SATELLITE COMMUNICATION

ASSIGNMENT SOLUTIONS

1. Summarize the elevation and azimuth angles with necessary diagrams?

Azimuth and Elevation are measures used to identify the position of a satellite flying overhead.
Azimuth tells you what direction to face and Elevation tells you how high up in the sky to look. Both
are measured in degrees. Azimuth varies from 0° to 360°. It starts with North at 0°. As you turn to
your right (in a clockwise direction) you'll face East (which is 90°), then South (which is 180 °), then
West (which is 270°), and then return to North (which is 360° and also 0°). So if the Azimuth for
your satellite is, say, 45°,that means your satellite is northeast of you. Elevation is also measured in
degrees. A satellite just barely rising over your horizon would be at 0° Elevation, and a satellite
directly overhead would be at 90° Elevation (a.k.a., "the zenith").

In the diagram below, the yellow circle represents the satellite. It has an Azimuth of about 200°
(southwest of the observer) and an Elevation of about 60° (about 2/3 of the way up in the sky).

So on the Celestis Satellite Tracking webpage, "START AZIMUTH" tells you what direction the
satellite will rise over one horizon in your sky, "MAX ELEVATION" tells you the maximum height the
satellite will fly in your sky, and "END AZIMUTH" tells you what direction the satellite will set over
another horizon in your sky.

2. List and Explain different Types of Satellite Systems

 GEO (Geostationary Earth Orbit) at about 36,000km above the earth's surface.
 LEO (Low Earth Orbit) at about 500-1500km above the earth's surface.
 MEO (Medium Earth Orbit) or ICO (Intermediate Circular Orbit) at about 6000-20,000
km above the earth's surface.
 HEO (Highly Elliptical Orbit)

3.Explain brief history of satellite communication?

1945 – Arthur C. Clarke’s Remarkable Prescience

As early as 1945, legendary sci-fi author Arthur C. Clarke, at the time an officer in
the Royal Air Force, proposed a geostationary orbit, with three satellites providing
global communications relays (scroll down for an explanation of the different types of
satellite orbits). While it would be another 20 years before this became a reality, in
some circles, the high-altitude geostationary orbit is known as the ‘Clarke Orbit’, and
it is the home of over 500 satellites in 2021.

1957 – USSR Launches Sputnik 1

Sputnik 1 was the first man-made satellite to be launched into space. The 53 cm (23
in) sphere was surrounded by four radio antennas. Its purpose was firstly, to test that
it could be done! Further, scientists hoped to measure the density of the atmosphere,
test radio and optical methods of tracking its orbit, and to see how radio waves would
behave as they passed through the atmosphere. It orbited for three weeks with
battery power, and a further two months without, before falling back into the
atmosphere. It caught the United States on the hop, and kicked off the space race.
1962 – Skynet / NASA Launch Telstar 1

Telstar 1 was the first transatlantic communications satellite, relaying a television

signal from Andover Earth Station in Maine, to the Pleumeur-Bodou Telecom Center
in Brittany, France. Telstar used a low earth orbit (LEO), and was tracked by the
ground stations in Maine and Brittany. Over the course of two years, Telstar 1
transmitted over 500 telephone, telegraph, facsimile and television transmissions
(source: NASA), and proved the concept that satellites could be used for
communication.
1964 – Summer Olympics is Televised Live via Satellite

A collaboration between NASA and the Japanese government saw a satellite,

Syncom 3, previously intended for telephone use, upgraded to transmit TV signals.
This made it possible to transmit live coverage of the games to over one-third of the
globe (source: Olympics.com). Syncom 3 was the first satellite in geostationary orbit.

2003 – Eutelsat Launches e-BIRD, Designed for Internet

Broadband
 Image source: Eutelsat

The first successful attempt to provide broadband satellite internet was in 2003, with
the launch of Eutelsat Communication’s e-BIRD satellite. Using four ‘spot beams’
(the targeting of radio signals from the satellite to a specific point on Earth), this
provided Europe with broadband and broadcast services in areas not served by
ADSL and other terrestrial broadband technologies (source: Space Daily).
At the time of writing, and now renamed Eutelsat 31A, the e-BIRD is still in orbit, and
still providing interactive broadband services.
2010-2011 – Eutelsat and ViaSat Launch High-
Throughput Satellites

Image source: ViaSat

In December 2010, Eutelsat launched its KA-SAT satellite, which had 82 narrow spot
beams connected to 10 ground stations across Europe, shortly followed by ViaSat’s
ViaSat-1 in October 2010 with 72 spot beams, and ground stations across North
America. This technology dramatically increased throughput, leveraging the high
frequency Ka-Band (here’s our glossary if you’re not sure what that means); at the
time, ViaSat-1 was the highest capacity satellite in the world.
Both companies used ViaSat’s ‘Surfbeam’ technology for their ground network – the
means by which data is passed from the ground stations to businesses and homes
(sources: Eutelsat, ViaSat) – which played an important part in improving internet
connectivity and speed.

2014-2021 – Satellite Constellations Dramatically

Increase the Number of In-Orbit Spacecraft

4.Explain orbital purtubations?

Orbital Perturbations
Following are the orbital perturbations due to gravitational and non-gravitational forces
or parameters.
 Irregular gravitational force around the Earth due to non-uniform mass
distribution. Earth’s magnetic field too causes orbital perturbations.
 Main external perturbations come from Sun and Moon. When a satellite is near
to these external bodies, it receives a stronger gravitational pull.
 Low-orbit satellites get affected due to friction caused by collision with atoms
and ions.
 Solar radiation pressure affects large GEO satellites, which use large solar
arrays.
 Self-generated torques and pressures caused by RF radiation from the antenna.
Most satellites use a propulsion subsystem in order to maintain a proper spin axis
direction and control the altitude of the satellite against perturbation forces

5.Outline the Launching procedure of satellite?

The design of satellites should be compatible with one or more launch vehicles in
order to place the satellite in an orbit.
We know that the period of revolution will be more for higher apogee altitude
according to Kepler’s second law. The period of geostationary transfer orbit is nearly
equal to 16 hours. If perigee is increased to GEO altitude (around 36,000 km), then
the period of revolution will increase to 24 hours.

Launching of Satellites
The process of placing the satellite in a proper orbit is known as launching process.
During this process, from earth stations we can control the operation of satellite.
Mainly, there are four stages in launching a satellite.
 First Stage − The first stage of launch vehicle contains rockets and fuel for
lifting the satellite along with launch vehicle from ground.
 Second Stage − The second stage of launch vehicle contains smaller rockets.
These are ignited after completion of first stage. They have their own fuel tanks
in order to send the satellite into space.
 Third Stage − The third (upper) stage of the launch vehicle is connected to the
satellite fairing. This fairing is a metal shield, which contains the satellite and it
protects the satellite.
 Fourth Stage − Satellite gets separated from the upper stage of launch vehicle,
when it has been reached to out of Earth's atmosphere. Then, the satellite will
go to a “transfer orbit”. This orbit sends the satellite higher into space.
When the satellite reached to the desired height of the orbit, its subsystems like solar
panels and communication antennas gets unfurled. Then the satellite takes its position
in the orbit with other satellites. Now, the satellite is ready to provide services to the
public.
Satellite Launch Vehicles
Satellite launch vehicles launch the satellites into a particular orbit based on the
requirement. Satellite launch vehicles are nothing but multi stage rockets. Following
are the two types of satellite launch vehicles.

 Expendable Launch Vehicles (ELV)

 Reusable Launch Vehicles (RLV)
Expendable Launch Vehicles
Expendable launch vehicles (ELV) get destroyed after leaving the satellites in space.
The following image shows how an ELV looks.
The ELV contains three stages. First and second stages of ELV raise the satellite to
an about 50 miles and 100 miles. Third stage of ELV places the satellite in transfer
orbit. The task of ELV will be completed and its spare parts will be fallen to earth, when
the satellite reached to transfer orbit.
Reusable Launch Vehicles
Reusable launch vehicles (RLV) can be used multiple times for launching satellites.
Generally, this type of launch vehicles will return back to earth after leaving the satellite
in space.
The following image shows a reusable launch vehicle. It is also known as space
shuttle.

The functions of space shuttle are similar to the functions of first and second stages
of ELV. Satellite along with the third stage of space shuttle are mounted in the cargo
bay. It is ejected from the cargo bay when the space shuttle reaches to an elevation
of 150 to 200 miles.
Then, the third stage of space shuttle gets fired and places the satellite into a transfer
orbit. After this, the space shuttle will return back to earth for reuse.
6.Discuss the Kepler laws of planetary motion?
Many scientists have given different types of theories from early times. But,
only Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) was one of the most accepted scientist in
describing the principle of a satellite that moves around the earth.
Kepler formulated three laws that changed the whole satellite communication theory
and observations. These are popularly known as Kepler’s laws. These are helpful to
visualize the motion through space.

Kepler’s First Law

Kepler’s first law states that the path followed by a satellite around its primary (the
earth) will be an ellipse. This ellipse has two focal points (foci) F1 and F2 as shown in
the figure below. Center of mass of the earth will always present at one of the two foci
of the ellipse.

If the distance from the center of the object to a point on its elliptical path is considered,
then the farthest point of an ellipse from the center is called as apogee and the
shortest point of an ellipse from the center is called as perigee.
Eccentricity "e" of this system can be written as −

Where, a & b are the lengths of semi major axis

and semi minor axis of the ellipse respectively.
For an elliptical path, the value of eccentricity (e) is always lie in between 0 and 1,
i.e. 00 < e� < 11, since a is greater than b. Suppose, if the value of eccentricity (e) is
zero, then the path will be no more in elliptical shape, rather it will be converted into a
circular shape.
Kepler’s Second Law
Kepler’s second law states that for equal intervals of time, the area covered by the
satellite will be same with respect to center of mass of the earth. This can be
understood by taking a look at the following figure.

Assume, the satellite covers p1 and p2 distances in the same time interval. Then, the
areas B1 and B2 covered by the satellite at those two instances are equal.

Kepler’s Third Law

Kepler’s third law states that, the square of the periodic time of an elliptical orbit is
proportional to the cube of its semi major axis length. Mathematically, it can be written
as follows −
Where, ‘n’ is the mean motion of the satellite in radians per second.

Where, ‘n’ is the mean motion of the satellite in radians per second.
Note − A satellite, when it revolves around the earth, undergoes a pulling force from
the earth, which is gravitational force. Similarly, it experiences another pulling force
from the sun and the moon. Therefore, a satellite has to balance these two forces to
keep itself in its orbit.

7.Formulate the orbital time priod and orbital velocity?

Orbital Velocity
Orbital velocity of satellite is the velocity at which, the satellite revolves around earth.
Satellite doesn’t deviate from its orbit and moves with certain velocity in that orbit,
when both Centripetal and Centrifugal forces are balance each other.
So, equate Centripetal force (F1) and Centrifugal force (F2).

Orbital time period

Formula used: The formula of the time period of the satellite is given by T=2π√r3GM where r
is the distance between the centre of the earth and the satellite G is the gravitational
constant and M is the mass of the earth.

8.a.Explain geo stationary and non geo stationary satellitesorbits

geostationary orbit, a circular orbit 35,785 km (22,236 miles) above Earth's Equator in
which a satellite's orbital period is equal to Earth's rotation period of 23 hours and 56
minutes. A spacecraft in this orbit appears to an observer on Earth to be stationary in the
sky.
Non-geostationary (NGSO) satellites occupy a range of orbital positions (LEO satellites are
located between 700km-1,500km from the Earth, MEO satellites are located at
10,000km from the Earth), and do not maintain a stationary position, but instead move in
relation to the Earth's surface.
8.b.Explaiin Earth eclipse of satellite?
  A satellite is said to be in eclipse when the earth or moon prevents sunlight
from reaching it.
 If the earth’s equatorial plane coincides with the plane of earth’s orbit around
sun, the geostationary orbit will be eclipsed by the earth. This is called the
earth eclipse of satellite.
 For a geostationary satellite, the solar eclipse due to earth occurs during two
periods that begin 23 days before equinox and ends 23 days after equinox.
Because during equinox (autumn and spring) the sun, earth and the satellite
are in the same plane.
 Solar eclipses are important as they affect the working of the satellite because
during eclipse satellite receives no power from its solar panels and it has to
operate on its onboard standby batteries which reduce satellite life.

MODULE 2
1.write a note on link budget.Explain up link budget using diagram

We know that ‘link’ corresponds to something that connects two

different ends. The term satellite link is associated with the radio link that
connects the earth station to the satellite i.e., uplink, and satellite to
earth station i.e., downlink. While the link budget is a set of calculations
that is a summarized analysis of the performance and feasibility of a
particular communication link.
We know that as far as signal transmission and reception is concerned
the calculation of power is associated with calculating the transmitted
power and received power. This determination of power relative to
transmission and reception is known as link budget calculation.

UPLINK AND DOWN LINK BUDGET

In satellite communication systems, there are two types of power calculations. Those
are transmitting power and receiving power calculations. In general, these calculations
are called as Link budget calculations. The unit of power is decibel.
First, let us discuss the basic terminology used in Link Budget and then we will move
onto explain Link Budget calculations.

Basic Terminology
An isotropic radiator (antenna) radiates equally in all directions. But, it doesn’t exist
practically. It is just a theoretical antenna. We can compare the performance of all real
(practical) antennas with respect to this antenna.
Power flux density
Assume an isotropic radiator is situated at the center of the sphere having radius, r.
We know that power flux density is the ratio of power flow and unit area.
Power flux density,Ψi of an isotropic radiator is

Where, PS is the power flow. In general, the power flux

density of a practical antenna varies with direction. But, it’s maximum value will be in
one particular direction only.
Antenna Gain
The gain of practical antenna is defined as the ratio of maximum power flux density of
practical antenna and power flux density of isotropic antenna.
Therefore, the Gain of Antenna or Antenna gain, G is
 Where, Ψm is the maximum power flux density of practical
antenna. And, Ψi is the power flux density of isotropic radiator (antenna).
Equivalent Isotropic Radiated Power
Equivalent isotropic radiated power (EIRP) is the main parameter that is used in
measurement of link budget. Mathematically, it can be written as
EIRP=GPs����=���
We can represent EIRP in decibels as
[EIRP]=[G]+[Ps]dBW
Where, G is the Gain of Transmitting antenna and PS is the power of transmitter.
Transmission Losses
The difference between the power sent at one end and received at the receiving station
is known as Transmission losses. The losses can be categorized into 2 types.

 Constant losses
 Variable losses
The losses which are constant such as feeder losses are known as constant losses.
No matter what precautions we might have taken, still these losses are bound to occur.
Another type of loses are variable loss. The sky and weather condition is an example
of this type of loss. Means if the sky is not clear signal will not reach effectively to the
satellite or vice versa.
Therefore, our procedure includes the calculation of losses due to clear weather or
clear sky condition as 1st because these losses are constant. They will not change with
time. Then in 2nd step, we can calculate the losses due to foul weather condition.

Link budget calculations

There are two types of link budget calculations since there are two links
namely, uplink and downlink.
Earth Station Uplink
It is the process in which earth is transmitting the signal to the satellite and satellite is
receiving it. Its mathematical equation can be written as

Where,

 [C/N0]is the carrier to noise density ratio

  [G/Tis the satellite receiver G/T ratio and units are dB/K
Here, Losses represent the satellite receiver feeder losses. The losses which depend
upon the frequency are all taken into the consideration.
The EIRP value should be as low as possible for effective UPLINK. And this is possible
when we get a clear sky condition.
Here we have used the (subscript) notation “U”, which represents the uplink
phenomena.
Satellite Downlink
In this process, satellite sends the signal and the earth station receives it. The equation
is same as the satellite uplink with a difference that we use the abbreviation “D”
everywhere instead of “U” to denote the downlink phenomena.
Its mathematical equation can be written as;

Where,

 [CN0][��0] is the carrier to noise density ratio

 [GT][��] is the earth station receiver G/T ratio and units are dB/K
Here, all the losses that are present around earth stations.
In the above equation we have not included the signal bandwidth B. However, if we
include that the equation will be modified as follows.

Link Budget
If we are taking ground satellite in to consideration, then the free space spreading loss
(FSP) should also be taken into consideration.
If antenna is not aligned properly then losses can occur. so we take AML (Antenna
misalignment losses) into account. Similarly, when signal comes from the satellite
towards earth it collides with earth surface and some of them get absorbed. These are
taken care by atmospheric absorption loss given by “AA” and measured in db.
Now, we can write the loss equation for free sky as
Losses=FSL+RFL+AML+AA+PL
Where,
 RFL stands for received feeder loss and units are db.
  PL stands for polarization mismatch loss.
Now the decibel equation for received power can be written as
PR=EIRP+GR+Losses
Where,

 PR stands for the received power, which is measured in dBW.

 Gr is the receiver antenna gain.
The designing of down link is more critical than the designing of uplink. Because of
limitations in power required for transmitting and gain of the antenna.
.2.Explain TTC SUB SYSTEM?

Telemetry, Tracking, Commanding and Monitoring (TTCM) subsystem is present in

both satellite and earth station. In general, satellite gets data through sensors. So,
Telemetry subsystem present in the satellite sends this data to earth station(s).
Therefore, TTCM subsystem is very much necessary for any communication satellite
in order to operate it successfully.
It is the responsibility of satellite operator in order to control the satellite in its life time,
after placing it in the proper orbit. This can be done with the help of TTCM subsystem.
We can make this TTCM subsystem into the following three parts.

 Telemetry and Monitoring Subsystem

 Tracking Subsystem
 Commanding Subsystem
Telemetry and Monitoring Subsystem
The word ‘Telemetry’ means measurement at a distance. Mainly, the following
operations take place in ‘Telemetry’.
 Generation of an electrical signal, which is proportional to the quantity to be
measured.
 Encoding the electrical signal.
 Transmitting this code to a far distance.
Telemetry subsystem present in the satellite performs mainly two functions −

 receiving data from sensors, and

 transmitting that data to an earth station.
Satellites have quite a few sensors to monitor different parameters such as pressure,
temperature, status and etc., of various subsystems. In general, the telemetry data is
transmitted as FSK or PSK.
Telemetry subsystem is a remote controlled system. It sends monitoring data from
satellite to earth station. Generally, the telemetry signals carry the information
related altitude, environment and satellite.

Tracking Subsystem
Tracking subsystem is useful to know the position of the satellite and its current orbit.
Satellite Control Center (SCC) monitors the working and status of space segment
subsystems with the help of telemetry downlink. And, it controls those subsystems
using command uplink.
We know that the tracking subsystem is also present in an earth station. It mainly
focusses on range and look angles of satellite. Number of techniques that are using in
order to track the satellite. For example, change in the orbital position of satellite can
be identified by using the data obtained from velocity and acceleration sensors that
are present on satellite.
The tracking subsystem that is present in an earth station keeps tracking of satellite,
when it is released from last stage of Launch vehicle. It performs the functions like,
locating of satellite in initial orbit and transfer orbit.

Commanding Subsystem
Commanding subsystem is necessary in order to launch the satellite in an orbit and
its working in that orbit. This subsystem adjusts the altitude and orbit of satellite,
whenever there is a deviation in those values. It also controls the communication
subsystem. This commanding subsystem is responsible for turning ON / OFF of
other subsystems present in the satellite based on the data getting from telemetry and
tracking subsystems.
In general, control codes are converted into command words. These command words
are used to send in the form of TDM frames. Initially, the validity of command words
is checked in the satellite. After this, these command words can be sent back to earth
station. Here, these command words are checked once again.
If the earth station also receives the same (correct) command word, then it sends an
execute instruction to satellite. So, it executes that command.
Functionality wise, the Telemetry subsystem and commanding subsystem are
opposite to each other. Since, the first one transmits the satellite’s information to earth
station and second one receives command signals from earth station.
3.Describe briefly design of satellite links for a specified c/n
4.Summarie G/T RATIO in design of satellite link?
5.Discuss in Detail about an ATTITUDE AND ORBIT CONTROL SYSTEM

We know that satellite may deviates from its orbit due to the gravitational forces from
sun, moon and other planets. These forces change cyclically over a 24-hour period,
since the satellite moves around the earth.
Altitude and Orbit Control (AOC) subsystem consists of rocket motors, which are
capable of placing the satellite into the right orbit, whenever it is deviated from the
respective orbit. AOC subsystem is helpful in order to make the antennas, which are
of narrow beam type points towards earth.
We can make this AOC subsystem into the following two parts.

 Altitude Control Subsystem

 Orbit Control Subsystem
Now, let us discuss about these two subsystems one by one.

Altitude Control Subsystem

Altitude control subsystem takes care of the orientation of satellite in its respective
orbit. Following are the two methods to make the satellite that is present in an orbit
as stable.

 Spinning the satellite

 Three axes method
Spinning the satellite
In this method, the body of the satellite rotates around its spin axis. In general, it can
be rotated at 30 to 100 rpm in order to produce a force, which is of gyroscopic type.
Due to this, the spin axis gets stabilized and the satellite will point in the same direction.
Satellites are of this type are called as spinners.
Spinner contains a drum, which is of cylindrical shape. This drum is covered with solar
cells. Power systems and rockets are present in this drum.
Communication subsystem is placed on top of the drum. An electric motor drives this
communication system. The direction of this motor will be opposite to the rotation of
satellite body, so that the antennas point towards earth. The satellites, which perform
this kind of operation are called as de-spin.
During launching phase, the satellite spins when the small radial gas jets are
operated. After this, the de-spin system operates in order to make the TTCM
subsystem antennas point towards earth station.
Three Axis Method
In this method, we can stabilize the satellite by using one or more momentum wheels.
This method is called as three-axis method. The advantage of this method is that the
orientation of the satellite in three axes will be controlled and no need of rotating
satellite’s main body.
In this method, the following three axes are considered.
 Roll axis is considered in the direction in which the satellite moves in orbital
plane.
 Yaw axis is considered in the direction towards earth.
 Pitch axis is considered in the direction, which is perpendicular to orbital plane.
These three axes are shown in below figure.
Let XR, YR and ZR are the roll axis, yaw axis and pitch axis respectively. These three
axis are defined by considering the satellite’s position as reference. These three axes
define the altitude of satellite.
Let X, Y and Z are another set of Cartesian axes. This set of three axis provides the
information about orientation of the satellite with respect to reference axes. If there is
a change in altitude of the satellite, then the angles between the respective axes will
be changed.
In this method, each axis contains two gas jets. They will provide the rotation in both
directions of the three axes.
 The first gas jet will be operated for some period of time, when there is a
requirement of satellite’s motion in a particular axis direction.
 The second gas jet will be operated for same period of time, when the satellite
reaches to the desired position. So, the second gas jet will stop the motion of
satellite in that axis direction.
Orbit Control Subsystem
Orbit control subsystem is useful in order to bring the satellite into its correct orbit,
whenever the satellite gets deviated from its orbit.
The TTCM subsystem present at earth station monitors the position of satellite. If there
is any change in satellite orbit, then it sends a signal regarding the correction to Orbit
control subsystem. Then, it will resolve that issue by bringing the satellite into the
correct orbit.
In this way, the AOC subsystem takes care of the satellite position in the right orbit
and at right altitude during entire life span of the satellite in space.
6. Outline the BASIC TRANSMISSION THEORY

7. Elaborate Antenna equipment?

Antenna Subsystems
Antennas are present in both satellite and earth station. Now, let us discuss about the
satellite antennas.
Satellite antennas perform two types of functions. Those are receiving of signals,
which are coming from earth station and transmitting signals to one or more earth
stations based on the requirement. In other words, the satellite antennas receive uplink
signals and transmit downlink signals.
We know that the length of satellite antennas is inversely proportional to the operating
frequency. The operating frequency has to be increased in order to reduce the length
of satellite antennas. Therefore, satellite antennas operate in the order
of GHz frequencies.

Satellite Antennas
The antennas, which are used in satellite are known as satellite antennas. There are
mainly four types of Antennas. They are:

 Wire Antennas
 Horn Antennas
 Array Antennas
 Reflector Antennas
Now, let us discuss about these antennas one by one.
Wire Antennas

Wire antennas are the basic antennas. Mono pole and dipole antennas come under
this category. These are used in very high frequencies in order to provide the
communication for TTCM subsystem.
The length of the total wire, which is being used as a dipole, if equals half of the wave
length (i.e., l = λ/2), such an antenna is called as half-wave dipole antenna.
Wire antennas are suitable for covering its range of access and to provide signal
strength in all directions. That means, wire antennas are Omni-directional antennas.
Horn Antennas

An Antenna with an aperture at the end can be termed as an Aperture antenna. The
edge of a transmission line when terminated with an opening, radiates energy. This
opening which is an aperture, makes it as an aperture antenna.
Horn antenna is an example of aperture antenna. It is used in satellites in order to
cover more area on earth.
Horn antennas are used in microwave frequency range. The same feed horn can be
used for both transmitting and receiving the signals. A device named duplexer, which
separates these two signals.
Array Antennas
An antenna when individually can radiate an amount of energy, in a particular
direction, resulting in better transmission, how it would be if few more elements are
added it, to produce more efficient output. It is exactly this idea, which lead to the
invention of Array Antennas or Antenna arrays. Array antennas are used in satellites
to form multiple beams from single aperture.
Reflector Antennas

Reflector antennas are suitable for producing beams, which have more signal strength
in one particular direction. That means, these are highly directional antennas.
So, Parabolic reflectors increase the gain of antennas in satellite communication
system. Hence, these are used in telecommunications and broadcasting.
If a Parabolic Reflector antenna is used for transmitting a signal, the signal from the
feed, comes out of a dipole or a horn antenna, to focus the wave on to the parabola.
It means that, the waves come out of the focal point and strikes the Paraboloidal
reflector. This wave now gets reflected as collimated wave front.
If the same antenna is used as a receiver, the electromagnetic wave when hits the
shape of the parabola, the wave gets reflected onto the feed point. The dipole or the
horn antenna, which acts as the receiver antenna at its feed, receives this signal, to
convert it into electric signal and forwards it to the receiver circuitry.

8. Demonstrate the concept of Propagation Characteristics and Frequency

considerations:

A number of factors resulting from changes in the atmosphere have to be taken

into account when designing a satellite communications system in order to avoid
impairment of the wanted signal.Generally, a margin in the required carrier-to-
noise ratio is incorporated to accommodate such effects.
Radio Noise
Radio noise emitted by matter is used as a source of information in
radioastronomy and in remote sensing. Noise of a thermal origin has a continuous
spectrum, but several other radiation mechanisms cause the emission to have a
spectral-line structure. Atoms and molecules are distinguished by their different
spectral lines.
For other services such as satellite communications noise is a limiting factor for
the receiving system; generally, it is inappropriate to use receiving systems with
noise temperatures which are much less than those specified by the minimum
external noise.From about 30 MHz to about 1 GHz cosmic noise predominates
over atmospheric noise except during local thunderstorms, but will generally be
exceeded by man-made noise in populated areas.
In the bands of strong gaseous absorption, the noise temperature reaches
maximum values of some 290 K. At times, precipitation will also increase the
noise temperature at frequencies above 5 GHz.
Figure 6.1 gives an indication of sky noise at various elevation angles and
frequencies.

MODULE 3
1.Identify the various TYPES OF ANTENNA NOISE?

NOISE TEMPARATURE
System noise temperature[edit]
An RF receiver system is typically made up of an antenna and a receiver, and the transmission
line(s) that connect the two together. Each of these is a source of additive noise. The additive
noise in a receiving system can be of thermal origin (thermal noise) or can be from other external
or internal noise-generating processes. The contributions of all noise sources are typically
lumped together and regarded as a level of thermal noise. The noise power spectral density

generated by any source ( ) can be described by assigning to the noise a

temperature as defined above:[1]

In an RF receiver, the overall system noise temperature equals the sum of the effective
noise temperature of the receiver and transmission lines and that of the antenna. [2]

The antenna noise temperature gives the noise power seen at the output of the
antenna. The composite noise temperature of the receiver and transmission line

losses represents the noise contribution of the rest of the receiver system. It is
calculated as the effective noise that would be present at the antenna input terminals if
the receiver system were perfect and created no noise. In other words, it is a cascaded
system of amplifiers and losses where the internal noise temperatures are referred to the
antenna input terminals. Thus, the summation of these two noise temperatures
represents the noise input to a "perfect" receiver system.
SYSTEM NOISE TEMPERATURE

It shows that the noise temperature of the second stage is divided by the power gain of
the first stage when referred to the input. Therefore, in order to keep the overall system
noise as low as possible, the first stage (usually as LNA) should have high power gain as
well as noise temperature.
ANTENNA NOISE TEMPERATURE
Antenna noise temperature is a measure of all noise that enters a receiver through its
antenna. These contribute to the receiver system noise temperature (which is typically
about 700–750 K).
2.how does the system noise temperature affect the performance. Derive the expression for overall
system noise temperature at the receiving earth station.
3.Explain rain induced cross polarization interference
4.Discuss in detail propagation effects due to cloud attenuation
Usually, the attenuation of microwave radiation by clouds. For the centimeter
wavelength band, clouds produce Rayleigh scattering. The attenuation is due largely to
scattering, rather than absorption, for both ice and water clouds.