Rutherford‛s Alpha Particle Scattering Experiment

Experiment

• Rutherford bombarded α – particles on a thin gold foil.

• Rutherford selected gold foil because he wanted as thin layer as possible. Gold is highly
malleable so it can be converted into thin sheets.
• α – particles are positively charged particles (+2) having a mass of 4u. [2 proton + 2
neutron]

Observations of Rutherford’s α-particle Scattering Experiment

• Most of the α – particles passed through the gold foil without any deflection.
• Some of the α – particles deflected from their original path at a small angle.
• Very few of the α – particles bounced back at their original path.

Conclusion of Rutherford’s α-particle Scattering Experiment

• Most of the particles passed through the gold foil without any deflection, indicating that
o The atom is mostly empty space.
• Very few particles were deflected from their path, indicating that
o Nucleus has enough positive charge to repel the positively charged alpha
particles, but positive charge of the atom occupies very little space. Most alpha
particles passed straight because they never went near this concentration of
charge.
• Some α – particles deflected by 180o, indicating that
o Nucleus contains most of the atom's mass and nucleus must be very small to only
rarely deflect alpha particles.
Structure of an Atom

Fundamental Particles of an Atom (Subatomic Particle)

An atom consists of three fundamental particles or subatomic particles which are

S. No. Particle Relative Charge Relative Mass Position

𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷
( ) ( )
𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷

1. Electron (e–) –1 1 Revolve around nucleus

2000

OR

Negligible (0)

2. Proton (p+) +1 1 Nucleus

3. Neutron (n) 0 1 Nucleus

Atomic Number (Z)

Number of protons present in nucleus of an atom

For electrically neutral atom: Number of Protons = Number of electrons

Neutron Number (N)

Number of neutrons present in nucleus of an atom

Nucleon Number/Mass Number (A)

Sum of number of protons and neutrons present in nucleus of an atom

A=Z+N
Nuclide Notation
𝐴𝐴
𝑍𝑍𝑋𝑋

X → Symbol of element

A → Nucleon Number

Z → Atomic Number

Example: Nuclide notation of an atom of Oxygen (O) containing 8 protons and 8 neutrons
16
8𝑂𝑂

Proton Number and Relative Charge on Nucleus

Relative charge of nucleus = + (number of protons)

Example: Relative charge on Oxygen Nucleus = +8

Isotope

Different atoms of an element which have same number of protons but different number of
neutrons.

Example:

Isotopes of Hydrogen Number of Protons Number of Neutrons

1 1 0
1𝐻𝐻 (Hydrogen)

2 1 1
1𝐻𝐻 (Deuterium)

3 1 2
1𝐻𝐻 (Tritium)

Isotopes of an element have similar chemical properties but may have different physical
properties (e.g. mass).

Nucleon Number and Relative Mass of Nucleus

Relative Mass of a Nucleus ≈ Nucleon Number

Unit of Relative Mass of Nucleus: atomic mass unit (u)

Nuclear Reactions
1. Nuclear Fission
2. Nuclear Fusion
Nuclear Fission

Nuclear fission is the process in which a heavy atomic nucleus, splits into two lighter nuclei
after absorbing a neutron, releasing additional neutrons and a large amount of energy.

Example:
235
92𝑈𝑈 + 10𝑛𝑛 → 139 94 1
56𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 + 36𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 + 3 0𝑛𝑛

Uranium-235 absorbs one neutron and splits into barium-139, krypton-94, and three free
neutrons.

• Some heavy, unstable nuclei slowly break down over time through radioactive decay. But
a few, like Uranium-235, can split all at once in a powerful reaction called nuclear fission.
• A nucleus needs extra energy to start fission, which is often provided by hitting it with a
neutron. Neutrons are used because they are chargeless and so are not repelled by the
positive charge of the nucleus.

Nuclear Fusion

Nuclear fusion is the process by which two light atomic nuclei, combine under extreme
temperature and pressure to form a heavier nucleus and release energy.

Example:
2
1𝐻𝐻 + 31𝐻𝐻 → 42𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 + 10𝑛𝑛

Deuterium and tritium fuse to form helium-4 and one neutron.

Note:

In nuclear fission or nuclear fusion, the total mass of the reactants is greater than the mass of
the products. The missing mass (mass defect) is converted to energy.
Background Radiation
Background radiation is the natural ionizing radiation that’s always present in our environment.

• Levels of background radiation can vary significantly from place to place.

Sources of Background Radiation

Natural Sources Man-made Sources

1. Cosmic rays from space 1. Medical uses (X-rays, CT scans,

radiation therapy)

2. Radioactive elements in soil and rocks (e.g. 2. Consumer items (smoke detectors,
uranium) luminous watches)

3. Radon gas from Earth's crust 3. Nuclear fallout from past weapons
testing or accidents

4. Natural isotopes in the body (e.g. carbon- 4. Industrial and research radiation
14, potassium-40) sources

5. Radioactive materials in food and water 5. Emissions from nuclear power plants

Understanding Background Radiation in Experiments

• Whenever an experiment involving radiation is carried out, some of the radiation that is
detected will be background radiation.
• When carrying out experiments to measure radiation count of a radioactive decay, the
presence of background radiation must be considered.

Steps to Get Corrected Results in Radiation Experiments

• Measure background count (in absence of radioactive source)

• Carry out experiment and get readings for radiation count
• Subtract the background count from each of your readings, to give a corrected count
Detecting Radiation
Ionising nuclear radiation is measured using a radiation detector connected to a counter.

• When radiation passes close to an atom, it knocks out electrons, ionising the atom
• Radiation detectors work by detecting the presence of these ions or the chemical
changes that they produce.
• Count rate is measured in counts / s or counts / minute.

Common Radiation Detectors

Detector Type What it does Example Name What it

Detects
1. Geiger Counter Clicks when it detects Geiger-Müller Alpha, beta,
radiation tube gamma
radiation

2. Scintillation Glows when hit by radiation, Sodium iodide Gamma rays, X-

Detector then sends a signal crystal rays

3. Ionisation Measures tiny electric current Basic lab Gamma rays, X-

Chamber from radiation detector rays

4. Semiconductor Uses chips to detect and Silicon diode Alpha and beta
Detector measure radiation particles

5. Dosimeter Worn on the body as a badge or Film badge Long-term

clip-on device to track (Darkens film exposure to
radiation exposure of a person based on ionising
or object over time radiation radiation
exposure)
Radioactive Decay
Radioactive decay is the spontaneous process by which unstable atomic nuclei emit ionising
radiation to become more stable.

• Cause of Instability:
o Large size of the nucleus, or
o Imbalance between protons and neutrons.
• To Achieve Nuclear Stability:
o Emits particles or energy (radiation) which helps reduce its size
o Reduces the number of excess neutrons (beta emission) to restore balance
between protons and neutrons.

Randomness in Radiation

• We can't predict exactly when or where the next atom will decay in a sample. Even the
clicks from a GM counter come at unpredictable times because atoms decay randomly
over space and time.
• The process of radioactive decay is random for individual atoms, but predictable for large
samples using the concept of half-life.

Types of Nuclear Emission

1. Alpha (𝛼𝛼)
2. Beta (𝛽𝛽)
3. Gamma (𝛾𝛾)

Equation for Alpha Emission

When an alpha particle is emitted from a nucleus:

• The nucleus loses 2 protons:

o The proton (atomic) number decreases by 2
• The nucleus loses 4 particles (nucleons) in total:
o The nucleon (mass) number decreases by 4
 𝐴𝐴
𝑍𝑍𝑋𝑋 → 𝐴𝐴−4 4
𝑍𝑍−2𝑌𝑌 + 2𝛼𝛼
212
84𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 → 208 4
82𝑌𝑌 + 2𝛼𝛼

Equation for Beta Emission

In beta decay, a neutron changes into a proton and releases an electron to balance the charge.

1
0𝑛𝑛 → 11𝑝𝑝 + −10𝛽𝛽
When a beta particle is emitted from a nucleus:

• The number of protons in the nucleus increases by 1:

o The proton (atomic) number increases by 1
• The total number of particles in the nucleus remains the same
o The nucleon (mass) number doesn’t change

𝐴𝐴
𝑍𝑍𝑋𝑋 → 𝑍𝑍+1𝐴𝐴𝑌𝑌 + −10𝛽𝛽
14
6𝐶𝐶 → 147𝑁𝑁 + −10𝛽𝛽

Deflection of α-particles, β-particles and γ-radiation in Magnetic Fields

Deflection of α-particles, β-particles and γ-radiation in Electric Fields

Ionizing Effects of Nuclear Emission

Property Alpha Beta Gamma

Kinetic High → hits electrons Moderate → can ionise, but with Very high →
Energy strongly, easily less force than alpha but hit or energy as waves,
knocks them out disturb with enough kinetic energy not collisions
to overcome its binding to the
nucleus

Electric +2 → strong attraction –1 → repels electrons but still 0 → no charge, no

Charge to electrons, high knocks them out by impact direct ionisation
ionisation chances

Mass Heavy (~4 amu) → Very light (~1/2000 amu) → lower None → no mass,
strong momentum, momentum, less effective in minimal energy
effective energy collisions transfer
transfer

Speed & Slow → stays near Fast → less interaction time with Very fast → rarely
Interaction atoms longer, more atoms interacts,
time to cause passes through
ionisation matter

Ionising Very High → dense Moderate → less dense, longer Very Low →
Power ionisation over a range ionises via
short distance indirect effects

₾ Ionisation is the process where radiation knocks electrons off atoms, forming charged ions.
Half-Life of Radioactive Decay
The half-life of an isotope is the time taken for the activity of that isotope (or the number of
original nuclei) to drop to half of its initial value

• After every one half-life passes, the activity (and the number of nuclei) of radioactive
sample will fall by half. However, the activity (and number of nuclei) will never quite drop
to zero.
• Different isotopes have different half-lives and half-lives can vary from a fraction of a
second to billions of years in length.
• Unit of activity of radioactive sample: decay per second or becquerels (Bq)
• 1 Bq = One decay per second

Determining the Half-Life of an Isotope

To Find the Half-Life Using a Graph

1. Plot the data

• Draw a graph with time on the x-axis and activity (or number of nuclei) on the
y-axis.
2. Draw a smooth curve
• Connect the points with a smooth line that gently slopes down.
• It should get closer to the x-axis but never quite touch it.
3. Find the starting value
• Look at where your curve starts on the y-axis — that’s your original activity.
4. Halve that value
• Divide the starting activity by 2. This is your halfway mark.
5. Use the curve to find the time
• From the halfway mark on the y-axis, draw a horizontal line to the curve.
• Then, drop a vertical line from that point down to the x-axis.
6. Read the time
• Where your vertical line hits the x-axis — that’s the half-life
Finding Half-Life from Initial and Final Activity

1. Count the halvings

• See how many times you need to divide the initial activity by 2 to get the final
activity.
• This gives you the number of half-lives that have passed.
OR
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 1
= n → number of half-lives passed
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 2𝑛𝑛
2. Calculate one half-life
• Take the total time and divide it by the number of half-lives.
• That’s the value of one half-life.

Application of Radioactivity
1. Sterilisation of Equipment
• Medical tools are sterilised with gamma rays.
• Isotope Used: Cobalt-60
• Type of Radiation: Gamma
• Half-Life: ~5.3 years
• How It Works:
o Medical tools are exposed to gamma rays in sealed packaging.
o Gamma rays kill bacteria and viruses, even in tiny crevices.
o More effective than boiling or chemical disinfectants.
• Why Gamma?
o Deep penetration ensures complete sterilisation.

2. Household Fire (smoke) Alarms

• Used to detect smoke form fires.
• Isotope Used: Americium-241 (Am-241)
• Type of Radiation: Emits alpha particles (and a small amount of gamma).
• Half-Life: 432 years — long enough to last the lifetime of the alarm without
needing replacement.
• How It Works:
o A tiny amount of Am-241 is placed between two charged plates inside the
alarm.
o Alpha particles ionise the air, allowing a small electric current to flow.
o When smoke enters, it blocks the alpha particles, reducing ionisation and
current.
o This triggers the alarm.
• Why alpha?
o Alpha particles are easily blocked by smoke, making them ideal for
detecting it. Beta or gamma would pass through without much change.
3. Irradiating Food to Kill Bacteria
• Used to kill bacteria, moulds, and parasites to preserve food and make it safer.
• Isotope Commonly Used: Cobalt-60 (Co-60) or Cesium-137 (Cs-137)
• Type of Radiation: Gamma rays
• Half-Life:
o Co-60: ~5.3 years
o Cs-137: ~30 years
• How It Works:
o Packaged food is exposed to gamma radiation in a controlled facility.
o Gamma rays penetrate deep into the food, destroying DNA of microbes.
o The food does not become radioactive — it’s just sterilised.
• Why gamma?
o Gamma rays are highly penetrating, so they can reach all parts of the food.
They’re also low ionising, reducing damage to the food itself.

4. Measuring the Thickness of Materials

• Used in paper, plastic, or metal production to keep thickness consistent.
• Isotope Used: Strontium-90
• Type of Radiation: Beta
• Half-Life: ~28.8 years
• How It Works:
o A beta source is placed below and a detector above the moving material.
o Thicker material = fewer beta particles reach the detector.
o Thinner material = more beta particles reach the detector.
• Why beta?
o Alpha: blocked completely.
o Gamma: hardly blocked
o Detector would not be able to sense any difference if the thickness were
to change.

5. Radiotherapy (Cancer Treatment)

• Uses gamma rays to target and destroy cancer cells. Though radiation can cause
cancer, it is also powerful in treating it.
• Isotope Used: Cobalt-60
• Radiation Type: Gamma
• Half-Life: ~5.3 years
• How It Works:
o Beams are aimed from different angles to focus on the tumour.
o Rays damage DNA of cancer cells, killing them.
o Healthy tissue is protected by rotating the beam and focusing it precisely.
• Why Gamma?
o Deep penetration to reach internal tumours.
o Effective at destroying cancer cells while sparing healthy ones.
 6. Radioactive Tracers
• Tracers are radioactive isotopes added to liquids to trace flow or leaks.
• In Medicine:
o Injected into blood to detect clots or blockages.
• In Industry:
o Added to pipelines to locate leaks.
• Isotope Used: Technetium-99m
• Type of Radiation: Gamma
• Half-Life: ~6 hours
• How It Works:
o A small amount of tracer (radioactive isotope) is added to a fluid (e.g.
blood or oil).
o Gamma rays emitted by the tracer are detected using special cameras.
o This helps track flow, detect leaks, or locate blockages.
• Why Gamma?
o Penetrates body/tissue for easy detection.
o Low ionising—safer for patients.
o Short half-life—minimises long-term exposure.
• Tracers must:
o Use a very small amount (minimize harm).
o Have a short half-life (a few hours): long enough to carry out the
procedure, but not so long that they cause long-term harm.
o Emit gamma rays (easily detected, less harmful).

Effects of Radiation on Health

• Radiation Burns:
o High doses cause intense ionisation in cells.
o Affected cells die—like fire burns.
o With treatment, damaged tissue may regrow.
• Cancer Risk:
o Radiation can damage DNA inside cell nuclei.
o Damaged DNA may cause cells to divide uncontrollably.
o This leads to formation of a tumour (cancer).
• Genetic Mutations:
o If radiation affects a gamete (egg or sperm), the mutation can be inherited.
o May cause birth defects or prevent development of the embryo.
o Rarely, mutations may be beneficial—but usually they’re harmful.

Effect of Alpha Radiation:

• Outside the Body:

o Least harmful if outside, blocked by dead skin or clothing i.e. safe when external.
• Inside the Body:
o Very harmful if inhaled or ingested (e.g. radon or thoron gases).
 o High ionisation caused by these gases present in air damages lung tissue—may
cause lung cancer.

Safety Precautions
• Store the sources in lead-lined boxes and keep at a distance from people
• Minimise the amount of time you handle sources for and return them to their boxes as
soon as you have finished using them
• During use, keep yourself (and other people) as far from the sources as feasible. When
handling the sources do so at arm’s length, using a pair of tongs

The Case of the Missing Marks

1. Does beta is emitted even though the nucleus does not normally contain any electrons?
2. In medical equipment is to be sterilised, it is first sealed in a plastic wrapper. Why does
this not absorb the radiation used?
3. Why must gamma radiation be used for inspecting a welded pipe?
4. Why would beta radiation not be suitable for use in a smoke detector?
5. A sample of radioactive element X has an activity of 240 Bq. If the half-life of X is 3 years,
what will its activity be after 12 years?
6. Name 4 types of ionising radiation.
7. What is the biggest contributor to background radiation?
8. Why are people who live high above sea level likely to be exposed to higher levels of
background radiation?
9. List 3 sources of exposure to artificial radiation.
10. Name 2 methods of detecting radiation from radioactive materials.
11. Alpha, beta and gamma radiations are produced by radioactive substances. They are
sometimes described as ionising radiations
a.) Explain what is meant by the term ionization
b.) Name another type of ionising radiation
12. The radiation produced by radioactive substances has many uses
a.) Describe one use of gamma radiation that makes use of its ability to damage living
tissues.
b.) Describe one use of beta radiation that makes use of the fact that it is absorbed by a
few millimetres of solid matter.