11/7/2017 Magnetic particle inspection - Wikipedia
Magnetic particle inspection
Magnetic particle Inspection (MPI) is a non-destructive testing (NDT)
process for detecting surface and slightly subsurface discontinuities in
ferromagnetic materials such as iron, nickel, cobalt, and some of their
alloys. The process puts a magnetic field into the part. The piece can be
magnetized by direct or indirect magnetization. Direct magnetization
occurs when the electric current is passed through the test object and a
magnetic field is formed in the material. Indirect magnetization occurs
when no electric current is passed through the test object, but a magnetic
field is applied from an outside source. The magnetic lines of force are A technician performs MPI on a
perpendicular to the direction of the electric current, which may be either pipeline to check for stress
alternating current (AC) or some form of direct current (DC) (rectified AC). corrosion cracking using what is
known as the "black and white"
The presence of a surface or subsurface discontinuity in the material allows method. No indications of cracking
appear in this picture; the only
the magnetic flux to leak, since air cannot support as much magnetic field
marks are the "footprints" of the
per unit volume as metals.
magnetic yoke and drip marks.
To identify a leak, ferrous particles, either dry or in a wet suspension, are
applied to a part. These are attracted to an area of flux leakage and form
what is known as an indication, which is evaluated to determine its nature,
cause, and course of action, if any.
Contents A close-up of the surface of a
(different) pipeline showing
1 Types of electrical currents used
indications of stress corrosion
2 Equipment cracking (two clusters of small black
3 Demagnetizing parts lines) revealed by MPI. Cracks that
4 Magnetic particle powder would normally have been invisible
4.1 Magnetic particle carriers are detectable due to the magnetic
particles clustering at the crack
5 Inspection openings. The scale at the bottom is
6 Standards numbered in centimetres.
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Types of electrical currents used
There are several types of electrical currents used in magnetic particle inspection. For a proper current to be selected
one needs to consider the part geometry, material, the type of discontinuity one is seeking, and how far the magnetic
field needs to penetrate into the part.
Alternating current (AC) is commonly used to detect surface discontinuities. Using AC to detect subsurface
discontinuities is limited due to what is known as the skin effect, where the current runs along the surface of the
part. Because the current alternates in polarity at 50 to 60 cycles per second it does not penetrate much past the
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surface of the test object. This means the magnetic domains will only be aligned equal to the distance AC current
penetration into the part. The frequency of the alternating current determines how deep the penetration.
Full wave DC (FWDC) is used to detect subsurface discontinuities where AC can not penetrate deep enough to
magnetize the part at the depth needed. The amount of magnetic penetration depends on the amount of current
through the part.[1] DC is also limited on very large cross-sectional parts in terms of how effectively it will
magnetize the part.
Half wave DC (HWDC, pulsating DC) works similar to full wave DC, but allows for detection of surface breaking
indications and has more magnetic penetration into the part than FWDC. HWDC is advantageous for inspection
process as it actually helps move the magnetic particles during the bathing of the test object. The aid in particle
mobility is caused by the half-wave pulsating current waveform. In a typical mag pulse of 0.5 seconds there are
15 pulses of current using HWDC. This gives the particle more of an opportunity to come in contact with areas of
magnetic flux leakage.
An AC electromagnet is the preferred method for find surface breaking indication. The use of an electromagnet to find
subsurface indications is difficult. An AC electromagnet is a better means to detect a surface indication than HWDC,
DC, or permanent magnet, while some form of DC is better for subsurface defects.
Equipment
A wet horizontal MPI machine is the most commonly used mass-
production inspection machine. The machine has a head and tail stock
where the part is placed to magnetize it. In between the head and tail
stock is typically an induction coil, which is used to change the orientation
of the magnetic field by 90° from the head stock. Most of the equipment is
built for a specific application.
Mobile power packs are custom-built magnetizing power supplies used in
wire wrapping applications.
Magnetic yoke is a hand-held device that induces a magnetic field
between two poles. Common applications are for outdoor use, remote
locations, and weld inspection. The draw back of magnetic yokes is that A wet horizontal MPI machine
they only induce a magnetic field between the poles, so large-scale
with a 36 in (910 mm) coil
inspections using the device can be time-consuming. For proper
inspection the yoke needs to be rotated 90 degrees for every inspection
area to detect horizontal and vertical discontinuities. Subsurface detection
using a yoke is limited. These systems used dry magnetic powders, wet
powders, or aerosols.
Demagnetizing parts
After the part has been magnetized it needs to be demagnetized. This requires
special equipment that works the opposite way of the magnetizing equipment. Using a similar machine, a U.S.
The magnetization is normally done with a high current pulse that reaches a Navy technician sprays magnetic
particles on a test part under
peak current very quickly and instantaneously turns off leaving the part
ultraviolet light.
magnetized. To demagnetize a part, the current or magnetic field needed has
to be equal to or greater than the current or magnetic field used to
magnetize the part. The current or magnetic field is then slowly reduced to
zero, leaving the part demagnetized.
AC demagnetizing
Pull-through AC demagnetizing coils: seen in the figure to the right
are AC powered devices that generate a high magnetic field where
the part is slowly pulled through by hand or on a conveyor. The act
of pulling the part through and away from the coil's magnetic field
slows drops the magnetic field in the part. Note that many AC An automatic wet horizontal MPI
demagnetizing coils have power cycles of several seconds so the machine with an external power
part must be passed through the coil and be several feet (meters) supply, conveyor, and
away before the demagnetizing cycle finishes or the part will have
demagnetizing system. It is used to
residual magnetization.
inspect engine cranks.
AC decaying demagnetizing: this is built into most single phase
MPI equipment. During the process the part is subjected to an
equal or greater AC current, after which the current is reduced over
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a fixed period of time (typically 18 seconds) until zero output
current is reached. As AC is alternating from a positive to a
negative polarity this will leave the magnetic domains of the part
randomized.
AC demag does have significant limitations on its ability to demag
a part depending on the geometry and the alloys used.
Reversing full wave DC demagnetizing: this is a demagnetizing
method that must be built into the machine during manufacturing. It is
similar to AC decaying except the DC current is stopped at intervals of
half a second, during which the current is reduced by a quantity and its
direction is reversed. Then current is passed through the part again.
The process of stopping, reducing and reversing the current will leave
the magnetic domains randomized. This process is continued until
zero current is passed through the part. The normal reversing DC
demag cycle on modern equipment should be 18 seconds or longer.
This method of demag was developed to overcome the limitations A pull through AC demagnetizing
presented by the AC demag method where part geometry and certain unit
alloys prevented the AC demag method from working.
Halfwave DC demagnetizing (HWDC): this process is identical to full-
wave DC demagnetization, except the waveform is half-wave. This
method of demagnetization is new to the industry and only available from a single manufacturer. It was developed
to be a cost-effective method to demagnetize without needing a full-wave DC bridge design power supply. This
method is only found on single-phase AC/HWDC power supplies. HWDC demagnetization is just as effective as
full-wave DC, without the extra cost and added complexity. Of course, other limitations apply due to inductive
losses when using HWDC waveform on large-diameter parts. Also, HWDC effectiveness is limited past 410 mm
(16 in) diameter using a 12-volt power supply.
Magnetic particle powder
A common particle used to detect cracks is iron oxide, for both dry and wet systems.
Wet system particle range in size from less than 0.5 micrometres to 10 micrometres for use with water or oil
carriers. Particles used in wet systems have pigments applied that fluoresce at 365 nm (ultraviolet A) requiring
1000 µW/cm2 (10 W/m2) at the surface of the part for proper inspection. If the particles do not have the correct
light applied in a darkroom the particles cannot be detected/seen. It is industry practice to use UV
goggles/glasses to filter the UV light and amplify the visible light spectrum (normally green and yellow) created by
the fluorescing particles. Green and yellow fluorescence was chosen, because the human eye reacts best to
these colors.
Dry particle powders range in size from 5 to 170 micrometres,
designed to be seen in white light conditions. The particles are not
designed to be used in wet environments. Dry powders are normally
applied using hand operated air powder applicators.
Aerosol applied particles are similar to wet systems, sold in premixed
aerosol cans similar to hair spray.
Magnetic particle carriers
It is common industry practice to use specifically designed oil and water-
After applying wet magnetic
based carriers for magnetic particles. Deodorized kerosene and mineral
particles, a U.S. navy technician
spirits have not been commonly used in the industry for 40 years. It is
examines a bolt for cracks under
dangerous to use kerosene or mineral spirits as a carrier due to their low ultraviolet light.
flash points, and inhalation of fumes by the operators.
Inspection
The following are general steps for inspecting on a wet horizontal machine:
1. Part is cleaned of oil and other contaminants.
2. Necessary calculations done to know the amount of current required to magnetize the part. Refer ASTM
E1444/E1444M (http://www.astm.org/Standards/E1444.htm) for formulas.
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3. The magnetizing pulse is applied for 0.5 seconds, during which the operator washes the part with the particle,
stopping before the magnetic pulse is completed. Failure to stop prior to end of the magnetic pulse will wash away
indications.
4. UV light is applied while the operator looks for indications of defects that are 0 to ±45 degrees from path the
current flowed through the part. Indications only appear 45 to 90 degrees of the magnetic field applied. The
easiest way to quickly figure out which way the magnetic field is running is grab the part with either hand between
the head stocks laying your thumb against the part (do not wrap your thumb around the part) this is called either
left or right thumb rule or right hand grip rule. The direction the thumb points tell us the direction current is flowing,
the magnetic field will be running 90 degrees from the current path. On complex geometry, like a crankshaft, the
operator needs to visualize the changing direction of the current and magnetic field created. The current starts at
0 degrees then 45 degrees to 90 degree back to 45 degrees to 0 then -45 to -90 to -45 to 0 and this is repeated
for each crankpin. Thus, it can be time consuming to find indications that are only 45 to 90 degrees from the
magnetic field.
5. The part is either accepted or rejected, based on pre-defined criteria.
6. The part is demagnetized.
7. Depending on requirements, the orientation of the magnetic field may need to be changed 90 degrees to inspect
for indications that cannot be detected from steps 3 to 5. The most common way to change magnetic field
orientation is to use a "coil shot". In Fig 1 a 36 inch coil can be seen then steps 4, 5, and 6 are repeated.
Standards
International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
ISO 3059, Non-destructive testing - Penetrant testing and magnetic particle testing - Viewing conditions
ISO 9934-1, Non-destructive testing - Magnetic particle testing - Part 1: General principles
ISO 9934-2, Non-destructive testing - Magnetic particle testing - Part 2: Detection media
ISO 9934-3, Non-destructive testing - Magnetic particle testing - Part 3: Equipment
ISO 10893-5, Non-destructive testing of steel tubes. Magnetic particle inspection of seamless and welded
ferromagnetic steel tubes for the detection of surface imperfections
ISO 17638, Non-destructive testing of welds - Magnetic particle testing
ISO 23278, Non-destructive testing of welds - Magnetic particle testing of welds - Acceptance levels
European Committee for Standardization (CEN)
EN 1330-7, Non-destructive testing - Terminology - Part 7: Terms used in magnetic particle testing
EN 1369, Founding - Magnetic particle inspection
EN 10228-1, Non-destructive testing of steel forgings - Part 1: Magnetic particle inspection
American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM)
ASTM E1444/E1444M Standard Practice for Magnetic Particle Testing
ASTM A 275/A 275M Test Method for Magnetic Particle Examination of Steel Forgings
ASTM A456 Specification for Magnetic Particle Inspection of Large Crankshaft Forgings
ASTM E543 Practice Standard Specification for Evaluating Agencies that Performing Nondestructive Testing
ASTM E 709 Guide for Magnetic Particle Testing Examination
ASTM E 1316 Terminology for Nondestructive Examinations
ASTM E 2297 Standard Guide for Use of UV-A and Visible Light Sources and Meters used in the Liquid Penetrant
and Magnetic Particle Methods
Canadian Standards Association (CSA)
CSA W59
Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)
AMS 2641 Magnetic Particle Inspection Vehicle
AMS 3040 Magnetic Particles, Nonfluorescent, Dry Method
AMS 3041 Magnetic Particles, Nonfluorescent, Wet Method, Oil Vehicle, Ready-To-Use
AMS 3042 Magnetic Particles, Nonfluorescent, Wet Method, Dry Powder
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AMS 3043 Magnetic Particles, Nonfluorescent, Wet Method, Oil Vehicle, Aerosol Packaged
AMS 3044 Magnetic Particles, Fluorescent, Wet Method, Dry Powder
AMS 3045 Magnetic Particles, Fluorescent, Wet Method, Oil Vehicle, Ready-To-Use
AMS 3046 Magnetic Particles, Fluorescent, Wet Method, Oil Vehicle, Aerosol Packaged5
AMS 5062 Steel, Low Carbon Bars, Forgings, Tubing, Sheet, Strip, and Plate 0.25 Carbon, Maximum
AMS 5355 Investment Castings
AMS I-83387 Inspection Process, Magnetic Rubber
AMS-STD-2175 Castings, Classification and Inspection of AS 4792 Water Conditioning Agents for Aqueous
Magnetic Particle Inspection AS 5282 Tool Steel Ring Standard for Magnetic Particle Inspection AS5371
Reference Standards Notched Shims for Magnetic Particle Inspection
United States Military Standard
A-A-59230 Fluid, Magnetic Particle Inspection, Suspension
References
1. Betz, C. E. (1985), Principles of Magnetic Particle Testing (http://wiki.magwerks.com/wiki/images/c/c6/Waveform_t
o_Depth_Comparison.pdf) (PDF), American Society for Nondestructive Testing, p. 234, ISBN 978-0-318-21485-6.
Further reading
"Liquid Penetrant and Magnetic Particle Testing at Level 2" (http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/TC
S-11.pdf) (PDF) (PDF). International Atomic Energy Agency. 2000.
External links
Video on Magnetic Particle Inspection (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qpgcD5k1494), Karlsruhe University of
Applied Sciences
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