Chapter 3: The nuclear atom
Radiation and nuclear model of the atom
Radiation
Non-ionising radiation is energy electromagnetic
radiation with low energy.
Ionising radiation is high-energy radiation that can
affect the electrons surrounding an atom so that a
charged ion is formed.
Background radiation
Two types:
Terrestrial radiation comes from the decay of
radioactive elements such as uranium and
thorium in the Earth’s crust.
Cosmic radiation comes to us from space. It
comprises mainly protons that interact with
Earth’s atmosphere to produce cosmic
showers of radiation, some of which reaches
Earth’s surface.
Henri Becquerel
In 1896, Henri Becquerel
(1852–1908) discovered
that uranium salts emitted
a previously unknown form
of radiation.
He showed that atoms
were capable of emitting
smaller particles.
Therefore atoms must be
divisible.
J.J. Thomson (1856–1940)
Discovered the electron
in 1897
His ‘plum pudding’
model of the atom –
electrons in a positively
charged sphere of
electrification.
Ernest Rutherford (1871–1937)
Rutherford’s model of the atom
Niels Bohr (1885–1962)
He used a new form of physics
– quantum physics – to develop
a model where electrons were
only allowed to exist in specific
energy states.
While in those energy states,
they would not radiate energy.
The Rutherford–Bohr atom
Nucleus contains most of the mass.
Nuclear charge is positive and equal in size to the total electronic
charge.
Electrons exist in orbitals that correspond to allowed energy states.
The atom is bigger than the nucleus.
Atomic number and mass number
Symbol Name Description
mass number number of protons
A
(nucleon number) and neutrons in
the atom
atomic number
Z number of protons
(proton number)
number of neutrons
N N=A–Z
Periodic table of the elements
P
Standard notation
Nuclear families
Families Nuclides with the same
Isotopes atomic (proton) number, Z
Isobars mass (nucleon) number, A
Isotones number of neutrons, A – Z
Isomers Z and A, but different energy states
Terms explained
Atomic Number of protons in a nucleus
number (Z)
Atomic mass Number of nucleons in a single nuclide
number (A)
Unified mass Mass of a single carbon-12 nuclide, assigned the value 1
unit (u or Da) (1 u = 1.6605 x 10-27 kg)
Atomic mass Mass of a nuclide compared to a single carbon-12 nuclide
Atomic unit Obsolete unit originally based on oxygen-18 instead of
(amu) carbon-12. (If used, must be related to carbon-12)
Atomic weight Weighted average of all naturally occurring nuclides of an
element in a sample
Relative Atomic weight
atomic mass
Radioactive decay radiation
Alpha particle
, 42 He 2 Helium-4 nuclide
Beta particle Electron
Positron
Gamma ray Electromagnetic
radiation
Neutrino Energy carrier
Antineutrino Energy carrier
Alpha decay
The alpha particle is a positively charged
helium nucleus.
All radioactive decays release energy.
238 234 4 2
92 U 90 Th He2
The alpha decay of uranium as a general equation is:
A A 4 4 2
Z X Y He
Z 2 2
Beta decay
Electron
There are two beta particles: one positive and one
negative.
Beta decay releases an electron and antineutrino.
234
90Th 234
91 Pa e
0
1
The beta decay of thorium as a general equation is:
A
Z X A
Y e
Z 1
0
1
Beta decay
Positron
This beta decay releases an positron and antineutrino
by changing a proton to a neutron.
195
81Tl 195
80 Hg 10 e
The beta decay of thallium as a general equation is:
A
Z X A
Z1 Y e
0
1
Ionising power
Penetrating power
Detection of radioactivity
Radioactive decay radiation is invisible; it is
its interaction with matter that makes it
detectable.
Some types of detectors:
1. Charged electroscope
2. Solid-state detectors
3. Dosimeters
4. Thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLDs)
5. Cloud chambers
Effects of magnetic fields
The greater the speed,
the greater the radius of deflection.
A cloud chamber
Ionising particles
cause tracks of
vapourised alcohol
particles that can
be observed.
Cloud chamber tracks
Ionising particles cause
tracks of vapourised
alcohol particles.
a. alpha particles
b. fast beta ray
Geiger–Müller tube
Half-life
A particular radioactive sample comprises uranium
nuclides.
Each nuclide has a 50% chance of decaying
within 10 minutes.
Time elapsed 1 2 3 4 5 6
(10 minute intervals)
No. of nuclides 8 4 2 1 0.5 0.25
remaining (x 1020 )
N = number of nuclides remaining
n = whole number of ten minute intervals
The time taken for half a radioactive sample to
decay is called the half-life t1/2. In general, for a
sample of N0 particles, the number, N,
remaining after n half lives is given by the
equation:
Each radioactive isotope has a unique half-life.
Many products of radioactive decay are
themselves radioactive. Eventually, a stable
end product is reached. Three naturally
occurring decay series have been identified:
238 206
Radium or uranium series 92 U 82 Pb
Actinium series 235
92 U 207
82 Pb
Thorium series 232
90 Th 208
82 Pb
The radium decay series
Artificial transmutation
Transmutation: the changing of one element to
another.
Nitrogen nuclides absorb the bombarding helium
nuclides and form a composite, unstable nuclide:
14 4 18 *
7 N He
2 9 F
The nuclide decays to a more stable state:
18 17 1
9 F 8 O H
1
Neutron bombardment
When a nuclide takes in a neutron it becomes
less stable.
Frequently, the nuclide becomes a beta-emitter.
Transuranic elements
Each element beyond uranium (atomic number
> 92) is a transuranic element.
They do not exist naturally.
All are produced artificially.
All are radioactive.
There are no known stable isotopes of any
transuranic element.
Transuranic element plutonium
Formed by neutron bombardment of uranium-238
and then a decay series.
1
0 n 238
92 U 239
92 U
*
239
92
*
U 239
93 Np e
* 0
1
239
93 Np * 239
94 Pu e
0
1
Radiopharmaceuticals
Nuclear medicine uses radiopharmaceuticals for
medical diagnosis and treatment.
Gamma emitting radiopharmaceuticals
Radiopharmaceuticals
Nuclear medicine uses radiopharmaceuticals for
medical diagnosis and treatment.
Beta emitting radiopharmaceuticals
Safety in nuclear medicine
Radiation exposure in a nuclear medicine
centre can be high.
Radiochemicals are often contained in vials,
which are kept in lead ‘castles’ or ‘pigs’.
Workers watch through lead glass windows
and in a mirror as they draw up
radiochemicals into syringes.
Safety in nuclear medicine
A syringe shield is made of lead or tungsten, with a window of
lead glass so that the markings on the syringe can be seen.
Note the worker’s disposable gloves.
