1 MODULE 1

1.1 Sources of Water

1.1.1 Rainwater Harvesting:

Rainwater harvesting is the process of collecting and storing rainwater for later use, instead
of letting it run off. It is one of the simplest and most effective methods to conserve water,
especially in areas facing water shortages.
Sources of Rainwater:
 Rooftops of buildings
 Open grounds or paved areas
Collection Method:
 Rainwater is collected from rooftops through pipes (gutters) and directed into a
storage tank or underground recharge pit.
 Before storing, the water is passed through filters to remove dirt and debris.
1.1.2 Surface Sources:
Sources of water that are available at the ground surface is called surface source. It includes
river, streams, lakes, ponds, impounded reservoir.
Surface water contains organic debris, suspended materials, herbicides and pesticides,
domestic and industrial wastes. On reaching to the impounded reservoir the suspended
material settles and the water improve in turbidity. Organisms can oxidize material and give
rise to colour, taste, and odour.
1.1.2.1 River
A river is a natural channel which carries surface runoff received by it from its catchment or
drainage basin. The river may be perennial as well as non-perennial. Perennial rivers are
those rivers in which water are available throughout the year. The water in such rivers is due
to rains in the rainy season and by melting of snow during the summer season. Non-perennial
rivers are those rivers in which water are not available throughout the year.
The quality of water is better at the place of origin i.e. mountainous region and goes on
degrading as it moves forward as it gets contaminated with organisms, suspended materials,
clay, silt, etc.
1.1.2.2 Streams
Streams are defined as the natural drainage channel. They are found in the mountainous
region. The quantity of water from the stream is less as compared to the river due to its small
catchment. Perennial streams are snow fed and non-perennial streams are fed from surface
runoff. It acts as a water source in villages of hilly areas.
1.1.2.3 Lakes:
A large natural depression formed in the earth’s surface where water gets deposited is called
the lake. It is also generally found in the mountainous region. The quantity of water available
from lake depends upon the following factors:
 Size of the lake
 Catchment area of the lake
 Annual rainfall
 Porosity of the ground surface
 Geological formations
1.1.2.4 Ponds
Ponds are artificially made the body of standing water. These are smaller than lakes in size.
The water from pond cannot be used for water supply purposes. They are used for bathing,
washing of clothes.
1.1.2.5 Impounded Reservoir
For large cities, a single source cannot fulfil the demand of the growing population. The
water may not be available throughout the year in adequate amount. So a dam is constructed
across the river to form a reservoir where water is stored and can be used when there is a
limited supply of water from the source. Such constructed reservoir are said to be impounded
reservoirs. These are used for water supply scheme in large cities and towns. The water from
impounded reservoir is improved in turbidity.
1.1.2.6 Diversion works
Diversion works, specifically diversion headworks, are structures built across rivers to raise
the water level and divert water into canals for irrigation or other uses. They play a crucial
role in regulating water supply and managing sediment flow
1.1.3 Ground Sources:
Those sources of water that exist below the ground surface is called ground water sources.
The ground water may be contaminated with polluted water from agricultural fields, high
mineral content, iron, and sulphur, calcium and magnesium.
 Springs
 Wells
 Infiltration galleries
 Infiltration wells
1.1.3.1 Springs:
A place where ground water naturally comes to the surface at the intersection of the ground
surface and the water table is called spring.
1.1.3.2 Wells:
Wells are holes or shaft, usually vertically excavated for bringing ground water to the surface.
Wells are classified as:
 Open wells/Dug wells
 Tube wells
Open wells can be further classified as:
1.1.3.3  Shallow wells:
Shallow wells are those wells that rest in top water bearing strata and draw their supplies
from surrounding materials. There is more chance of contamination in shallow wells. The
yield from shallow wells is less and the water from such wells are adequately available for a
single family.
1.1.3.4  Deep wells:
Deep wells go deep underground and pass through a hard, waterproof layer (called
impervious strata) to reach water stored in layers below it. These wells usually give clean
water with less chance of contamination. However, the water may contain more minerals.
Deep wells give a good amount of water and are suitable for supplying water to a whole
community.
1.1.3.5 2. Tube Wells:
It is a long pipe sunk into the ground intercepting one or more water-bearing stratum. The
diameters are much less as compared to open wells. Classified as:
 a. Shallow tube wells – Max 30 m
 b. Deep tube wells. - Max 600 m
1.1.3.6 Infiltration Galleries
Infiltration galleries are also known as horizontal wells. Groundwater moving towards, river,
stream, and lakes is intercepted and collected. They are located near the perennial recharge
sources. The depth of placement is 3-10 meters below the ground surface. When the ground
water is available in small quantity infiltration pipes are used. These are horizontal pipes with
perforations all around its surface laid in place of the rectangular tunnel. The perforations are
covered with gravel to prevent entry of fine sand particles
1.1.4 Water from Reclamation:
Reclamation means reusing or recovering water through different methods to make it useful
again. The main sources are:
Desalination:
This process removes salt and other minerals from seawater to make it drinkable. It is useful
in coastal and dry regions with limited freshwater.
Treated Wastewater:
Used water from homes, industries, etc., is cleaned in treatment plants and reused for
gardening, agriculture, flushing, and sometimes even for drinking after advanced treatment.
1.2 Selection of water sources:
The selection of water sources depends upon the following factors:
1.2.1 Location:
The water source must be near the community. This enables the reduction in cost for pipes as
shorter pipes can be used. The location of the water source should be such that the water is
supplied to the consumers through gravity rather than pumping which decreases the overall
system cost.
1.2.2 Quantity of water:
The source must be selected such that it is able to fulfil the demand of consumers even during
the driest period. The domestic, industrial, commercial, livestock, public and fire demand
need to be fulfilled.
1.2.3 Quality of water:
The source should supply potable water to the consumer which is suitable for drinking. The
treatment of water should be avoided as far as possible so as to reduce the system cost.
1.2.4 Continuity and Reliability:
The source must be selected such that it is able to supply water continuously to the consumers
and the source needs to be reliable as well.
1.2.5 Cost:
The cost of water supply scheme should be taken into consideration during the selection of
source. The cost should be minimized as far as possible so as to supply water to the
consumers at the affordable price
1.3 Hydrological Cycle
The hydrological cycle (or water cycle) is the continuous movement of water within the Earth
and atmosphere. It is a natural cycle that includes processes like evaporation, transpiration,
condensation, precipitation, and run-off. This cycle maintains the balance of water on Earth
and plays a key role in climate regulation and ecosystem support.
1.3.1 Key Steps in the Hydrological Cycle:
1. Evaporation – Water from oceans, lakes, and rivers turns into water vapor due to the
heat of the sun.
2. Transpiration – Plants lose water through small pores in their leaves (stomata),
which also adds water vapor to the air.
3. Condensation – Water vapor cools and turns into clouds.
4. Precipitation – When the water droplets in clouds grow heavy, they fall back to Earth
as rain, snow, sleet, or hail.
5. Run-off – Water flows over land or underground to reach rivers, lakes, or oceans.
 Precipitation (P) = Evaporation (E) + Run-off (R)

This shows that the total rainfall is equal to the sum of water evaporated back into the
atmosphere and the water that runs off to surface or underground bodies.
1.3.2 Evaporation & Transpiration (E)
1.3.2.1 Evaporation:
 Water from oceans, lakes, rivers, soil, and other surfaces evaporates due to the sun’s
heat.
 This water turns into vapor and rises into the atmosphere.
1.3.2.2 Transpiration:
 Plants absorb water from the soil and release it into the atmosphere through their
leaves.
 This process happens through small pores called stomata.
1.3.2.3 Types of Evaporation (Total E):
1. Surface Evaporation – From land surfaces like soil or rocks.
2. Water Surface Evaporation
o (a) From river surfaces
o (b) From oceans
3. Transpiration – From plants and trees.
4. Atmospheric Evaporation – Moisture directly from the atmosphere.
Together, evaporation and transpiration are called evapotranspiration.
1.3.3 Precipitation (P)
Precipitation is the fall of water from the atmosphere to the Earth’s surface in any form.
1.3.3.1 Types of Precipitation
1. Liquid Precipitation
 Rainfall – Most common form, occurs when water droplets in clouds combine and
fall.
2. Frozen Precipitation
 Snow – Ice crystals that fall when temperatures are below freezing.
 Hail – Hard balls or lumps of ice.
 Sleet – Rain that freezes before hitting the ground.
 Freezing Rain – Rain that freezes upon contact with cold surfaces.
Precipitation is the main input of water into the Earth’s system and starts the water cycle
again.
1.3.4 Run-off (R)
Run-off is the portion of precipitation that does not evaporate or get absorbed into the ground
but instead flows over or under the ground.
1.3.4.1 Types of Run-off:
1. Surface Run-off
o Water flows over the land and enters rivers, lakes, or oceans.
o Causes flooding during heavy rainfall.
2. Interflow / Subsurface Run-off
o Water moves through the upper soil layers to streams and rivers.
3. Groundwater Flow / Base Flow
o Water seeps deep into the groundwater aquifers and moves slowly to join
water bodies.
o Keeps rivers flowing even during dry seasons.
Run-off is an important part of the hydrologic balance, helps recharge groundwater, and is
also responsible for soil erosion if not managed.
1.4 Water Demand
Estimation of demand for water is the key parameter in planning a water supply scheme. The
agriculture sector consumes more than 80 percent of total water potential created in our
country. The remaining portion is utilized to meet domestic, industrial and other demands.
The improvement in life-style and associated industrial development of a nation push up the
per capita demand for water.
1.4.1 Various Types of Water Demand
1.4.1.1 Domestic Water Demand
 The total domestic water consumption usually amounts to 50 to 60% of the total
water consumption.
 The I.S. Code lays down a limit of water consumption between 135 to 225 litre per
capita per day (lpcd).
 Under ordinary conditions (as per I.S. code) the minimum domestic water demand for
a town or a city with full flushing system should be taken at 200 lpcd. Although it can
be reduced to 135 lpcd for economically weaker sections and LIG colonies (Low
Income Group) depending upon prevailing conditions.
1.4.1.2 Industrial Water Demand
 The industrial water demand represents the water demand of industries which are
either existing or likely to be started in future, in the city for which water supply is
being planned.
  This quantity varies with the number and types of industries present in the city. This
consumption, under ordinary conditions is 50 lpcd.

Water Required by Certain Important Industries

Name of Unit of Approximate Quantity of Water required per unit of

Industry Production production/raw material in kilo litres

1. Automobiles Vehicle 40

2. Fertilizers Tonne 80 - 200

Tonne (or 1000

3. Leather 40 (or 4*)
kg)

4. Paper Tonne 200 - 400

5. Petroleum
Tonne (Crude) 1-2
Refinery

Tonne (Crushed
6. Sugar 1-2
cane)

7. Textile Tonne (goods) 80 - 140

8. Distillery
kilo litre 122 - 170
(Alcohol)

1.4.1.3 Institutional and Commercial Water Demand

 The water requirements of institutions such as hospitals, hotels, restaurants, schools
and colleges, railway station etc. should also be assessed and provided for in addition
to domestic and industrial water demands discussed above.
 On an average, a per capita demand of 20 lpcd is usually considered to be enough to
meet such commercial and institutional water requirements. Although this demand
may be as high as 50 lpcd for highly commercialized cities.
Water demand for certain commercial establishments:
(i) Offices – 45 lpcd
(ii) Schools – 45 to 135 lpcd
(iii) Hostels – 135 lpcd
(iv) Hotels – 180 lpcd
(v) Hospitals – 450 lpcd
(vi) Cinema halls – 15 lpcd
1.4.1.4 Demand for Public Uses
 This includes water requirement for parks, gardening, washing of roads etc. On this
account a nominal amount not exceeding 5% of the total consumption may be
provided.
1.4.1.5 Fire Demand
 The quantity of water required for extinguishing fire is not very large, the total
amount of water consumption for a city of 50 lakh population hardly amounts to 1
lpcd. But this water should be easily available and kept always stored in storage
reservoirs.
 Three jet streams are simultaneously thrown from each hydrant: one on the burning
property, and one each on adjacent property on either sides of the burning property.
The discharge of each stream should be about 1100 litres/minute.
 The minimum water pressure available at fire hydrants should be of the order of 1 to
1.5 kg/cm² and should be maintained even after 4 to 5 hours of constant use of fire
hydrant.
 Rate of fire demand is worked out by following formulas:

1.4.1.6 Water Demand for Losses & Theft

This may be as high as 15% of total demand.
1.5 Per Capita Demand (q)
It is the annual average amount of daily water required by one person and includes the
domestic use, industrial and commercial use, public use, wastes, thefts etc.
1.5.1 Factors Affecting Water Demand or Per Capita Demand
Total water demand is affected by the following factors:
1.5.1.1 1. Size of the City
Demand increases with size of city.
Variation in Per Capita Demand (q) with population in India:

S. No. Population Per Capita Demand in Liters/day/Person

1. Less than 20000 110

2. 20000 - 50000 110 - 150

3. 50000 - 2 Lakhs 150 - 240

4. 2 Lakhs - 5 Lakhs 240 - 275

5. 5 Lakhs - 10 Lakhs 275 - 335

6. Over 10 Lakhs 335 - 360

 Above figures can have variation up to 25%

 I.S. code permits maximum value of 335 lpcd for Indian condition.
1.5.1.2 Climatic Conditions
At hotter and dry places, the consumption of water is generally more, because more for
bathing, clearing, air-coolers, air-conditioning etc. are involved. Similarly, in extremely cold
countries, more water may be consumed, because the people may keep their taps open to
avoid freezing of pipes and there may be more leakage from pipe joints since metals contract
with cold.
1.5.1.3 Types of Gentry and Habits of People
Rich and upper class communities generally consume more water due to their affluent living
standards.
1.5.1.4 Industrial and Commercial Activities
The pressure of industrial and commercial activities at a particular place increase the water
consumption by large amount.
1.5.1.5 Quality of Water Supplies
If the quality and taste of the supplied water is good, it will be consumed more, because in
that case, people will not use other sources such as private wells, hand pumps, etc. Similarly,
certain industries such as boiler feeds, etc., which require standard quality waters will not
develop their own supplies and will use public supplies, provided the supplied water is up to
their required standards.
1.5.1.6 Pressure in the Distribution Systems
If the pressure in the distribution pipes is high and sufficient to make the water reach at 3rd or
even 4th storage, water consumption shall be definitely more.
This water consumption increases because of two reasons:
(i) People living in upper storage will use water freely as compared to the case when water is
available scarcely to them.
(ii) The losses and that waste due to leakage are considerably increased if the pressure is high.
For example, if the pressure increase from 20 m head of water (i.e. 200 kN/m²) to 30 m head
of water (i.e. 300 kN/m²), the losses may go up by 20 to 30 percent.
1.5.1.7 Development of Sewerage Facilities
The water consumption will be more, if the city is provided with ‘flush system’ and shall be
less if the old ‘conservation system’ of latrines is adopted.
1.5.1.8 System of Supply
Water may be supplied either continuously for all 24 hours of the day, or may be supplied
only for a short period during morning and evening. The second system, i.e. intermittent
supplies, may lead to some saving in water consumption due to losses occurring for lesser
time and a more vigilant use of water by the consumers.
1.5.1.9 Cost of Water
If the water rates are high, lesser quantity may be consumed by the people. This may not lead
to large savings as the affluent and rich people are little affected by such policies.
1.5.1.10 Policy of Metering and Method of Charging
When the supplies are metered, people use only that much of water as much is required by
them. Although metered supplies are preferred because of lesser wastage, they generally lead
to lesser water consumption by poor and low income group, leading to unhygienic conditions.
1.5.2 Variation in the Demand
Smaller towns have more variation in the demand. The shorter the period of draft, the greater
is the departure from the mean.
1.5.2.1 Maximum Daily Consumption:
 Maximum daily consumption = 1.8 × Avg. daily consumption = 1.8 q
1.5.2.2 Maximum Hourly Consumption:
 This is taken as 150% of its average.
 Maximum hourly consumption of maximum daily:

1.5.2.3 Maximum Weekly Demand:

 Maximum weekly consumption = 1.48 × Avg. weekly = 2.7 (Annual average hourly
demand)
1.5.2.4 Maximum Monthly Demand:
 Maximum monthly consumption = 1.28 × Avg. monthly
1.5.2.5 Coincident Draft
For general community purposes, the total draft is not taken as the sum of maximum hourly
demand and fire-demand, but is taken as the sum of maximum daily demand and fire demand
or the maximum hourly demand, whichever is more. The maximum daily demand when
added to the fire demand is known as the ‘coincident draft’.
1.6 Characteristics of Water

1.6.1 Physical Characteristics

Physical analysis of water is carried out in order to determine the physical characteristics of
water. This includes tests for determining turbidity, colour, taste or odour, temperature,
specific conductivity, etc. These tests are described below:
1.6.1.1 Turbidity.
If a large amount of suspended matter such as clay, silt or some other finely divided organic
materials are present in water, it will appear to be muddy or cloudy or turbid in appearance.
The turbidity depends upon the finesse and concentration of particles present in water.
The turbidity is measured by a turbidity rod or by a turbidimeter with optical observations,
and is expressed as the amount of suspended matter in mg/l or ppm.
The standard unit is that which is produced by 1 milligram of finely divided silica in 1 litre
of distilled water. A turbidity in excess of 5 units is easily detectable in a glass of water, and
is thus, usually objectionable.
1.6.1.2 Colour
Dissolved organic matter from decaying vegetation or some inorganic materials, such as
coloured soils, etc., may impart colour to the water. The presence of colour in water is not
objectionable from health point of view, but may spoil the colour of the clothes being washed
in such waters, and is also objectionable from aesthetic and psychological point of view, as
people may not like to drink coloured water.
The colour in water can be easily detected by the naked eye. It can be measured by
comparing the colour of water sample with other standard glass tubes (called Nessler tubes)
containing solutions of different standard colour intensities. The standard unit of colour is
that which is produced by one milligram of platinum dissolved as one litre of distilled water.
For precise determination of small colour intensities, compact instrument properly lighted
from inside, called a tintometer, is generally used
For public supplies, the colour number on cobalt scale should not exceed 20, and should
preferably be less than 10
1.6.1.3 Tastes and Odours
The dissolved organic materials or the inorganic salts, or the dissolved gases may impart
tastes and odours to the water, which generally occur together. Taste and odour may be
caused by the presence of:
Dissolved gases such as H₂S, CH₄, CO₂, O₂, etc., combined with organic matter;
Mineral substances like NaCl, iron compounds, carbonates and sulphates of other elements;
and
Phenols and other tarry or oily matter, especially after chlorination.
The extent of taste or odour present in a particular sample of water is measured by a term
called odour intensity, which is related with the threshold odour number. The threshold odour
number, as it is expressed, is the number of times the sample is diluted, to just make the
odour disappear. Water to be tested is, therefore, gradually diluted with odour-free distilled
water in different proportions, and the odour is measured with the help of the odour intensity
scale.
  TON = (Volume of sample + Volume of odor-free water) / Volume of sample
. The threshold odour number should be 1 and should never exceed 3.
1.6.1.4 Temperature
Testing the temperature of water has usually no practical significance in the sense that it is
not usually possible to give any treatment to control the temperature of water.
For potable waters, temperatures of about 10°C are highly desirable, while temperatures
above 25°C are considered objectionable.
1.6.1.5 Specific conductivity of water

Electrical conductivity of water is a measure of water’s ability to conduct electricity. Pure

water is a poor conductor of electricity; but it shows significant conductivity when ions of
dissolved salts are present in it. The electrical conductivity, called the specific conductivity or
the specific conductance of water, therefore, approximately measures the number of ions*
present in water, and hence approximately measures the total dissolved solids in water. The
elements whose ionic forms contribute to these measures include Calcium (Ca ⁺⁺),
Magnesium (Mg⁺⁺), Potassium (K⁺), Bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻), Sulphate (SO₄ ⁻⁻) and Chloride
(Cl⁻), etc. The higher is the concentration of such ionic (dissolved) constituents, the higher
will be the conductivity.
The specific conductivity of water is measured by a portable knudsen tester (fountain pen or
ball pen size), called a conductivity sensor. It is hence expressed in units of mhos per
centimetre. (mhos is the unit of conductivity and equals 1 ampere/1 volt). This unit has been
renamed by ISO (International Standards Organization) as Siemen (1 mhos = 1 Siemen).
1.6.2 Chemical Characteristics
1.6.2.1 Total Solids

Total solids are dissolved solids plus suspended and settleable solids in water. In stream
water, dissolved solids consist of calcium, chlorides, nitrate, phosphorus, iron, sulfur, and
other ions particles that will pass through a filter with pores of around 2 microns (0.002 cm)
in size. Suspended solids include silt and clay particles, plankton, algae, fine organic debris,
and other particulate matter. Total solids are broadly classified into dissolved solids (which
pass through a standard filter) and suspended solids (which are retained on the filter).
The measurement of dissolved and suspended solids involves a simple filtration and
evaporation process. First, a known volume of the water sample is passed through a standard
filter paper (typically 2.0-micron pore size). The residue left on the filter is collected, dried,
and weighed to determine the suspended solids. The filtered water (filtrate), which contains
the dissolved solids, is then evaporated in a pre-weighed dish and dried at around 180°C. The
residue left behind after evaporation is weighed to find the amount of dissolved solids. These
values are usually expressed in mg/L (milligrams per litre).
1.6.2.2
pH
Water pH measures the concentration of hydrogen ions ( H⁺ ) in water, indicating how acidic
or alkaline it is. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14:
  Acidic water : pH below 7, with a higher ion concentration of hydrogen.
 Neutral water : pH of 7, where hydrogen and hydroxide ( OH⁻ ) ions are balanced.
 Alkaline water : pH above 7, where hydroxide ions outnumber hydrogen ions.
This scale is logarithmic, meaning a one-unit change in pH represents a tenfold difference in
hydrogen ion concentration. For example, water with a pH of 6 is ten times more acidic than
water with a pH of 7.
Determining water pH involves precise measurements using specialized tools:
 pH meters : Highly accurate electronic devices commonly used in laboratories and
industrial environments.
 Litmus paper : A simple method for quick testing, but less precise.
 Chemical kits : Suitable for field use, providing approximate pH values.
pH = -log[H+]
Water has a neutral pH of 7, which indicates that it is neither acidic or basic.
The scale ranges from 0 (very acidic) to 14 (very basic).
It is normal for water to have a range of between 6.5 and 8.5 on the scale
1.6.2.3 Hardness
Hardness of water refers to the concentration of multivalent metal cations, primarily calcium
(Ca²⁺) and magnesium (Mg²⁺) ions, present in the water. These ions react with soap to form
an insoluble scum, reducing its lathering ability, which is why hard water is considered
unsuitable for washing and bathing. Hardness also causes scaling in pipes, boilers, and
industrial equipment, leading to maintenance issues. Hardness is broadly classified into
temporary hardness (Carbonate Hardness), caused by bicarbonates of calcium and
magnesium, and permanent hardness, (Non-Carbonate Hardness), due to chlorides, sulphates,
and nitrates of these metals. Temporary hardness can be removed by boiling the water, while
permanent hardness requires chemical treatment like ion exchange or lime-soda softening.
Hardness is measured in terms of mg/L as CaCO₃ (calcium carbonate equivalent),
Total Hardness (TH)=CH+NCH
The hardness of water is commonly measured by a titration method using
ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) as the titrant. A known volume of the water sample
is titrated with a standard EDTA solution in the presence of an indicator, usually Eriochrome
Black T, which forms a wine-red complex with calcium and magnesium ions
1.6.2.4 Chloride
Chloride is generally present in natural water in the form of sodium chloride (NaCl). It is one
of the common ions found in water and can come from various sources such as industrial
waste, sewage, and saline water intrusion. For drinking water, the acceptable limit for
chloride content is 250 mg/L, beyond which the water may begin to taste salty and could
potentially corrode pipes. The measurement of chloride is commonly carried out using
Mohr’s method, which is an argentometric titration technique. In this method, the water
sample is titrated with silver nitrate (AgNO₃) solution using potassium chromate as an
indicator. The endpoint is indicated by the formation of a reddish-brown precipitate of silver
chromate.
1.6.2.5 Nitrogen Content
The presence of nitrogen is an indication of the presence of organic matter and may occur in
following forms,
The free ammonia or ammonia nitrogen indicates the very first stage of decomposition of
organic matter and consequent release of free ammonia (including recent pollution);
albuminoid or organic nitrogen indicates the quantity of nitrogen present in water in the form
of undecomposed organic matter (mainly in the form of proteins and amino acids) which on
digestion will release ammonia; the nitrites indicate the presence of partly decomposed (not
fully oxidised)organic matter in water; and nitrates indicate the presence of fully oxidized
organic matter in water (thus representing old pollution).
The presence of free ammonia in water suggests the start of decomposition of organic matter
in animals; and for potable waters, its value should not exceed 0.15 mg/l. It can be easily
measured by simply boiling the water and measuring the liberated ammonia gas, by
distillation process.
The presence of organic nitrogen in water also indicates pollution and presence of
undecomposed organic matter. For potable waters, it should not exceed a value of about 0.3
mg/l. It can be measured by digestion of the sample by acid and measuring the released
ammonia gas.