LUSAKA VOCATIONAL AND TRAINING CENTRE

WATER OPERATION AND SUPPLY

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

UNIT 1. SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY

1.1 HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

1.2 SURFACE
1.3 UNDERGROUND
1.4 PRECIPITATION
1.5 WATER DEMAND
1.6 VARIATIONS IN WATER DEMAND

UNIT 2. RECORDING METEOROLOGY DATA

1.1 WEATHER
2.1. TEMPERATURE
2.3 RAINFALL
2.3 CLIMATE

UNIT 3. SELETING WATER SYSTEM

3.1 INATKES
3.2 TREATMENT PLANTS
3.3 STORAGE FACILITIES
3.4 DISTRIBUTION
 CHAPTER 1
SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Water is the most abundant compound in nature. It covers 75% of the earth Surface.
About 97.3% of water is contained in the great oceans that are saline and 2.14% is held in
icecaps glaciers in the poles, which are also not useful. Barely the remaining 0.56% found on
earth is in useful form for general livelihood.

HYDROLOGICAL CONCEPTS
Hydrology is the science, which deals with the increment of the water on the ground,
under the ground, evaporation from the land and water surface and transportation
from the vegetation and going back into atmosphere where it precipitates.

DEFINITION
The water which goes in atmosphere by evaporation and transpiration again comes
back in the form of precipitation under favourable climatic conditions is known as
hydrological cycle of water.

Fig 1.2 Hydrological cycle

Fig 1.2 illustrates the hydrological cycle of water. Due to sun’s heat water from the earth’s
surfaces, lakes, rivers, seas etc. Evaporates and rises upwards. At high altitude due to
reduction in the atmosphere pressure these water vapours expand by absorbing energy from
the surrounding air, which cools down. When it falls below the dew point it cannot retain the
excessive moisture, which starts falling in the form of rain, hails, dew, sleet, frost or
precipitation. Various factors such as temperature, atmospheric pressure, velocity of wind,
height of mountains in the region, presence of forests, position of land and water areas etc.
and their complex relation are responsible for the precipitation. This precipitation and
evaporation processes continue forever and balance is maintained between the two by nature.

1.1.3 PRECIPITATION
The evaporated water from the surfaces of streams, rivers, sea, ponds, wet surfaces, trees and
plants etc. again returned to the earth surface by the condensation in the form of rain, hails,
dew, sleet etc. is known as precipitation. The major part of the precipitation occurs in the
form of rain and other forms quantities are very small. The water of precipitation further goes
off in the following ways.

i. RUN-OFF: After precipitation a portion of its water flows over the ground in the form of
rivers and streams and some water flows towards lakes and ponds and collected there.

ii. INFILTRATION: A portion of precipitation percolates in the ground and it is stored in

the form of sub-soil or ground water.

iii. EVAPORATION: some portion of the precipitation is also evaporated from the lakes,
rivers, reservoirs and wet surfaces in the form of vapour due to sun’s heat is known as
evaporation

iv. EVAPO-TRANSPIRATION: The roots of the trees sucks water from the ground and
some portion of it evaporates in the atmosphere through leaves in the form of transpiration.

1.2 SURFACE SOURCES

All the sources of water can be broadly divided into

1. Surfaces sources and
2. Underground sources

The difference between surface water sources and underground water sources
Item Surface water sources Underground water sources
source Rivers, lakes, streams, Boreholes, shallow wells,
impounded reservoirs aquifers
Water quantity Huge quantity of water is The quantity of water
available especially during available is generally limited
rainy season but considerably
depreciate reduced in dry
seasons.
Water quality Water highly polluted and Water is generally free from
unsafe for consumption. They impurities because of natural
contain inorganic impurities, filtration but may contain
organic impurities, organic large amounts of dissolved
impurities, industrial wastes. salts, minerals and gases.
Treatment of water Water is suitably tested and a Water can be supplied to the
line of treatment is to be public with no or minor
decided before they are adopted treatment.
for public use.
Use They are usually for big towns They are useful for small
in cities. They can be adopted towns and villages only.
for irrigation facilities also
accessibility Water is easily accessible Water is difficult to be
accessed
Visibility Water is visible to our naked Water is not visible, therefore
eyes and because of that its easy it’s very difficult to tell the
to be estimated and helping in volume of water kept
terms of planning for the future underground and it’s
impossible to make future
plans
Labour It requires too many people to Less people are needed
operate on it because a lot of because only one a few
equipment are used equipment are used.
Equipment More equipment are needed to Only few equipment are
operate on the this type of water needed e.g. only one pump
sources e.g. pumps, motors, and a tank that’s all.
meters, control panel,
flocculation tanks and
sedimentation etc.

The surface sources further divided into

I. Streams
Ii. Rivers
Iii. Lakes
iv. Impounding reservoirs etc.

1.2.1 NATURAL LAKES

In mountains at some places natural basins are formed with impervious bed by springs
and streams are known as “lakes”. The quality of water in the natural lakes depends
upon the basin’s capacity, catchment area, annual rainfall, porosity of ground etc. But
lakes situated at higher altitudes contain almost pure water which can be used without
any treatment. But ponds formed due to construction of houses, road, and railways
contains large amount of impurities and therefore cannot be used for water supply
purposes.

1.2.2 STREAMS AND RIVERS

Rivers and streams are the main source of surface source of water. In summer the
quality of river water is better than mansoon.because in rain season the run-off water
also carries with clay, sand, silt etc. which make the water turbid. So river and stream
water require special treatments. Some rivers are snow fed and perennial and have
water throughout the year and therefore they do not require any arrangements to hold
the water. But some rivers dry up wholly or partially in summer. So they require
special arrangements to meet the water demand during hot weather. Mostly all the
cities are situated near the rivers discharge their used water of sewage in the rivers;
therefore much care should be taken while drawing water from the river.

1.2.3 IMPOUNDING RESERVOIRS

In some rivers the flow becomes very small and cannot meet the requirements of hot
weather. In such cases, the water can be stored by constructing a bund, a weir or a
dam across the river at such places where minimum area of land is submerged in the
water and max quantity of water to be stored. In lakes and reservoirs, suspended
 impurities settle down in the bottom, but in their beds algae, weeds, vegetable and
organic growth takes place which produce bad smell, taste and colour in water.
Therefore this water should be used after purification. When water is stored for long
time in reservoirs it should be aerated and chlorinated to kill the microscopic
organisms which are born in water.

1.3 UNDERGROUND SOURCES

These are further divided into
(i) Infiltration galleries
(ii) Infiltration wells
(iii) Springs etc.

1.3.1 INFILTRATION GALLERIES

A horizontal nearly horizontal tunnel which is constructed through water bearing
strata for tapping underground water near rivers, lakes or streams are called
“Infiltration galleries”. The yield from the galleries may be as much as 1.5 x 104
lit/day/metre length of infiltration gallery. For maximum yield the galleries may be
placed at full depth of the aquifer. Infiltration galleries may be constructed with
masonry or concrete with weep holes of 5cm ×10cm.

1.3.2 INFILTRATION WELLS

In order to obtain large quantity of water, the infiltration wells are sunk in series in the blanks
of river. The wells are closed at top and open at bottom. They are constructed by brick
masonry with open joints as shown in fig. 3.3

Fig 1.3.2 Infiltration Well Fig 1.3.3 Jack Well

For the purpose of inspection of well, the manholes are provided in the top cover. The
water filtrates through the bottom of such wells and as it has to pass through sand bed,
it gets purified to some extent. The infiltrations well in turn are connected by porous
pipes to collecting sump called jack well and there water is pumped to purification
plant for treatment.

1.3.3 SPRINGS:
Sometimes ground water reappears at the ground surface in the form of springs.
 Springs generally supply small springs. Springs generally supply small quantity of
water and hence suitable for the hill towns. Some springs discharge hot water due to
presence of sulphur and useful only for the curve of certain skin disease patients.
Types of springs:

1. Gravity Springs: When the surface of the earth drops sharply the water bearing
stratum is exposed to atmosphere and gravity springs are formed as shown in fig.3.5

Fig 1.3.3Gravity Spring

2. Surface Spring: This is formed when an impervious stratum which is supporting the
ground water reservoir becomes out crops as shown in fig.3.6

Fig 1.3.4 Surface Spring

3. Artesian Spring: When the ground water rises through a fissure in the upper
impervious stratum as shown in fig.3.7

Fig 1.3.5 Artesian Spring

When the water-bearing stratum has too much hydraulic gradient and is closed between two
imperious stratum, the formation of artesian spring from deep seated spring

Fig 1.3. 6Artesian Spring

WELLS:
A well is defined as an artificial hole or pit made in the ground for the purpose of
tapping water.
The three factors which form the basis of theory of wells are
1. Geological conditions of the earth’s surface
2. Porosity of various layers
3. Quantity of water, which is absorbed and stored in different layers.

The following are different types of wells

1. Shallow wells
2. Deep wells
3. Tube wells
4. Artesian wells

(a) Shallow Wells :

Shallow wells are constructed in the uppermost layer of the earth’s surface.
The diameter of well varies from 2 to 6 m and a maximum depth of 7m.
Shallow wells may be lined or unlined from inside. Fig. 3.9 shows a shallow
well with lining (steining). These wells are also called draw wells or gravity
wells or open wells or drag wells or percolation wells.
Shallow Well

Quantity of water available from shallow wells is limited as their source of supply is
uppermost layer of earth only and sometimes may even dry up in summer. Hence they
are not suitable for public water supply schemes. The quantity of water obtained from
shallow wells is better than the river water but requires purification. The shallow
wells should be constructed away from septic tanks, soak pits etc. because of the
contamination of effluent. The shallow wells are used as the source of water supply
for small villages, undeveloped municipal towns, isolated buildings etc, because of
limited supply and bad quality of water.

(B) Deep Wells :

The Deep wells obtain their quota of water from an aquifer below the impervious
layer as shown in fig No. The theory of deep well is based on the travel of water from
the outcrop to the site of deep well. The outcrop is the place where aquifer is exposed
to the atmosphere. The rain water entered at outcrop and gets thoroughly purified
when it reaches to the site of deep well. But it dissolves certain salts and therefore
become hard. In such cases, some treatment would be necessary to remove the
hardness of water.

Fig 1.3.6 Deep Well

The depth of deep well should be decided in such a way that the location of out crop
is not very near to the site of well. The water available at a pressure greater
atmospheric pressure, therefore deep wells are also referred to as a pressure wells.

IMPORTANCE OF REPORT WRITING FOR A WATER PROJECT

1. Acquisition of land:
2. Initial capital
3. Population to be saved
4. Source of water supply
5. Quality of to be used
6. Quantity of water required
7. Drawing
8. Availability of local man power
9. Availability of local materials
10. Life span of the project

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN COMING UP WITH A WATER SUPPLY

SCHEME
1. Financial aspect: The data regarding the availability of the fund for the
fulfilment of the water supply scheme should be obtained in the initial stage.
 The scheme should then be adjusted in relation to the funds available. Every
step should be taken to make the scheme as economical as possible and to
take the maximum advantage of it.
2. Population: from the available census of previous years, the present
population should be determined and it is a normal practice to make the
scheme to accommodate population after 3 to 4 decades. The various units of
the scheme are accordingly designed and the probable population after 3 to 4
decades is decided by any suitable method. The failure to provide for future
expansion results in great hardship in future.
3. Quality of water: The quality of available water decides the line of treatment
of water. The more Clear water is, the less is the cost of its treatment. Hence,
the samples of available source of water should be taken and properly
analysed and the results of various tests should be thoroughly studied to
suggest an economical water supply scheme for the locality.
4. Rate of consumption: the demand of water depends on various uses such
as domestic, industrial, public, trade etc. the rate of consumption should be
decided by carefully considering all these possible uses. The rate, when
multiplied by the population, gives the total quantity of water required for the
water supply scheme.
5. Sanitary survey: the sanitary survey of the area surrounding the available
water source should be carefully carried out. Such a survey helps in
estimating the possible pollution or contamination of water sources from such
sauces. The sanitary survey includes the collection of information regarding
the likely sources pollution
6. Sources of water supply: it is quite clear that the success of a water supply
scheme entirely depends on a good of supply of water. The source should be
selected while keeping in view its adequate, quality of water and cheapness.
The present source of water supply should also be adjusted properly in the
new water supply scheme.
7. Topography of area: The topography map of the area to be served by the
scheme should be prepared and it should be studied in relation to the low
lying area, ridges, density of population, etc. The study is essential to involve
a simple but cheap water supply scheme.
8. Trend of town development: The trend of town development in future
should be predicted and properly adjusted in the water supply scheme. Such
trend may take various forms such as possibility of new industries, public
recreation centres, public institutions, residential blocks, etc.

Below are the factors that govern the selection of the water supply source.
1. Cost: The selection of a source of water supply should be such that the
overall cost of the water supply project is brought to a minimum.
2. Elevation: The source of water supply should (if possible) be at a higher level
so that it becomes possible to supply by gravity flow only. NOTE: If a water
 source is at a lower level, it will involve huge expenditure on the operational
and maintenance cost.
3. Location: The source whether surface or ground water should be situated as
near as possible to the town or city. Such a location will require less length of
pipes and few associated appurtenances (e.g. pumps and valves).
4. Quality of water: The source should contain water that is free from pollution
or other undesirable impurities capable of being easily and cheaply treated.
5. Quantity of water: The source should be able to supply enough quantity of
water to meet the demand of the town or city for various purposes (domestic,
industrial, fire fighting, etc.).
6. Desired use of water.
7. Available treatment technology and capacity

Parts of the water distribution

1. Trunk Distribution Main/ Raising Main: These are mains within the
distribution system and are intended to convey water in bulk from one part of
the distribution main to the other.
2. Secondary main: these provide the basic structure and are used to link the
service main with the service reservoir or with the trunk main
3. Service Main: these are laid with a prime purpose of caring water from the
secondary main to the smaller customer.
4. Service pipes: these are pipes that connect the customers plumbing with the
service reservoir
5. Service reservoir: These are meant for storage of water at suitable elevation
so that the supply can be properly maintained when demand is needed

WATER DEMANDS

2.1 VARIOUS TYPES OF WATER DEMANDS

While designing the water supply scheme for a town or city, it is necessary to
determine the total quantity of water required for various purposes by the city. As a
matter of fact the first duty of the engineer is to determine the water demand of the
town and then to find suitable water sources from where the demand can be met. But
as there are so many factors involved in demand of water, it is not possible to
accurately determine the actual demand. Certain empirical formulae and thumb rules
are employed in determining the water demand, which is very near to the actual
demand.

Following are the various types of water demands of a city or town:

i. Domestic water demand
ii. Industrial demand
iii. Institution and commercial demand
iv. Demand for public use
v. Fire demand
vi. Loses and wastes
2.1.1 DOMESTIC WATER DEMAND
The quantity of water required in the houses for drinking, bathing, cooking, washing
etc. is called domestic water demand and mainly depends upon the habits, social
status, climatic conditions and customs of the people. As per IS: 1172-1963, under
normal conditions, the domestic consumption of water in India is about 135
litres/day/capita. But in developed countries this figure may be 350 litres/day/capita
because of use of air coolers, air conditioners, maintenance of lawns, automatic
household appliances.

The details of the domestic consumption are

a) Drinking ------ 5 litres
b) Cooking ------ 5 litres
c) Bathing ------ 55 litres
d) Clothes washing ------ 20 litres
e) Utensils washing ------ 10 litres
f) House washing ------ 10 litres
--------------------------
135 litres/day/capita

2.1.2 INDUSTRIAL DEMAND

The water required in the industries mainly depends on the type of industries, which
are existing in the city. The water required by factories, paper mills, Cloth mills,
Cotton mills, Breweries, Sugar refineries etc. comes under industrial use. The quantity
of water demand for industrial purpose is around 20 to 25% of the total demand of the
city.

2.1.3 INSTITUTION AND COMMERCIAL DEMAND

Universities, Institution, commercial buildings and commercial centres including
office buildings, warehouses, stores, hotels, shopping centres, health centres, schools,
temple, cinema houses, railway and bus stations etc., comes under this category. As
per IS: 1172-1963, water supply requirements for the public buildings other than
residences as follows.

2.1.4 DEMAND FOR PUBLIC USE

Quantity of water required for public utility purposes such as for washing and
sprinkling on roads, cleaning of sewers, watering of public parks, gardens, public
fountains etc.,
comes under public demand. To meet the water demand for public use, provision of 5% of
the total consumption is made designing the water works for a city.

The requirements of water for public utility shall be taken as given in Table 2.2

2.1.5 FIRE DEMAND

Fire may take place due to faulty electric wires by short circuiting, fire catching
materials, explosions, bad intension of criminal people or any other unforeseen
mishappenings. If fires are not properly controlled and extinguished in minimum
possible time, they lead to serious damage and may burn cities. All the big cities have
full fire-fighting squads. As during the fire breakdown large quantity of water is
required for throwing it over the fire to extinguish it, therefore provision is made in
 the water work to supply sufficient quantity of water or keep as reserve in the water
mains for this purpose. In the cities fire hydrants are provided on the water mains at
100 to 150 m apart for fire demand. The quantity of water required for fire fighting is
generally calculated by using different empirical formulae.

2.1.6 LOSSES AND WASTES

All the water, which goes in the distribution, pipes does not reach the consumers.
The following are the reasons

1. Losses due to defective pipe joints, cracked and broken pipes, faulty valves and
fittings.
2. Losses due to, consumers keep open their taps of public taps even when they are
not using the water and allow the continuous wastage of water
3. Losses due to unauthorised and illegal connections While estimating the total
quantity of water of a town; allowance of 15% of total quantity of water is made to
compensate for losses, thefts and wastage of water

2.2 PER CAPITA DEMAND

If ‘Q’ is the total quantity of water required by various purposes by a town per year
and ‘p’ is population of town, then per capita demand will be
Q Per capita demand = ------------------ litres/day
P x 365
Per capita demand of the town depends on various factors like standard of living, no.
and type of commercial places in a town etc. For an average Indian town, the
requirement of water in various uses is as understanding
i. Domestic purpose -------- 135 litres/c/d
ii. Industrial use -------- 40 litres/c/d
iii. Public use -------- 25 litres/c/d
iv. Fire Demand -------- 15 litres/c/d
v. Losses, Wastage
and thefts -------- 55 litres/c/d
--------------------------
Total: 270 litres/capita/day

The total quantity of water required by the town per day shall be 270 multiplied with
the total population in litres/day.

2.3 FACTORS AFFECTING PER CAPITA DEMAND

The following are the main factors affecting for capita demand of the city or town.
a) Climatic conditions: The quantity of water required in hotter and dry places is
more than cold countries because of the use of air coolers, air conditioners, sprinkling
of water in lawns, gardens, courtyards, washing of rooms, more washing of clothes
and bathing etc. But in very cold countries sometimes the quantity of water required
may be more due to wastage, because at such places the people often keep their taps
open and water continuously flows for fear of freezing of water in the taps and use of
hot water for keeping the rooms warm.
b) Size of community: Water demand is more with increase of size for town because
more water is required in street washing, running of sewers, maintenance of parks and
gardens.
 c) Living standard of the people: The per capita demand of the town increases with
the standard of living of the people because of the use of air conditioners, room
coolers, maintenance of lawns, use of flush, latrines and automatic home appliances
etc.
d) Industrial and commercial activities: As the quantity of water required in certain
industries is much more than domestic demand, their presence in the town will
enormously increase per capita demand of the town. As a matter of the fact the water
required by the industries has no direct link with the population of the town.
e) Pressure in the distribution system: The rate of water consumption increase in
the pressure of the building and even with the required pressure at the farthest point,
the consumption of water will automatically increase. This increase in the quantity is
firstly due to use of water freely by the people as compared when they get it scarcely
and more water loss due to leakage, wastage and thefts etc.
f) System of sanitation: Per capita demand of the towns having water carriage
system will be more than the town where this system is not being used.
g) Cost of water: The cost of water directly affects its demand. If the cost of water is
more, less quantity of water will be used by the people as compared when the cost is
low.

2.4 VARIATIONS IN DEMAND

The per capita demand of town is the average consumption of water for a year. In
practice it has been seen that this demand does not remain uniform throughout the
year but it various from season to season, even hour to hour.

2.4.1 SEASONAL VARIATIONS

The water demand varies from season to season. In summer the water demand is
maximum, because the people will use more water in bathing, cooling, lawn watering
and street sprinkling. This demand will becomes minimum in winter because less
water will be used in bathing and there will be no lawn watering. The variations may
be up to 15% of the average demand of the year.

2.4.2 DAILY VARIATIONS

This variation depends on the general habits of people, climatic conditions and
character of city as industrial, commercial or residential. More water demand will be
on Sundays and holidays due to more comfortable bathing, washing etc. as compared
to other working days. The maximum daily consumption is usually taken as 180% of
the average consumption.

2.4.3 HOURLY VARIATIONS

On Sundays and other holidays the peak hours may be about 8 A.M. due to late
awakening where as it may be 6 A.M. to 10 A.M. and 4 P.M. to 8 P.M. and minimum
flow may be between 12P.M. to 4P.M. when most of the people are sleeping. But in
highly industrial city where both day and night shifts are working, the consumption in
night may be more. The maximum consumption may be rise up to 200% that of
average daily demand. The determination of these hourly variations is most necessary,
because on its basis the rate of pumping will be adjusted to meet up the demand in all
hours.
 2.5 DESIGN PERIOD
The complete water supply project includes huge and costly constructions such as
dams, reservoirs, treatment works and network of distribution pipelines. These all
works cannot be replaced easily or capacities increased conveniently for future
expansions. While designing and constructing these works, they should have
sufficient capacity to meet future demand of the town for number of years. The
number of years for which the designs of the water works have been done is known as
design period. Mostly water works are designed for design period of 22-30 years,
which is fairly good period.

2.6 TOTAL REQUIREMENT OF WATER FOR A TOWN OR A CITY

Total quantity of water required by a town or a city per day shall be 270 multiplied
with the total population in litres/day.

RECORDING METEOROLOGICAL DATA

Meteorology is the study of the atmosphere, atmospheric phenomena, and
atmospheric effects on our weather. The atmosphere is the gaseous layer of the
physical environment that surrounds a planet.

Four types of Meteorology can be distinguished:

1. Dynamic Meteorology: A branch of physics dealing with qualitative

relation between various atmospheric phenomena
2. Micro Meteorology: A subdivision of the dynamic meteorology
dealing with the atmospheric layers closes to the earth’s surface and
influences it.

3. Climatology: Deals with the statistical interpretation of long period

past weather records in order to find averages, trends with time and local
features of the weather.

4. Synoptic Meteorology: This is the description of actual weather maps or

diagrams, which can be analysed to produce a weather forecast

IMPORTANCE OF METEOROLOGY IN WATER ENGINEERING

Definition: this is the study of the atmosphere, atmospheric phenomena and
atmospheric effects on our weather. The wind, water vapour, air pressure and
temperature changes are all studied to help make weather predictions.

Meteorology is a very important subject in the water engineering

1. You need to have the records of the rainfall pattern in a catchment
area of the basin
 2. In order to come up with a long term environmental policy or
strategy
3. In order to prepare readiness for future weather disasters
4. So that we prepare adequate water for different water demands

METEOROLOGICAL TERMINOLOGIES
1. Atmosphere:
a. Weather: the state of the atmosphere at a particular place and time as regards heat,
cloudiness, dryness, sunshine, wind, rain, etc.
b. Temperature: the degree or intensity of heat present in a substance or object, expressed
according to a comparative scale and shown by a thermometer or perceived by touch.
c. Rainfall :this is liquid water in form of droplets that have condensed from the atmospheric
water vapour and become heavy enough to fall to the surface of the earth
d. Climate: this is the average weather In a place over many years while the weather can
change within the shortest period of time.

3.4 INTAKES FOR COLLECTING SURFACE WATER:

The main function of the intakes works is to collect water from the surface source and then
discharge water so collected, by means of pumps or directly to the treatment water. Intakes
are structures which essentially consist of opening, grating or strainer through which the raw
water from river, canal or reservoir enters and carried to the sump well by means of conducts
water from the sump well is pumped through the rising mains to the treatment plant. The
following points should be kept in mind while selecting a site for intake works.

1. Where the best quality of water available so that water is purified economically in less
time.
2. At site there should not be heavy current of water, which may damage the intake structure.
3. The intake can draw sufficient quantity of water even in the worst condition, when the
discharge of the source is minimum.
4. The site of the work should be easily approachable without any obstruction
5. The site should not be located in navigation channels
6. As per as possible the intake should be near the treatment plant so that conveyance cost is
reduced from source to the water works
7. As per as possible the intake should not be located in the vicinity of the point of sewage
disposal for avoiding the pollution of water.
8. At the site sufficient quantity should be available for the future expansion of the water-
works.

Types of Intake structures:

Depending upon the source of water the intake works are classified as following
1. Lake Intake
2. Reservoir Intake
3. River Intake

1. LAKE INTAKE:

For obtaining water from lakes mostly submersible intakes are used. These intakes are
constructed in the bed of the lake below the water level; so as to draw water in dry
season also. These intakes have so many advantages such as no obstruction to the
navigation, no danger from the floating bodies and no trouble due to ice. As these
intakes draw small quantity of water, these are not used in big water supply schemes
or on rivers or reservoirs. The main reason being that they are not easily approachable
for maintenance.

Fig 3.11 Lake Intake

2. RIVER INTAKE:

Fig. 3.12 River Intake

Water from the rivers is always drawn from the upstream side, because it is free from the
contamination caused by the disposal of sewage in it. It is circular masonry tower of 4 to 7 m
in diameter constructed along the bank of the river at such place from where required
quantity of water can be obtained even in the dry period. The water enters in the lower
portion of the intake known as sump well from penstocks.

RESERVOIR INTAKE

Fig 3.13 shows the details of reservoir intake. It consists of an intake well, which is
placed near the dam and connected to the top of dam by Foot Bridge.

Fig. 3.13 Reservoir Intake

The intake pipes are located at different levels with common vertical pipe. The valves of
intake pipes are operated from the top and they are installed in a valve room. Each intake pipe
is provided with bell mouth entry with perforations of fine screen on its surface. The outlet
pipe is taken out through the body of dam. The outlet pipe should be suitably supported. The
location of intake pipes at different levels ensures supply of water from a level lower than the
surface level of water. When the valve of an intake pipe is opened the water is drawn off
from the reservoir to the outlet pipe through the common vertical pipe. To reach up to the
bottom of intake from the floor of valve room, the steps should be provided in Zigzag
manner.

TREATMENT PLANT

The water treatment plant is a setup of a series of process where water is meant to be purified
from.

THE LAYOUT OT THE WATER TREATMENT PLANT

 The water from the source to the law water tank moves by gravity
 The ball float valve in the raw water tank allows in flow and out flow of water
 The low lift pump house is used to pump water from the raw water tank to treatment
plant. The pump used has impeller that allows water with silt, sand other residues. It
drives water from the tank to the treatment plant at a low height.
SUMMARY
1. Sources of water supply are classified as
a) Surface sources
b) Sub surface sources
2. Surface sources include rainfall, lakes, ponds, rivers and reservoirs etc.
3. Subsurface sources are wells, springs, infiltration galleries
4. Surface water is withdrawn by constructing intake structure
5. Intake structures are classified as
a) Lake Intake
b) Reservoir intake
c) River intake

6. Wells are classified as

a) Shallow wells
b) Deep wells
7. Deep wells get their supply from more than one water bearing stratum
8. Infiltration galleries are constructed below the river bed to draw water during non mansoon
season.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

1. What is hydrological cycle?
2. List the sources of water supply.
3. Mention different types of intakes.
4. What is shallow well?
5. What is infiltration gallery?
6. Define spring.
7. What are the different types of springs?
8. Name the types of wells.
9. Define deep well.
10. What is precipitation?
11. What is the purpose of intake structure?
ESSAY TYPE QUESTIONS
1. Explain the sources of water.
2. Explain the classification of wells.
3. What are points should be kept in mind while selecting a site for intake structure?
4. Explain any one of intake structure with neat sketch.