic The first few hours before and after a disaster are
Components critical and precious for saving lives and reducing further
injury. Often external help may take time to reach the
Preparedness: Measure to ensure that communities and
disaster site. In any disaster, often the neighbours are first
services are capable of coping with the effect of disaster. It
to respond. The first responders are people who act first in
has the following main elements:
a disaster situation, usually lack basic response skills to
 Community awareness and education; deal medical or other emergencies. The aim of community
 Preparation of disaster management plans for level management is to train the individuals and the
community, school, individual; members of local community to deal with emergency
 Mock drill, training and practice; situation effectively. Trained community members are life
 Inventory of resources both material resources and saving assets in such situations. Thus community level
human skill resources; management involves people's participation.
 Proper warning systems;
 Mutual aid arrangement; GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES ON
 Identifying the vulnerable groups; DISASTER MANAGEMENT
Response: Measures taken in anticipation of, during
and immediately after a disaster for minimizing its adverse The Government of India has set up a National Committee
impact. It has following main elements: on Disaster Management (NCDM) under the Chairmanship
 Activate the emergency operation centres (control of the Prime Minister. The recommendations of this
room); National Committee would form the basis of national
disaster risk management programme and strengthening
 Deployment of search and rescue teams.
the natural disaster management and response
 Issuing updated warning;
mechanisms. United Nations Development Programmes
 Setting up community kitchens using local groups; (UNDP) has also been supporting various initiatives of the
 Set up temporary living accomodation and toilet government to strengthen disaster management capacities.
faciliites;
The programme components would include the
 Set up medical camps;
following:
 Mobilising resources;
 Development of state and district disaster
Recovery: Measures are initiated to undertake
management plans.
reconstruction of the physical infrastructure and
restoration of economic and emotional well being. The  Development of disaster risk management and
main elements are as follows: response plans at Village/ Ward, Gram
 Community awareness on health and safety measures; Panchayat, Block/Urban Local Body levels
 Counselling programme for those who have lost the
near and dear ones;  Constitutions of Disaster Management Teams and
 Restoring the essential services -roads, Committees at all levels with adequate representation of
communication links, electricity etc.; women in all committees and team. (Village/ Ward, Gram
 Providing shelters;
Panchayat, Block/Urban local body, District
 Collecting usable materials for construction from
rubble; and State.
 Providing financial support;  Capacity Building of Disaster Management Teams at
 Finding employment opportunities; all levels. Special training for women in first aid,
 Reconstructing new buildings. shelter management, water and sanitation, rescue
Prevention: Measures to eliminate or reduce the and evacuation, etc.
incidence of severity.  Capacity Building in cyclone and earthquake
 Land use planning; resistant features for houses in disaster prone
 Preventing habitation in risk zones; districts, training in retrofitting, and construction of
 Disaster resistant buildings; technology demonstrationunits.
 Finding ways to reduce risk even before the disaster strikes;  Integration of disaster management plans with
 Community awareness and education. development plans of local self governments.

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 CHAPTER

11
GLOSSARY

 Abiotic components or conditions: The non-living  Aquifer: An underground layer of rock or sand that
components or conditions of an ecosystem such as contains water.
the natural resources and the atmospheric  Asbestos: A fibrous silicate mineral used as
conditions. construction material and insulation. It is very
 Abyssal zone: The cold and dark zone at the bottom dangerous to health when the fibres are inhaled.
of the ocean.  Autotroph: Green plant or producer that makes its
 Acid rain: Rain, mist, or snow formed when own food.
atmospheric water droplets combine with a range  Background extinction: The process of natural and
of man-made chemical air pollutants. low-level extinction that goes on continuously due
 Adaptation: Adjustment in natural or human to changes in the environmental conditions.
systems in response to actual or expected climatic  Barrel: The unit used in the US for petroleum.
stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or  Bathyal zone: The dimly lit middle level zone in the
exploits beneficial opportunities. ocean, roughly between 200 m and 1500 m in depth.
 Agro forestry: A system of land use that combines  Benthos: Bottom-dwelling organisms adapted to
growing crops along with trees. living on the floor of a water body.
 Albedo: The reflection of light from a surface,  Bio-intensive farming: Intensive garden cultivation
measured as the fraction of the incident light that a using deep-dug beds.
surface reflects back.  Biodegradable waste: Any waste item that breaks
 Algal bloom: A population explosion of some down into the raw materials of nature and becomes
pigmented marine algae seen as an explosion of part of the environment in reasonable time.
colour on the ocean - orange, red, or brown.  Biodiversity (Biological diversity): The numbers,
 Allopatric speciation: The process of one species variety, and variability of living organisms and
becomes two due to the formation of geographical ecosystems, covering diversity within species,
barriers such as land separation, mountain between species, as well as the variation among
formation, emigration, or human interference. ecosystems.
 Anthropocene: The new geological epoch in which  Biodiversity Hotspot: An area, especially rich in
humanity has overwhelmed the forces of nature. biodiversity with a large number of endemic species
 Aquaculture: The artificial production of fish in that is threatened with the loss of that biodiversity.
ponds or underwater cages.  Biodynamic farming: A type of organic farming that
 Aquatic life zone: The non-terrestrial part of the exploits bio- and solar rhythms, based on the ideas
biosphere including wetlands, lakes, rivers, estuaries, of Rudolf Steiner.
inter-tidal zone, coastal ocean, and open ocean.  Bioenergy: Energy extracted from biomass.
 Biofertilizers The use of soil microorganisms to  Biopesticide: Pesticides derived from animals,
increase the availability and uptake of mineral plants, bacteria, and certain minerals.
nutrients for plants.  Biopiracy: The appropriation of traditional
 Biofortification: The process by which the nutritional knowledge of biodiversity by outsiders, including the
quality of food crops is improved through agronomic fraudulent patenting of such biological resources for
practices, conventional plant breeding, or modern profit.
biotechnology.  Bioremediation: The use of biotechnology to clean
 Biofuel: Fuel obtained by converting biomass into up wastes and toxic pollutants.
liquid fuel.  Biosphere reserve: Area of land or water that is
 Biogas: Gas produced by the process of anaerobic protected by law in order to support the
digestion of organic material such as cow dung and conservation of the ecosystem.
vegetable waste.  Biosphere: That part of the earth where life exists.
 Biogeochemical cycle: A cycle (with biological,  Biota: The living component of an ecosystem, also
geological and chemical interactions) through which called the biotic community. The biotic community
matter moves through ecosystems, powered directly includes the plants, animals and microorganisms.
or indirectly by solar energy.  Biotechnology: Technology that manipulates living
 Bioinformatics: The application of information organisms or cells to create a product or an effect.
technology to the management of biological  Biotic components: The living components of an
information. ecosystem.
 Biointensive farming: A type of organic farming  Bottom trawling: The practice of fishing by scraping
involving intensive garden cultivation using deep-dug the sea floor with a net.
beds.
 Brent Crude: The sweet and light crude oil that
 Biological capacity or biocapacity: Ecosystems’
serves as a major benchmark price for purchases of
capacity to produce biological materials used by
oil worldwide.
people and to absorb waste material generated by
 Brominated flame retardant: Chemical added to
humans, under current management schemes and
consumer products such as mattresses and
extraction technologies.
electronic items in order to reduce fire-related injury
 Biological extinction: The complete disappearance
and property damage.
of a species, an irreversible loss with not a single
 Bunker fuel: Fuel consumed for international marine
member of the extinct species being found on Earth.
and air transport.
 Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD): Measure of the
 Bycatch The species caught in the fishing nets along
oxygen used by microorganisms to decompose
with the targeted ones.
organic waste.
 Biological pest control: The intentional introduction  Canopy: The more or less continuous cover of
of predators, diseases, or parasites to control pests. branches and foliage formed collectively by the
crowns of adjacent trees.
 Biomagnification: The increasing concentration of
pollutants in organisms as we move up the food  Carbon: cycle Cyclic movement of carbon in various
chain. forms from the environment to organisms and back
to the environment.
 Biomass gasification: Incomplete combustion of
biomass resulting in production of combustible  Carbon Footprint: Total greenhouse gas emissions
gases. caused directly and indirectly by a person,
 Biome: A terrestrial and regional ecosystem with a organisation, event, product, or country.
distinct climate and a distinct biological community  Carbon sequestration: The process of removing
of plants, animals and other organisms. carbon from the atmosphere and depositing it in a
 Biomedical waste: Waste that originates mainly reservoir.
from hospitals and clinics and includes blood,  Captive breeding: Reproduction of threatened
diseased organs, poisonous medicines, etc. animals in captivity.
A manish Singh Sir’s Initiative ENVIRONMENT
 Carnivore: Organism that feeds on other consumers.  Critically Endangered species: A threatened
 Carrying Capacity: The maximum number of species facing an extremely high risk of extinction
individuals of a given species that an area’s resources in the wild.
can sustain indefinitely without significantly  Crude birth rate: The number of live births per 1000
depleting or degrading those resources. people in a population in a given year.
 Cell respiration: The process in which the molecules  Crude death rate: The number of deaths per 1000
of glucose combine with water and oxygen to release people in a population in a given year.
energy and create carbon dioxide and water.  Cyclone Violent tropical storm in which strong winds
 Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC): A type of chemical that move in a circle.
is used as a refrigerant or aerosol propellants. When  DDT (Dichloro-diphenol-trichloroethane): A toxic
it breaks apart in the atmosphere and releases insecticide that protects crops and human beings
chlorine atoms, it causes ozone depletion. from insects.
 Climate change: A significant and persistent change  Decibel (db): A logarithmic scale for measuring the
in the mean state of the climate or its variability. intensity of sound.
 Climax ecosystem: Ecosystem that has reached a  Deciduous tree: Tree that sheds all its leaves in
steady state. winter.
 Coastal zone: The area extending from the high tide  Decompose:r An organism that digests and breaks
mark on land to the edge of the continental shelf, down dead organisms and wastes of living
where there is a sharp increase in the depth of water. organisms.
 Commensalism: A symbiotic relationship between  Demographic Dividend Boost in economic growth
two species in w’hich one species benefits from the that can result from changes in a country ’s
relationship and the other is neither benefitted nor population age structure.
harmed.  Desertification Land degradation in arid and semi-
 Common Effluent Treatment Plant (CETP): A arid areas caused by human activities and climatic
changes.
common plant where the waste of several units from
an industrial estate is collected and made safe by  Detrivore A consumer that feeds on detritus, which
treatment. refers mainly to fallen leaves, parts of dead trees,
and faecal wastes of animals.
 Community: Populations of different species
(plants, animals, and microorganisms) living and  Dioxin A highly toxic chemical compound that occurs
as contaminants in a number of industrial processes
interacting in a given area at a given time.
and products; also formed in the burning of waste,
 Competition: The interaction between two or more
plastics, coal or cigarettes.
species that seek the same resource for survival.
 Disaster management Effective way of managing
 Composting: The process of converting organic
disasters including mitigation, preparedness,
waste into fertilizer. response, and recovery.
 Conifer: Tree on which the seeds are borne in a  Disaster mitigation Reducing the effects of
cone. potential disasters through suitable measures.
 Coniferous forest: A type of forest with an  Displacement The movement of people from their
abundance of coniferous trees like spruce, fir, pine, homes to new locations.
and hemlock.  DNA The molecule of an organism that contains
 Consumer: An organism that feeds on producers or information about its characteristics and behaviour.
other organisms, also called heterotroph. .  Eco-label A label used to mark a consumer product
 Continental shelf: The submerged part of the to indicate that it is environment-friendly with regard
continent at the edge of the coastal zone, where to its manufacture and use.
there is a sharp increase in the depth of water.  Eco-mark Eco-label established by the Indian
 Coral reef: Colourful protective crust of limestone government for easy identification of environment-
formed by colonies of tiny organisms called polyps. friendly products.

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 Eco-sensitive zone A peripheral area around a  Ecotone: The transitional zone between adjoining
Protected Area that is considered ecologically fragile ecosystems.
enough to justify some regulation of human  Edge effect: The presence of rich and unique
activities. biological diversity found in an ecotone.
 Ecological architecture Architecture that seeks to  El Nino: An abnormal warming of the surface ocean
minimize the ecological footprint of the house, waters in the eastern tropical Pacific in some years.
building, or complex.  Electromagnetic radiation: A form of energy
 Ecological balance The fine balance between the radiated as waves and caused by changing electric
biota and abiotic conditions of an ecosystem, and magnetic fields.
enabling it to remain stable and for all its organisms  Endangered species: A threatened species facing a
to survive and prosper. very high risk of extinction in the wild.
 Ecological extinction The state of a species when so  Endemic species: A species is found only in a specific
few members are left that the species can no longer geographical location and not found anywhere else.
play its normal ecological role in the community.
 Endosulfan: A highly toxic pesticide used to protect
 Ecological Footprint A measure of the ecological many crops from pest attacks.
impact of an entity, expressed as the extent of land
 Energy flow: Flow of energy in a food chain from
needed to completely sustain the entity.
one organism to the next in a sequence.
 Ecological niche All the physical, chemical, and
 Environment: The natural world in which people,
biological factors that a species needs in order to
animals, and plants live.
live and reproduce.
 Environmental conservation: All the ways in which
 Ecological pyramid A graphical representation of the
we protect nature and reverse the damage caused
change that occurs as we move from one trophic
to the natural environment.
level to the next in a food chain.
 Environmental degradation: This term refers to the
 Ecological sanitation (EcoSan) A sustainable closed-
damage caused to the natural environment by
loop sanitation system that uses dry composting
human action and otherwise.
toilets.
 Environmental education: A subject concerned with
 Ecological succession The orderly process of
all environmental issues, including the social aspects.
transition from one biotic community to another in
a given area.  Environmental ethics: Moral principles that try to
 Ecologist: A scientist who works in the field of define our responsibility towards the environment.
ecology.  Environmental health: Those aspects of human
 Ecology: The study of the relationships and health that are determined by physical, chemical,
interactions between organisms and their biological, social, and psychosocial factors in the
environment. environment.
 Ecosystem: A defined area in which a community  Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA): The study
(with its populations of species) exists with of the likely short-term and long-term impact of a
interactions taking place among the organisms and new project on the natural and social environment.
between the community and its non-living physical  Environmental refugee: A person who has been
environment. displaced due to environmental degradation or a
 Ecosystem diversity: The variety of habitats found development project.
in an area, that is, the variety of forests, deserts,  Environmental Science: The systematic and scientific
grasslands, aquatic ecosystems, etc., that occurs in study of our environment and our role in it.
the area.  Environmental stability: The maintenance of natural
 Ecosystem service: The ecological service provided processes in a state of balance. Forests contribute
by an ecosystem such as the maintenance of the to environmental stability.
biogeochemical cycles, modification of climate,  Environmental Studies: The branch of study
waste removal and detoxification, and control of concerned with environmental issues and includes
pests and diseases. the social aspects of the environment.

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 Environmentalist: A person who helps in the  Fuel cell: An electrochemical unit that generates
conservation of the environment. electricity from hydrogen and oxygen
 Epiphyte: A plant that derives its moisture and  Genetic diversity: The variety in the genetic makeup
nutrients from the air and rain and grows usually on among individuals within a species.
another plant.  Genetic engineering: The manipulation of the genes
 Estuary: The wide part of a river where it flows into in an organism to change its characteristics, for
the sea. example, moving a favourable gene from one
 Euphotic zone: The upper part of the open ocean organism to another.
where there is enough light for the phytoplankton
 Genetic Modification (GM): Direct modification of
to carry out photosynthesis.
the genetic makeup of an organism by introducing
 Eutrophication: The excessive addition of chemical
foreign genes into the gene pool of the organism.
nutrients like nitrogen or phosphorus into the soil
or a standing water body, which promotes the  Genetically Modified food (GM Food): Food derived
excessive growth of some species leading to the from genetically modified organisms, which have had
death of others. specific changes introduced into their DNA by
 Evergreen tree: Tree that retains its leaves all year genetic engineering.
and for several years.  Genome: The complete set of DNA within a single
 Ewaste: Waste from discarded electrical and cell of an organism.
electronic equipment.  Genomics: A discipline in genetics that applies
 Ex-situ (off-site) conservation: Conservation, which biotechnology to sequence, assemble, and analyse
attempts to preserve and protect the species in a the function and structure of genomes.
place away from their natural habitat.  Geothermal energy: Energy from the hot liquid rock
 Exotic species: A tree species introduced from a under the Earth’s crust tapped from the hot water
different place. that comes to the surface.
 Exponential growth: The growth of a quantity with  Global warming: Warming of the earth’s atmosphere
time in such a way that the curve is relatively flat in due to an abnormal increase in the concentration
the beginning, but becomes steeper and steeper of greenhouse gases.
with time.
 Global warming potential (GYVP): An index
 Extinct species: A known species, no member of
representing the combined effect of the differing
which is found anywhere on earth.
time periods for which greenhouse gases remain in
 Extractive reserve: Protected forest, in which local the atmosphere and their relative effectiveness in
communities are allowed to harvest non-timber
absorbing outgoing infrared radiation.
products in ways that do not harm the forest.
 Grassland: Region where the average annual
 Fauna: All the animals that live in a particular area
precipitation is high enough for grass and a few trees
time period or environment.
to grow.
 Flora: All the plants that live in a particular area time
period or environment.  Green business: Enterprise that has no negative
impact on the global or local environment,
 Fluorosis: An ailment caused by the excess intake of
community, society, or economy.
fluoride.
 Food chain: A sequence of species, in which each is  Green economy: Economic activity related to
the food for the next in the chain. reducing the use of fossil fuels, decreasing pollution
 Food web: An interconnected set of food chains. and greenhouse gas emissions, increasing the
efficiency of energy usage, recycling materials, and
 Forest certification: A system for certifying forests
developing and adopting renewable sources of
that adopt sustainable management practices.
energy.
 Fossil fuel: Remains of organisms that lived 200-500
million years ago that were converted by heat and  Green livelihood: Productive and sustainable
pressure into coal, oil, and natural gas. livelihoods based on natural resources.

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 Green Revolution: A way of agriculture that greatly on which municipal waste is dumped.
increases crop yields, using new seed varieties, large  Landslide: The sliding down of soil and rocks on a
quantities of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and mountain slope.
water.  Local extinction: The state of a species when it is no
 Greenhouse gas: A gas like carbon dioxide that longer found in the area it once inhabited. It is,
surrounds the Earth and prevents some of the Sun’s however, present elsewhere in the world.
heat from being reflected back out again.  Mangrove: A unique salt-tolerant tree with
 Gross World Product: The total value of all the interlacing roots that grows in shallow marine
products made and services offered in the world. sediments.
 Groundwater: Water contained underneath the  Marine Protected Area (MPA): Area set up by a
Earth’s surface. country to protect a marine ecosystem, its natural
 Habitat fragmentation: The process by which processes, habitats, and species.
continuous areas of species habitat are reduced in  Marine upwelling: The process of water
extent or divided into patchwork of isolated replacement in ocean, when strong winds push the
fragments due to human impact. water away drawing to the surface the cold water
 Habitat: The area where a species is biologically from below, which is rich in nutrients.
adapted to live.  Marsh: Wetland with few trees.
 Herbivore: An organism that feeds directly on  Mass extinction: A global and catastrophic event,
producers. with more than 65% of all species becoming extinct
 Heterotroph: Any consumer. over some millions of years.
 Hurricane: Violent storm with very strong winds  Mesosphere: This layer occupies the space above
experienced mainly in the western Atlantic Ocean. the stratosphere up to about 80 km above the Earth’s
 In-situ (on-site) conservation: Conservation, which surface.
tries to protect species where they are, that is, in  Methyl Isocyanate (MIC): Highly poisonous chemical
their natural habitat. used in pesticide manufacture.
 Indicator species: A species whose presence,  Mitigation: In the context of climate change, a
absence, or abundance reflects a specific human intervention to reduce the sources or
environmental condition. enhance the sinks of greenhouse gases.
 Indigenous knowledge: The traditional and local  Monocropping: Planting only a single species over
knowledge held by the members of a given a piece of land.
community.  Montane: Growing in or inhabiting mountain areas.
 Intertidal zone: The area of shoreline between the  Mutualism: A symbiotic relationship between two
low and high tides. It is the transition between the species in which both species benefit and they rely
land and the ocean. on each other for survival.
 Invasive species: Any plant, fungus, or animal  Natural farming: No-tillage and organic farming,
species that has entered (or invaded) an area, to pioneered by Masanobu Fukuoka of Japan.
which the species is not native.  Natural gas: A fossil fuel often found above the oil
 Joint Forest Management: Sustainable management deposit in wells.
of forests involving local communities in the planning  Nautical mile: The unit of distance used in the
and execution of the conservation programme. ocean. One nautical mile equals 1.85 km.
 Keystone species: A species that has a  Nekton: The strong swimmers of the ocean
disproportionately large effect on the communities including all the larger organisms like fishes, turtles
in which it occurs and determines the ability of a and whales.
large number of other species in the community to  Net energy yield: The usable amount of high-quality
survive. energy that can be extracted from an energy source.
 Landfill: An area, usually located just outside the city,  Non-renewable energy source: An energy source
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that is limited in supply and gets depleted by use. sunlight, unburnt hydrocarbons, ozone, and other
 Nonpoint-source of water pollution: A large area pollutants.
over which water flows and picks up pollutants.  Photosynthesis: The process in which green plants
 Nuclear radiation: Energy particles or rays that are take in carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, water
given off from a radioactive element, such as from the soil and energy from the Sun to make food.
uranium, as it decays.  Photovoltaic (PV) cell: A device that converts solar
 Nutrient: Any food, element, or compound that is energy directly into electricity.
essential for an organism to live and grow.  Phytoplankton: Photosynthetic producers forming
 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion: Energy the basis of the ocean’s food web.
generation using the difference in temperature  Pioneer species: Hardy species which are the first
between the ocean surface water and the colder to colonize a previously disrupted or damaged
deep ocean water. ecosystem.
 Old-growth forest: Forests that have not been  Planetary boundaries: The boundaries for certain
seriously disturbed by human activities or natural processes that regulate the stability and resilience
disasters for several hundred years or more. of the earth system.
 Omnivore: An organism that eats producers as well  Plankton: Free-floating microorganisms that cannot
as other consumers. swim easily and are buffeted about by the waves
 Open ocean: The area of the ocean beyond the and currents.
coastal zone.  Plant Genetic Resources: Genetic material of plant
 Organic farming: A method of farming that does origin with actual or potential value for food and
not use chemical fertilizers and chemical pesticides. agriculture.
 Organism: Any living thing—an animal, a plant, or  Point-source of water pollution: Specific places
a microbe. like factories that discharge pollutants into water
 Overshoot: The result of an ecosystem being bodies.
exploited more rapidly than it can renew itself.  Polluter Pays Principle: Principle by which a polluter
 Ozone Depleting Potential (ODP): The amount of is made to pay for or repair the damage caused to
ozone depletion caused by a substance. the environment.
 Ozone layer: A layer of ozone that exists in the upper  Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs): Toxic chemicals
atmosphere, or stratosphere, between 10 and 50 km widely used in electrical equipment, which remain
above the Earth. in the environment for long.
 Parasitism: A symbiotic relationship between two  Polyp: Tiny organism that forms the coral.
species in which one species (parasite) benefits at  Population: The members of a species living and
the expense of another species (host). interacting within a specific geographical region.
 Peak oil: The maximum rate of the production of  Precautionary Principle: Principle used to avoid any
oil in any area under consideration, recognising that proposed action that has the potential to harm the
it is a finite natural resource, subject to depletion. environment, even if there is yet no conclusive proof
 Pcrmaculture: Consciously designed landscapes of harm occurring.
which mimic the patterns and relationships found  Precipitation: All the forms in which water comes
in nature, while yielding an abundance of food, fibre, down on Earth, including rain, snow, and hailstorm.
and energy for provision of local needs.  Primary air pollutant: Harmful chemical that is
 Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs): A group of released directly from a source into the atmosphere.
persistent, toxic chemicals that can accumulate in  Primary forests (or old-growth forest): Forests of
organisms and can contaminate sites far removed native tree species where human activities have not
from their source. made an impact and the ecological balance remains
 Photochemical smog: A form of outdoor air undisturbed.
pollution formed by the chemical reactions between  Producer An organism such as a green plant that
can produce food from simple inorganic substances
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through photosynthesis. Also called autotroph. forcing it through a semi-permeable membrane.
 Propagule (of a tree): A portion of the tree such as  Richter scale: A measure of the severity of an
a cutting or a seed that propagates the tree. earthquake. It is a measure of the amount of energy
 Protected area: Area in which the biodiversity and released, which is indicated by the vibrations in a
wildlife are protected from human exploitation. seismograph.
National parks, sanctuaries, and biosphere reserves  Sacred grove: A forest that is protected by the local
are examples. community through social traditions and taboos that
 Public Interest Litigation (PIL): Petitions filed in incorporate spiritual and ecological values.
courts by individual citizens, groups, and voluntary  Salinization of soil: The building up of salt in the
organizations seeking justice in matters involving soil flowing the evaporation of excess water.
public interest.  Sanitary landfill: A site where waste is isolated from
 Pyramid of Biomass: A graphical representation of the environment until it is safe.
the reduction in biomass of organisms as we move  Savannah: Tropical grasslands with widely scattered
from one trophic level to the next. clumps of low trees. They are marked by low rainfall
 Pyramid of Energy: A graphical representation of the and prolonged dry periods.
reduction in usable energy of organisms as we move  Second-growth forest: A forest that results from
from one trophic level to the next. secondary ecological succession that takes place
 Pyramid of Numbers: Pyramid that shows that the when forests are cleared and then left undisturbed
number of organisms drops drastically from one for long period of time..
trophic level to the next.  Secondary air pollutant: Harmful chemical that is
 Rainforest: A type of forest found in the hot and produced from chemical reactions involving primary
humid regions near the Equator. These regions have pollutants.
abundant rainfall and little variation in temperature  Secondary forests (or second-growth forest):
over the year. Forests that emerge when primary forests are
 Rainwater harvesting: Harvesting rainwater where removed by human action or natural causes and are
it falls, either by collecting and storing it, or by letting then regenerated.
it recharge the groundwater.  Seed bank: A kind of gene bank that stores seeds of
 Rangeland: Land that is not suitable for crop food crops or any rare species of plants.
production and is used for grazing by animals.  Seismograph: An instrument that measures the
 Recombinant DNA: Technology that combines two amount of energy released in an earthquake by
or more different strands of DNA to create a new sensing the vibrations.
strand.  Sentinel species: Species that are very sensitive
 Recycle: To convert waste back into a useful form. indicators of environmental problems.
 Rehabilitation: The provision of opportunities and  Shale gas: Natural gas that is trapped within shale
facilities to displaced people to help them find formations, which are fine-grained sedimentary
livelihoods and shelter in the new area. rocks.
 Renewable energy source: An energy source that is  Shale oil: Crude oil stored in a rock formation called
replenished by natural processes and hence can be shale.
used indefinitely.  Sink: Any process, activity or mechanism which
 Renewable energy: Type of energy (like solar energy) removes a greenhouse gas, an aerosol or a precursor
that is replaced by natural processes and can be used of a greenhouse gas from the atmosphere.
forever.  Sludge: The toxic material left behind after the
 Reuse: To extend the life of an item or to find a new treatment of sewage.
use for it.  Smog: A form of outdoor pollution that is localized
 Reverse Osmosis or RO Method: Purifying water by in urban areas, where it reduces visibility.

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 Social forestry: The planting of trees, often with  Tidal energy: Energy produced by the surge of
the involvement of local communities, in wasteland ocean waters during the rise and fall of tides.
or common land.  Tight oil: Same as shale oil
 Speciation: The formation of new species due to  Tonne of oil equivalent: The amount of energy
the genetic changes in an existing species. released by burning one tonne of crude oil.
 Species: A group of similar organisms.  Topsoil: Topmost layer of the soil, where most plant
 Species diversity: The variety of plant and animal roots, microorganisms, and other animal life are
species present in a community or ecosystem. located.
 Species extinction: The situation in which no  Toxic waste: Waste that contains poisons, which
members of the species are found to exist anywhere could kill certain organisms.
on earth.  Trophic level: The specific feeding stage of an
 Stratosphere: This layer is above the troposphere organism in the ecosystem.
and extends to about 50 km above the Earth’s
 Troposphere: The part of the atmosphere up to a
surface.
distance of 17 km from the Earth’s surface.
 Sulphur cycle: The cyclical movement of sulphur in
 Tsunami: An undersea high-energy wave set off by
the environment.
an (undersea) earthquake; when the wave hits the
 Sustainable development: Development that
coast, giant waves result.
meets the needs of the present without
 Tundra: The forests in the Arctic. They occur in the
compromising the ability of future generations to
extreme northern latitudes, where the snow melts
meet their own needs.
seasonally.
 Sustainable Forest Management: The use of the
 Typhoon: Violent storm with very strong winds
world’s forests in such a way that that they continue
experienced mainly in western Atlantic Ocean.
to provide resources now without depriving future
generations of their needs.  Understory: An underlying layer of vegetation that
 Swamp: Wetland dominated by trees and shrubs. grows beneath a forest’s canopy.
 Symbiosis: Any intimate relationship between two  Urban heat island: A city area that is significantly
or more species in a community. warmer than its surrounding rural areas due to
 Sympatric speciation: The formation of new human activities.
species where the genetic modification is based on  Urban sprawl: The unplanned and uncontrolled
a single ancestor. spreading of urban development into areas adjoining
 Tar sands: Sands containing oil-rich bitumen. the edge of a city.
 Temperate forest: A type of forest with seasonal  Urbanization: The process by which more and more
variations in climate, freezing in winter and warm people live and work in cities rather than in the rural
and humid in summer. areas.
 Temperate: Having temperatures that are not too  UV method: Use of ultraviolet radiation to kill
hot or too cold. harmful organisms in water.
 Terminator seed technology: Genetic modification  Vermicomposting or Vermiculture: Composting
of plants to make them produce sterile seeds. organic waste efficiently using earthworms.
 Thermal pollution of water: Sudden increase or  Virtual water: Water that goes into the production
decrease in temperature of any natural body of of the food and non-food items that we use or
water caused by human activity. consume.
 Thermosphere: This is the space above the  Vulnerable species: A threatened species facing a
mesosphere up to about 600 km above the Earth’s high risk of extinction in the wild.
surface.  Wasteland reclamation: The process by which any
 Threatened species: A species that is facing a high wasteland is brought again under vegetative cover
risk of global extinction. and made productive.
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 Water cycle: A process that continually recycles and drains) into a stream, lake, reservoir, wetland, or
transports water among the atmosphere, land, and other body of water.
ocean.  Wave energy: Energy generated from the up-and-
 Water Footprint: Total volume of freshwater that is down motion of waves.
used to produce the goods and services consumed  Wetland: Land surface covered or saturated with
by an individual or community or produced by a water for a part or whole of the year.
business.  Zooplankton: Primary consumers that feed on
 Water harvesting: The process of catching the rain phytoplankton.
when and where it falls.  Zooxanthellae: The tiny single-celled algae that live
 Watershed: A region from which water flows (or inside the tissues of the polyps that form the corals.



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 UPSC IAS
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