CSEC Physics Study Guide

By Ronaldhino McLean and Vismay Attupuram

Radioactive Decay
Half-life
Nuclear Energy
Vectors
Forces
Newton’s Law
Temperature
Gas Law
Hydrostatics
Wave Motion
Sound
Lenses
Current Electricity
Electrical Quantities
Circuit Diagrams
 Atomic Physics - Radioactive Decay, Half Life, Nuclear Physics

Atom - the smallest divisible unit of matter, comprising protons, neutrons and electrons

Atomic Number - the number of protons contained in the nucleus of an atom, represented by Z

Neutron Number - the number of neutrons contained in the nucleus of an atom, represented by N

Mass Number - the sum of the number of protons and neutrons contained in the nucleus of an
atom, represented by A; A = Z + N

History of Atomic Theory: (foundational information; not coming on p2)

- French engineer Antoine Henri Becquerel discovers radioactivity in 1896
- British physicist J.J. Thompson discovers the electron in 1897 and theorizes in 1904 that
an atom is a blob of positively charged matter in which electrons are randomly stuck, as
raisins in a plum pudding
- Kiwi physicist Ernest Rutherford then Danish physicist Neils Bohr theorize, in 1911 and
1913, that the atom consists of electrons orbiting the nucleus, as planets do the sun
- British physicist James Chadwick discovers the neutron in 1932 as a neutral particle
existing in the nucleus of an atom

The Geiger-Marsden Experiment: (not coming on p2)

- Hans Geiger and Ernest Marden, under the direction of Ernest Rutherford, set out to
determine the structure of an atom between 1908 and 1913
- The scientists shot alpha particles at a piece of gold foil, observing the directions in
which the particles scattered
- The scientists observed that most particles passed straight through the foil, and those few
that were deflected, did so with extremely high speeds
- It demonstrated that an atom comprises mostly empty space and some electrons
- It demonstrated that the nucleus of an atom is extremely small, dense, and positively
charged
- It disproved the plum-pudding model of an atom in favour of Rutherford’s nuclear model

The structure of an atom:

Proton Neutron Electron

Relative mass 1 1 1
1840

Relative charge +1 0 -1
Isotope - An atom of the same element, but containing a different number of neutrons

Note: An atom is usually neutral and stable if it contains an equal number of protons and
neutrons, most isotopes contain unstable nuclei (radioisotopes)
𝐴
Nuclide - A nucleus with a particular number of protons and neutrons, represented by 𝑍
𝑋
24
Note: 𝑁𝑎 is a nuclide containing 11 protons and 13 neutrons
11

Representation of a subatomic particle:

𝑁+𝑍
- A subatomic particle is represented by 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
Y, where Y is the particle’s symbol
1
- 1
𝑝 represents a proton
1
- 0
𝑛 represents a neutron
0
- −1
𝑒 represents an electron

Periodic Table - a table of elements of increasing proton number, arranged to categorise their
electronic configurations and chemical properties

The Shell Model and the Periodic Table: (not coming on p2)
- The shell model describes the structure of atoms by arranging them in shells, numbered
1-8, each accomodating up to 2n2 electrons
- The periodic table arranges elements into vertical columns, called groups, each of which
contain atoms with the same number of valence (outer) electrons
- The periodic table also arranges elements into horizontal columns, called periods, the
number of which tells us how many electron shells are in the atom

Radioactivity - the spontaneous decay (emission of particles of energy) of unstable atomic nuclei

Note: Most isotopes try to achieve stability by shedding particles through radioactive decay
Marie Curie and radioactivity:
- She proposed that radioactive particles causes atoms to break down, resulting in the
emission of energy and subatomic particles
- She observed radiation in uranium and realised that the intensity of the emitted rays was
dependent only on the mass of uranium in her sample
- She was awarded two Nobel prizes, one for her work on radioactivity an another for her
discovery of the elements, radium and polonium
- Her work opened the field of radiotherapy and nuclear medicine
- Her death from cancer inspired safety precautions like storing radioactive materials in
lead containers, wearing safety gloves when handling them and standing behind
protective screens, when necessary

Types of radioactive emissions:

4 4
- Alpha decay: release of alpha particles, represented by 2
α or 2
𝐻𝑒
a. α particles are similar to Helium nuclei
b. α particles have a mass of 4, atomic number of 2, charge of +2 and speed of 2*107
c. α particles are deflected by magnetic and electric fields
d. α particles strongly ionise gases through which they pass
e. α particles can be stopped by thick paper
0 0
- Beta decay: release of beta particles, represented by −1
β or −1
𝑒
a. β particles are similar to fast moving electrons
b. β particles have no mass, charge of -1 and speed near lightspeed
c. β particles are deflected by magnetic and electric fields
d. β particles weakly ionize gases through which they pass
e. β particles can be stopped by aluminum or a few metres of air
- Gamma decay: release of gama waves, represented by γ
a. γ waves are not particles
b. γ waves have no mass, no charge, and speed of 2*10-8
c. γ waves are not affected by magnetic and electric fields
d. γ waves have little effect on gases through which they pass
e. γ waves can be stopped by thick lead or several metres of concrete

Using a Geiger Müller tube:

- A Geiger- Muller tube is used to detect and measure all types of radiation based on the
received count rate
 - When a radioactive material is released into the GM tube, it ionizes the gases inside of it,
making them either positively or negatively charged.
a. Rays may pass through a ratemeter, which tells the rate at which emissions occur
b. Rays may pass through a loudspeaker, which produces a sound when emissions
are detected
c. Rays may pass through a scalar, which counts the emissions
- When this occurs, the ionized gases become attracted to one of the electrodes
a. If the element is negatively charged, it goes towards the positively charged
electrode
b. If it is positively charged, it goes towards the negatively charged electrode

Testing for the type of radiation:

- Cloud chamber experiment: radioactive substances produce trails of vapour (cloud tracks)
that become visible as condensation occurs on ions created by the radiation
a. α tracks are thick and straight because α particles are heaviest and not easily
deviated on collision with other particles
b. β tracks are randomly directed because β particles are relatively light and readily
deviate on collision with other particles
c. γ tracks are weak and dispersed because γ waves are absorbed by an atom,
resulting in the ejection of an electron
- Electric field deflection test: uses a GM tube to detect the count rate when the electric
field is switched off
a. The source emits α particles if the count rate falls and returns to its initial value
when the detector is shifted towards the cathode, because the cathode attracts α
particles
b. The source emits β particles if the count rate falls and returns to its initial value
when the detector is shifted towards the anode, because the anode attracts β
particles
c. The source emits γ particles if the count rate is unaffected
- Magnetic field deflection test:
Equations of radioactive decay:
214 210 4
- α decay: 84
𝑃𝑜 → 82
𝑃𝑏 + 2𝐻𝑒
a. An isotope of polonium emits an α-particle, loses two protons and two neutrons
(4 units of mass), becomes lead, an element two places back in the periodic table
210 210 0
- β decay: 82
𝑃𝑏 → 83
𝐵𝑖 + −1
𝑒
a. An isotope of lead emits a β-paticle, loses an electron so loses no mass, becomes
bismuth, an element one space forward in the periodic table
210 210
- γ decay: 83
𝐵𝑖 → 83
𝐵𝑖 + γ
a. An isotope of lead emits a γ photon, loses no mass, remains lead

Note: During radioactive decay, the decaying nuclide is called the parent and the new nuclide
produced is called the daughter

The nature of radioactive decay:

- Radioactive decay is random
- There is a definite period for half of a given sample to decay

Radioactivity graph:

- The graph does not have to be a smooth curve since radioactive decay is random
- The graph never reaches zero since background radiation is always present. (from rocks,
cosmic radiation, nuclear power plants)

Half-life - the time taken for a radioactive substance to decrease by half its original activity or
mass
Note: The half life of a radioactive substance is not affected by conditions external to the
nucleus, whether physical or chemical, but by the type of material and the number of undecayed
atoms remaining in the sample

Calculating the half-life of a radioactive substance:

- Graph method
a. Represent the radioactive decay on a graph, using the number of throws it takes to
empty a container of coins, or a similar experiment
b. Divide the mass of the sample (number of throws) by two and record the
corresponding period on the x-axis
c. Repeat this twice
d. Find the average of the three values
- Formula method (not recommended)
0.693
a. Half life, t1/2 = λ
, where λ is the decay constant

Useful applications of radioisotopes:

- Chemotherapy
- Surface and implant radiotherapy
- Radioactive racing
- Photography
- Radio-carbon dating
- Sterilisation

Nuclear Energy
- Inside a nucleus, two main forces, electrostatic forces and nuclear forces are present
which hold the nucleus together
- The electrostatic forces exist between the positively charged nucleons (protons) and the
nuclear forces exist between all the nucleons present (protons and neutrons)
- When radioactivity occurs, some of the mass of the nucleus is lost between the products
of the reaction which results in a mass defect
a. This results in a loss of energy to the environment

Mass defect - the difference between the predicted mass and the actual mass of an atom’s nucleus

Note: Albert Einsteinm, in his 1905 theory of special relativity, proposed that mass defect is
directly proportional to an atom’s energy output, as the mass that is lost is only converted into
energy, as expressed in the formula ΔE = Δmc2

where E is energy, m = mass or mass defect and c is the speed of light

Example:

Note: When we calculate the mass of the products (Po and the alpha particle) and subtract it
from the original mass of Rn, there is a loss in total mass.

Mass defect = 368.54918 x 10-27 - (361.89489 x 10-27+ 6.64466 x 10-27)

Mass defect = 0.00963 x 10-27

Therefore, to find the energy released, E= mc2

E= 0.00963 x 10-27 x (3.0 x 108)2
E= 8.667 x 10-13 J released

Nuclear Fission:
- Fission is the splitting of a large nucleus into two or more smaller nuclei resulting in a
large release of energy and a decrease in mass.
- Fission is used in nuclear power plants and atomic bombs.
- Fission occurs when a neutron slams into a large nucleus.
- Examples of fission:

Nuclear Fusion:
- Fusion is the joining of two smaller nuclei to form a larger nucleus, which results in a
output of energy and decrease in mass
- Examples of fusion:
Advantages of Nuclear Energy
1. It does not pollute the environment.
2. Fewer lives are lost each year per unit of energy produced.
3. Radioactive materials used in medicine are produced at nuclear power plants.
4. Little amounts of nuclear fuel produces a large amount of electricity.
5. A large supply of U-235 is available.

Disadvantages of Nuclear Energy

1. Nuclear radiation can destroy or damage living organisms.
2. Staff that work in the plants can be be irradiated by radioisotopes which contaminate their
surroundings which may contaminate themselves if they ingest the material.
3. Used radioactive fuel still contains radioactive material and is hazardous to the
environment. It is usually stored under water in order to remove the excessive heat it
produces. The water also acts as a radiation shield for the surroundings.
4. There is the possibility of a catastrophic effect if there is a critical malfunction at the
plant. Huge explosions can spread the radioactive material over large areas and the
radiation could impact heavily on the planet.
5. Nuclear power stations have to be shut down after several years because the plant and
machinery become heavily contaminated. This is very costly and hazardous.
 Classical Mechanics - Vectors, Forces, Newton’s Laws, Hydrostatics

Scalar - a quantity that has only magnitude, e.g. distance, speed, mass, energy, density

Vector - a quantity that has both magnitude and direction, e.g. displacement, velocity,
momentum, force and acceleration

Resultant Vector - a vector that represents the combined effect of two or more vectors

Calculating the resultant vector:

- When two vectors move in the same direction, the resultant vector is the sum of their
magnitudes
- When two vectors move in opposite directions, the resultant vector is calculated by
subtracting the smaller magnitude from the larger magnitude and is moving in the
direction of the one with the larger magnitude

- When two vectors are perpendicular to each other, the resultant vector is found using
pythagoras' theorem

- When a force A, acts on an object and then another force B, acts on the same object, we
get the resultant force by adding force A to force B
a. This is referred to as the triangle law of addition
b. The tail of one vector is joined to the head of the other to find the direction
 - If two vectors can be represented by two adjacent sides (both in magnitude and direction)
of a parallelogram drawn from a point, then their resultant sum vector is represented
completely by the diagonal of the parallelogram drawn from the same point
a. This is referred to as the parallelogram law of vectors
b. The direction is from the point both vectors meet outwards

Note: A single vector is equal to two other vectors at right angles

Force - an action that can cause a change in the size, shape or motion of a body

Types of forces:
- Gravitational: attractive forces that exist between bodies due to their masses, e.g.
planetary gravity
- Magnetic: attractive or repulsive forces that exist between bodies due to their magnetic
polarities, e.g. iron magnetized by metal
- Electrostatic: attractive or repulsive forces that exist between bodies due to their electric
charge, e.g. comb attracting to paper
- Nuclear: strong, attractive forces which bind subatomic particles of a nucleus together,
e.g. strong and weak nuclear forces
- Elastic: restoring forces produces when a body is stretched or compressed, e.g. spring
force
- Mechanical: forces that exist between bodies in contact, e.g. friction
Mass - the amount of matter making up a body

Weight - the force of gravity on a body or the product of its mass and the gravitational field
strength acting upon it

Note: W = m * g; on earth, g = 10 Nkg-1; Nkg-1 = ms-1

Special names given to certain derived quantities:

Situations in which force will result in a turning effect:

- Opening a door
- Turning a wrench
- Sitting on a see-saw
- Rotating steering wheels

Moment (of a force about a point) - the product of the force and the perpendicular distance of its
line of action from the point, T = f * d
Principles of Moments:
- The sum of the forces in any direction about a point is equal to the sum of the forces in
the opposite direction
- The sum of the clockwise moments about a point is equal to the sum of the anticlockwise
moments about that same point

Newton’s laws of motion:

1. A body continues in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless acted on
by a resultant force
2. The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the applied force and takes
place in the direction of the force, F = m * a
3. For every action, there is an equal, but oppositely directed reaction

Applications of Newton’s laws in dynamic systems:

- A rocket, with its engines off, moves through outer space at constant velocity in a straight
line. The resultant force on the rocket is zero. It will continue in a straight line at the
particular velocity it has acquired due to forces previously acting on it (1st law)
- If a car crashes into a wall, at the occupants are not wearing seatbelts, they will continue
in their motion (1st law) until they collide with the windscreen. Then an opposing force
changes their motion, causing them to decelerate (2nd law)
- A car uses a greater driving force from its engine to travel at a higher constant velocity.
This is because the frictional force from the air is greater at higher velocity. The resultant
force in each case is zero and hence the acceleration in each case is zero (1st law)
- As a child springs upward from a trampoline, an upward force acts on their feet resulting
in an acceleration (2nd law). The force exerted by the child on the trampoline is equal but
opposite in direction to the force exerted by the trampoline on the child (3rd law)

Note: If the resultant force on a body is zero, then the body is either at rest or moving at constant
velocity

Linear Momentum - the product of the mass and velocity of a body

The law of conservation of linear momentum states that, in the absence of external forces, the
total momentum of a system of bodies is constant, m1V1 = m2V2

Types of collision:
- Elastic: a collision in which there is no net loss in kinetic energy as a result of the
collision
- Inelastic or plastic: a collision in which there is a net loss in kinetic energy as a result of
the collision, uses formula m1V1 + m2V2 = Vf (m1 + m2)
Applications of law of conservation of linear momentum:
- The greater the mass of the head of a golf club, the more momentum it has when swung
at a given speed, and the greater the momentum it will impart to the ball which it strikes
- When a bullet is fired, the forward momentum of the bullet is equal but oppositely
directed to the recoil momentum of the gun. The total momentum after the explosion is,
therefore, zero, as it was before the shot was released.

Pressure - the measure of the concentration of force in an area or force acting normally on an
𝐹
object per unit area, P = 𝐴

Note: The pressure of an object immersed in a fluid is the product of its depth, density and the
gravitational field strength acting upon it, P = ⍴ * g * h

Density - the mass of a body per unit volume

Relative Density - ratio of the density of one substance to that of another, usually the medium it
is kept in

Buoyancy - the upward forcing acting on a body that allows it to float in fluids

Archimedes’ principle states that when a body is partially or completely immersed in a fluid, it
experiences an upthrust equal to the weight of the fluid it displaces

Implications of Archimedes’ principle:

- An object will sink if the weight of the water displaced is less than the weight of the
object
- An object will float if the weight of the water displaced is equal to the weight of the
object
- The buoyant force on an object floating in a fluid is equal in magnitude to the weight of
the floating object and in opposite direction to it

Applications of Archimedes’ principle:

- A submarine has a large ballast tank, which is used to control its position and depth from
the surface of the sea. When the ballast tank is filled with water, the buoyant force is less
than the weight of the submarine, so it sinks. When the ballast tank is filled with air, the
buoyant force is greater than the weight of the submarine, so it floats
- Hot air in a hot air balloon has a lower density than the surrounding air, giving it a bigger
upthrust and causing it to rise. When the height increases, the density of the air increases,
and the buoyant force decreases, causing the balloon to remain afloat when the buoyant
force is equal to its weight and descend when the force becomes less than its weight.
 Thermal Physics and Kinetic Theory - Temperature, Gas Laws

Temperature - a measure of the degree of heat in a body or the average kinetic energy of a body

Heat - a measure of the thermal energy contained in a body or how energy is transferred from
one system to another

Note: Since temperature is a measure of the thermal energy an object contains, when
temperature is increased, so is the rate at which heat is tranferred, since a greater temperature
disparity between object and room temperature will seek to move to equilibrium

Note: Since temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of a body, when temperature
is increased, so is the kinetic energy, since the molecules or atoms in the substance will move
faster as the heat energy increaes

Temperature and the states of matter: (not coming on p2)

- Solids expand when heated and contract when cooled
- Liquids expand faster than solids when heated due to their indefinite shape and loose
density and contract faster than solids when cooled
- Gases expand faster than liquids when heated due to their indefinite shape, volume and
density and contract faster than liquids when cooled for the same reasons

Physical properties which vary with and can be used to calculate temperature:
- Volume
- Pressure
- Thermal expansion

Thermometer - an instrument used to measure temperature

Types of thermometers:
- Clinical thermometer: a small scale thermometer used to measure the body heat of
humans using the expansion of a liquid proportional to the increase in temperature
- Laboratory thermometer: a large scale thermometer used to measure temperatures with a
high degree of precision in laboratory experiments
- Thermocouple thermometer: a large scale thermometer used to measure temperature in
industrial and electrical settings by the conduction of electrical current
- Constant-volume thermometer: a thermometer used to measure the temperature of gases
in laboratory settings by observing changes in volume under constant pressure
Design features of thermometers:
- Clinical thermometer is made or thin glass so that heat may easily pass through, with a
narrow capillary for increased sensitivity, a constrictor that allows readings to be
sustained shortly after a temperature is taken and uses a scale from 35°C to 42°C
- Laboratory thermometer is small so that it may be portable and cheap, has thin glass wall
with a bulb smaller than the bore to contain more liquid and improve sensitivity and is
taken and uses a scale from -10°C to 110°C
- Thermocouple thermometer is small to read measurements rapidly, uses electricity so that
it may be read from a remote site and uses different scales based on classes: J (0°C to
750°C), K (-200°C to 1250°C), E (-200°C to 900°C) and T (-250°C to 350°C)
- Constant-volume thermometer consists of a bulb filled with a fixed amount of a dilute gas
which is attached to a mercury manometer, works as quickly as a thermocouple, has a
very wide range of temperatures

Clinical Thermometer Laboratory Thermometer

Thermocouple Thermometer Constant-volume Gas Thermometer

Note: The temperature of a substance is directly proportional to the average kinetic energy of the
substance particles
The temperature scales include the Celsius or Centigrade scale, the Farenheit scale and the
Kelvin or thermodynamic temperature or absolute temperature scale

The lower and upper fixed points on the Celcius scale are 0℃ and 100℃ respectively,
representing the respective freezing and boiling points of water

The relationship between Celcius and Kelvin

- Temperature, T/K = 0℃ + 273
- The Kelvin scale is used by scientists to account for all possible ranges of temperature,
starting at an absolute zero
- The Kelvin scale is derived by mapping the relationship volume against temperature,
T/℃ or pressure against temperature, T/℃, and extrapolating the constant positive
gradient backwards until it meets the x-axis to show the point at which motion ceases

The Gas Laws:

- Boyle’s law: For a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature, the pressure is inversely
1
proportional to its volume, P α 𝑉
or P1V1 = P2V2
- Charles’ law: For a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure, the volume is directly
𝑉1 𝑉2
proportional to its absolute temperature, VαT or 𝑇1
= 𝑇2
- Pressure law: For a fixed mass of gas at constant volume, the pressure is directly
𝑃1 𝑃2
proportional to its absolute temperature, PαT or 𝑇1
= 𝑇2
- General gas law: For a fixed mass of an ideal gas changing from state 1 to state 2, the
𝑃1𝑉1 𝑃2𝑉2
ratio of the product of its pressure and volume to its temperature is constant 𝑇1
= 𝑇2

Graphs of the gas laws:

Boyle’s Law Charle’s Law Pressure Law

Kinetic Theory
- It states that all matter is made up of particles in constant, random motion held together
by intermolecular bonds
- It proposes that heat is a form of energy which cannot be created nor destroyed but
converted from mechanical energy, another form, through the motion of these particles
- It disprove and replaced the caloric theory, which said that heat was a weightless,
invisible fluid that could flow between and be shedded from objects
- James Joule’s paddle wheel experiment gave credence to the law of conservation of
- energy as he noticed that temperature increases against motion
- Count Rumford’s Canon Boring’s experiments supported the kinetic theory by showing
that heat energy is produced only by motion
- Robert Brown’s experiment proved that particles move in constant and random motion,
or Brownian motion, as it is now termed

Gas Laws and the Kinetic Theory:

- Boyle’s law: As a gas is compressed at constant temperature, the speed of its molecules is
unchanged and so the force exerted by its molecules on the walls remains constant.
However, since the volume decreases, the collisions are on a smaller area, so the pressure
increases.
- Charles’ law: As the temperature of a gas rises, the average speed of its molecules
increases and so the force exerted by its molecules on the wall is greater. If the vessel is
freely expendable, the volume will increase, and so the area of the walls will also
increase by the same factor, so that the pressure remains the same.
- Pressure law: As the temperature of a gas rises, the average speed of its molecules
increases and therefore the force exerted by its molecules on the walls is greater. If the
volume remains constant, the area of the walls is constant, so the pressure increases.

Applications of the gas laws:

- Charles’ law may help determine by how much a gas will expand
- Boyle’s law may help guide scuba divers as to how to move underwater
- The pressure law may help determine the pressure of a gas in a lightbulb
- The combined gas law help determine the new volume after gas enters a closed space
 Waves and Optics - Wave Motion, Sound, Lenses

Wave - a disturbance that propagates from one place to another, that carries energy as it moves

Types of waves:
- Pulse: a single disturbance that propagates from one point to the next
- Progressive: a wave that transfers energy from one point to the next
- Transverse: a wave that has vibrations perpendicular to its direction of propagation
a. Characterised by crests (maximum values) and troughs (minimum values)
- Longitudinal: a wave that has vibrations parallel to its direction of propagation
a. Characterised by compressions (regions of high pressure) and rarefractions
(regions of low pressure)

Wave parameters:
- Amplitude, a: the maximum displacement of the vibration of oscillation from its mean
position
a. If the amplitude of a light wave increases, the light becomes brighter
- Phase: the position of points on a waveform cycle
a. Points are in phase if the distance between them along the direction of
propagation is equal to a whole number of wavelengths
- Wavelength, λ: the distance between successive points in phase in a wave
- Period, T: the time for one complete vibration
- Frequency: the number of complete vibrations per second
- Wavefront: a line perpendicular to the propagation of a wave on which all points are in
phase
- Speed: the rate at which the wavefronts of a wave propagate over time
a. Speed depends on the medium of propagation
b. Speed changes at a boundary between media, and the wave undergoes refraction

Note: the speed of the propagation of a wave is equal to the product of its frequency and its
wavelength, v = f * λ
Variation of the speed of a wave:
- The speed of light is greater in media of lesser density
a. Light travels fastest in a vacuum
- The speed of sound is greatest through solids, less in liquids and least in gases because
the closeness of the packing and the rigidity of the bonds in solid allow the vibrations to
transfer more easily
- The speed of sound is greater through gases of less density because molecules of lesser
mass respond more readily to vibrations than those of greater mass
a. Sound travels faster through air than through carbon dioxide
- The speed of sound through gasses is greater at high temperatures because the increased
kinetic energy allows the vibrations to be passed on more readily

Wave graphs:
- Displacement-position: relates the displacement of each point in a wave to the distance or
position from some reference point at one instant of time (time is held fixed)

assume v = 75 ms-1
a. Amplitude, a = 0.02 m
b. Wavelength, λ = 0.05 m
c. Frequency, f = v / λ = 75 / 0.05 = 1500 cycles per second or 1500 Hz
d. Period, T = 1 / f = 1 / 1500 = 0.000667 s

- Displacement-time: relates the displacement of a point in a wave as time passes (the

position is held fixed)

assume v = 20 ms-1
a. Amplitude, a = 0.02 m
b. Wavelength, λ = 0.04 m
c. Frequency, f = v / λ = 20 / 0.04 = 500 cycles per second or 500 Hz
d. Period, T = 1 / f = 1 / 500 or 0.002 s
Note: displacement position and displacement time graphs have the same shape for, and can
represent the graphs of both transverse and longitudinal waves, since they are not the waves
themselves

Sound is produced by the mechanical vibration of systems but is propagated through a material
medium (solid, liquid, gas, and never a vacuum) as a longitudinal wave

Pitch - the frequency of a sound wave, or the number of times it can cycle per unit time

Loudness - the amplitude or intensity of a sound wave, or its perceived deviation from its normal
range

The speed of sound is approximately 330 ms-1

Applications of the speed of sound:

- Thunder and lightning occur simultaneously. Due to the high speed of light, it can be
assumed that an observer sees light as soon as it is produces. Since sound travels much
slower, it takes a few seconds for the observer to hear the thunder. An observer who
counts the seconds between seeing the flash and hearing the sound can estimate the
distance from the thunder cloud (in km) be dividing the count by 3, since it takes about 3
seconds to travel 1 km

Evidence of the behaviour of sound waves:

- Reflection: when a sound wave bounces against a surface, some of the energy bounces
back
a. an echo is produced when a loud sound is made in front of a wall
- Refraction: a soundwave changed direction as it passes from one medium to another
a. a sound wave travelling upwards increases in speed as it enters layers of warmer
air, the wavefronts separate more and the sound ray refracts along a curved path
- Diffraction: a sound wave changes direction as it passes through openings or around
barriers
a. sound waves spread out through an open field when a radio is played from one
position on the field

Classifications of frequencies of sound:

- Infrasound: < 20 Hz
- Audible range of the average humans: 20 Hz to 20 kHz
- Ultrasound: > 20 Hz
Uses of ultrasound:
- Diagnostic imaging: doctors use a probe to direct ultrasonic waves into a patient, that are
reflected an analysed by a computer to produce an image, as in pre-natal scanning and the
examination of internal organs
a. This imagine is safer than x-rays, which have the risk of producing cancer
- Communicating: dolphins communicate by emitting and receiving ultrasonic vibrations
- Cleaning: small objects, such as electronic components, may be sprayed with a cleanser
then subjected to ultrasonic waves because the vibreations easily remove dirt and grease
- Determining the depth of water

Lens - a piece of transparent lens that can form focused image of objects

Convex Lens - a lens that is thicker at its centre than at the edges, able to converge parallel rays
of light to produce a virtual image

Concave Lens - a lens that is thicker at the edges than its centre, diverges parallel rays of light to
produce a virtual image

Optical Centre, O - the point at the centre of the lens through which all rays pass without
deviation

Principal Axis - the line that passes through the optical centre perpendicular to the faces of the
lens

Focal Point or Principal Focus, F - the point on the principal axis through which all parallel rays
close to the axis converge, or from which they appear to diverge, after passing through the lens

Focal Length, f - the distance between the optical centre and the principal focus

Focal Plane - the surface perpendicular to the principal axis and containing the principal focus

𝐼
Magnification - the ratio of the size of the image to the size of the object, m = 𝑂
, where I is
𝑣
image height and O is object height, or m = 𝑢
, where v is distance of image from lens and u is
𝐼 𝑣
distance of object from lens; 𝑂
= 𝑢

A real image is one produced at a point to which light rays converge

A virtual image is one produced at a point from which light rays appear to diverge
Examples of real vs virtual images:

Real Images Virtual Images

- Images produced on the retina - Images produced in a mirror

- Images produced in a camera - Images produces by a concave lens

- Images produces on the screen at a - Images produces by a convex lens

cinema acting as a magnifying glass

Feautures of real vs virtual images:

Real Images Virtual Images

- Can be formed on a screen - Cannot be formed on a screen

- Are produced by rays’ convergence - Are produces by rays’ divergence

- Are located on the side of the lens - Are located on the same side of the
opposite to the object lens as object

- Are inverted - Are upright/erect

Ray diagrams for convex lenses:

Ray diagrams for concave lenses:
Lens formula:
1 1 1
- + =
𝑢 𝑣 𝑓
a. u is the distance of the object from the lens: + if real, - if virtual
b. v is the distance of the image from the lens: + if real, - if virtual
c. f is the focal length: + for a convex lens, - for concave lens
Electricity - Current Electricity, Electrical Quantities, Circuit Diagrams

Conductor - a material through which electric charge can flow freely

Insulator - a material in which electrical charge does not flow freely

Semiconductor - A material in which the conductivity falls between that of good conductors and
good insulators

Current, I - The rate of flow of charge (I=Q/t, the unit is Amperes, A)

Conventional Current - the direction in which a positive charge would move if free to do so in an
electric field.

Electron Flow - The direction in which electrons flow (from a negative terminal to a positive
terminal)

Electric current through various media:

- Metals contain free electrons which have broken away from their atomic orbits and are
not bound to any particular atom, which flow by conventional current
- Graphite, like metal, has free electrons which flow by conventional current
- Solutions of ionic substances, as well as molten ionic substances, have mobile positive
and negative ions, which move in opposite directions when connected in an electrical
circuit
a. Electrolytes when dissolved in water produce cations that move from anodes to
cathodes in an electrical circuit
Electric Charge, Q - The quantity of electricity that flows through a circuit for a given time
(Q=It, the unit is Coulombs, C)

Direct Current - A current that does not change direction with time

Alternating Current - A current that changes direction with time

- To determine the frequency of a waveform, f=1/T

- Where f = Frequency and
T = Time Period
● The frequency is the number of oscillations completed per second
● The time period is the length of time taken for 1 oscillation to be completed
● This formula can be used to solve for the time period (T=1/f)

Electromotive Force, e.m.f- the energy used in transferring unit charge around a complete circuit.
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
e.m.f=
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒

Potential Difference, p.d or voltage, V- between two points in a circuit is the energy used in
transferring unit charge between those two points.
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
p.d=
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
𝐸
The unit for both electromotive force and potential difference is Volt, V, V=
𝑄

Note: Current moves from points of higher potential to points of lower potential

Power, P- Electrical power is the rate of transfer of electrical energy. Formulas for power:
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐸
- P=
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
(P= 𝑡
)
- P = Current x Voltage (P=IV)
- From this, we can derive:
2
2
𝑉
- P= I R and P=
𝑅
Energy, E or Work, W = The total power that flows through a circuit (E=Pt; the unit is Joules)

The law of conservation of energy:

- This states that energy cannot be created or destroyed only converted from one form to
another.
a. Motors convert electrical energy to mechanical energy
b. Generators convert mechanical energy to electrical energy

Importance of conserving electrical energy:

- Being energy efficient will reduce the amount of fossil fuels burned to produce electricity.
- Prevents the waste of natural resources
- Using renewable energy can lead to a lower chance of being vulnerable to power outages
since energy would be stored.
- Being energy efficient saves money.

Becoming more energy efficient:

- Install high efficiency appliances and LED lighting.
- Install photovoltaic panels (solar panels).
- Install solar water heaters.
- Do not wash partial loads in a washing machine, only full loads.
- Dry clothes by hanging them on lines instead of using electric dryers.
- Turn off electrical equipment when not in use.
- Carpooling to save gasoline.

Electrical symbols:
A series circuit is a circuit in which the current is the same at all points but voltage varies.

A parallel circuit is a circuit in which the voltage is the same across all branches but the current
varies. The total current is equal the the sum of currents in the different branches
A diode can be placed in a circuit to either prevent or allow the flow of current. When the
positive end of the diode is connected to the positive end of the source, it is said to be
forward-biased, allowing for the conduction of electricity. When the negative end of the diode is
connected to the positive end of the source, it is said to be reverse-biased and prevents the flow
of electricity (as long as one charged end of the diode is connected to the oppositely charged end,
it is reverse biased).
Zinc-carbon dry cell:
-

Lead-acid accumulator
-

Zinc-carbon cell vs Lead-acid accumulator:

I-V relationships:

If a material is an ohmic conductor, when a graph of I against V or V against I is plotted, it

should be a straight line through the origin

From this, it can be observed that metallic conductors and aqueous solutions (electrolytes) are
ohmic while filament lamps and diodes are non-ohmic devices.