Nuclear Physics
Nuclear model of the atom
Current atomic model
Electrons orbit a positively charged nucleus.
Mostly empty space between the orbits and the nucleus.
Scattering experiments by Ernest Rutherford
α-particles directed at thin gold foil.
Observations of α-particles:
Observation Description Proof of atomic model
Passed through the gold foil without
Most α-particles Atom is mostly empty space.
deflection.
Presence of a dense, positively charged nucleus which
Some α-particles Deflected at small angles.
repels the α-particles
Approximately 1 in 8000 α- Deflected back towards the source at Nucleus is very small and dense compared to the rest of the
particles large angles. atom.
Rutherford’s nuclear model
Positive charge and most mass are concentrated in a small, dense nucleus.
Electrons orbit the nucleus at a large distance away.
Nucleus and electrons occupy about one-million-millionth of the atom’s volume.
The nucleus
The nucleus of an atom consists of protons and neutrons.
Three basic particles in an atom include protons, neutrons, and electrons.
Proton = a hydrogen atom minus an electron charge +1, mass about 2000 times that of an electron.
Neutron: Uncharged and with a mass almost equal to that of a proton.
Relative charges: Proton = +1 and neutron = 0 while electron = -1.
Protons and neutrons are located in the nucleus and are together called nucleons.
Particle Relative Mass Relative Charge Location
Proton 1 +1 In nucleus
Particle Relative Mass Relative Charge Location
Neutron 1 0 In nucleus
1
Electron 1840
-1 Outside nucleus
In a neutral atom the number of protons equals the number of electrons.
Atomic number (Z ): Number of protons in the nucleus (it also equals the number of electrons).
Mass number (A): Total number of nucleons (protons + neutrons) in the nucleus.
Relationship: Number of neutrons = A − Z .
Nuclide notation: Atom X is represented as A
Z X , where A is the nucleon number and Z is the proton number.
Relative charge: Product of proton number (Z ) and the charge of a proton.
Relative mass: Total mass of neutrons and protons; approximately A times the mass of a proton.
Isotopes
Forms of the same element with the same number of protons but different number of neutrons.
Example: Chlorine has isotopes 35 37 1 2 3
17 Cl and 17 Cl while Hydrogen has isotopes 1 H , deuterium 1 H , and tritium 1 H .
Isotopes have identical chemical properties but different physical properties.
Nuclides
Radioactive isotopes are called radioisotopes or radionuclides and have unstable nuclei.
Nuclear Energy
Einstein’s equation: E = mc2 , where E is energy, m is mass, and c is the speed of light.
Mass loss in nuclear reactions results in energy release.
Nuclear reactions involve large energy changes compared to other physical and chemical changes.
Nuclear fission
Uranium-235 is an isotope that undergoes fission when struck by neutrons.
Fission breaks the nucleus into smaller radioactive nuclei, releasing additional neutrons and energy.
Mass loss is converted into kinetic energy of fission products.
Neutrons from fission can trigger further fission reactions.
Nuclear Reactor
Reactors use controlled chain reactions to produce energy.
Control rods absorb neutrons to regulate the reaction.
Graphite moderates neutrons to slow down fission.
Types of radioactivity
Natural Background Radiation
Radiation sources include:
Cosmic rays (high-energy particles from the Sun) are mostly absorbed by the atmosphere but some reach the Earth's surface.
Radon gas present in the air.
Granite rocks in homes, particularly in Scotland, emit radioactive radon gas that can accumulate in poorly ventilated areas.
Radioactive potassium-40 is present in food and absorbed by our bodies.
Various radioisotopes are used in medical procedures.
Radiation from nuclear power stations and fallout from nuclear bomb testing
Ionising Effect of Radiation
The ability of radiation to make atoms to lose or gain electrons and become charged.
A charged electroscope discharges when a lighted match or a radium source is brought near the cap.
Electroscope Discharge: Neutral Atom → Positive Ion + Electron
A lighted match knocks electrons out of air molecules, creating positive ions.
Radiation causes ionisation by neutralising the charge on the electroscope.
Ionisation: Neutral Atom + Electron → Negative Ion
Geiger–Müller (GM) Tube
The ionising effect of radiation is used to detect radiation.
Radiation entering a GM tube creates argon ions and electrons, which then causes more ionisation.
Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Radiation
Alpha Particles (α)
The nucleus with two protons and two neutrons
Stopped by thick paper; range in air is a few centimetres.
High ionising power due to frequent collisions.
Deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
Represented as helium ions with a double positive charge.
Beta Particles (β )
fast-moving electron
Stopped by a few millimetres of aluminium; range in air is several metres.
Lower ionising power than alpha particles.
Deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
Streams of high-energy electrons.
Gamma Radiation (γ )
Electromagnetic radiation having high frequency
Most penetrating
Stopped only by many centimetres of lead.
Least ionising power.
Not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
Electromagnetic radiation.
Type of Radiation Mass Charge Penetrating Power Ionising Power
Alpha (α) High (Helium nucleus) +2 Low (stopped by paper) High
Beta (β) Low (electron) -1 Moderate (stopped by few mm of aluminum) Moderate
Gamma (γ ) None (electromagnetic wave) 0 High (stopped by several cm of lead) Low
Particle Tracks
Cloud chambers reveal the tracks of particles based on the ionisation they produce.
Alpha Particles: Straight, thick tracks.
Beta Particles: Thin, straight or twisted tracks.
Gamma Rays: Eject electrons which then produce tracks similar to β particles.
Electric deflection
The positive alpha particles are heavier and slowly deflect towards the negative plate.
The negative beta particles are lighter and quickly deflect towards the positive plate.
The neutral electromagnetic gamma radiation remains undeflected.
Magnetic deflection
Alpha particles follow the rule of positive conventional current.
Fleming’s left hand rule is used with the middle finger pointing in the direction of alpha particles.
Beta particles are shown in the direction opposite to the middle finger, as it represents electron flow, opposite of conventional current.
Gamma radiation is not deflected. \n
Radioactive decay and half-life
Radioactive Decay
Radioactive decay is the emission of an α-particle or a β-particle from an unstable nucleus.
This changes the nucleus into that of a different element until a stable element is formed.
These changes are spontaneous and random
Alpha Decay (α-decay)
An α-particle is a helium nucleus with two protons and two neutrons.
When an atom undergoes α-decay, its nucleon number decreases by 4 and its proton number decreases by 2.
Example: When radium (226 222
88 Ra) emits and alpha particle, it becomes radon (86 Rn).
The equation for this decay is: 226
88 Ra →222 4
86 Rn +2 He
Beta Decay (β-decay)
In β-decay, a neutron changes into a proton and an electron.
The proton remains in the nucleus, while the electron is emitted as a β-particle.
The nucleon number stays the same, but the proton number increases by 1.
Example: Radioactive carbon 14 14
6 C decays into nitrogen (7 N) by β-emission.
The equation for this decay is: 14
6 C →14
7 N +0−1 e
Gamma Emission (γ-emission)
After α- or β-decay, some nuclei are left in an excited or energetic state.
Rearrangement of protons and neutrons releases energy in the form of γ-emissions.
γ-emissions are high-energy electromagnetic waves with no mass or charge.
Nuclear Stability
Stability of a nucleus depends on the number of protons (Z ) and neutrons (N ).
Stable nuclides fall within a specific stability level called the stability line.
For light nuclides, N = Z.
For heavier nuclides, N > Z.
Unstable nuclides decay to move towards the stability line.
N
Nuclides above the stability line decay by β-emission to decrease the Z ratio.
N
Nuclides below the stability line decay by beta emission (β+) to increase the Z ratio.
Nuclei with more than 82 protons usually decay by α-emission.
Half-Life
The half-life of an isotope is the time taken for half the nuclei in a sample to decay.
It is a measure of the rate at which a radioactive substance decays.
Each isotope has its own special half-life.
It can be from fractions of a second to millions of years.
A decay curve plots the activity of a sample over time, showing the exponential decrease in activity.
The activity decreases by half in each half-life period from the previous half-life period.
Example: If a sample's activity is 80 decays per second, it will reduce to 40 in one half-life, then to 20 in the next, and so on.
Radioactive decay is random and unpredictable; the exact time when a particular nucleus will decay cannot be determined.
The overall decay rate of a sample follows a predictable pattern, called its half-life.
Safety precautions
Dangers of Nuclear Radiation
Exposure to small doses of radiation is not damaging, but large doses are harmful to health.
Nuclear radiation's ionising effect damages cells and tissues, it can lead to gene mutations.
Damage can cause cell death and cancers.
α-particles are less dangerous unless the source is ingested or inhaled.
β- and γ-radiation can cause radiation burns, eye cataracts, and cancer.
Radiation hazard signs warn of the presence of radioactive material.
Safety Precautions
Minimize exposure time to radiation.
Keep a large distance between the radiation source and individuals.
Use shielding materials that absorb radiation to protect people.
In industry, sources are handled with long tongs and transported in thick lead containers.
Workers are protected by lead and concrete walls and wear radiation dose badges.
Radiation dose badges track the amount of radiation exposure over a period, typically one month.
The badge has windows that allow different types of radiation to expose photographic film, indicating exposure levels when developed.
