CHAPTER 2
SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY
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SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY
Source of drinking water is untreated water from:
Surface sources: including rain, rivers, lakes, streams, ponds
and reservoirs
Ground water sources: underground aquifers that are usually
pumped to the surface through wells.
The source of water supply commonly determines the nature of
collection, purification, transmission and distribution works.
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SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY
1. Surface Water Sources:
Natural input to any surface water system is precipitation within its
watershed.
The total quantity of water in that system at any given time is
dependent on many factors. These factors include storage capacity, the
permeability of the soil beneath these storage bodies, the runoff
characteristics of the land in the watershed, the timing of the
precipitation and local evaporation rates.
Human activities can have a large and sometimes devastating impact
on these factors.
Humans often increase storage capacity by constructing reservoirs and 3
decrease it by draining wetlands.
SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY
1. Surface Water Sources - Rain:
Rain is the principal source of all water sources.
Rainwater contains large amounts of impurities, the quantity of
which is maximum in the first rains and minimum in the last
rains of the season.
The quality of rainwater falling on the open land (undisturbed
environment) or fields is better than that falling on the cities or
towns.
Rainwater is soft water but flat to the taste and corrosive in
nature.
Rain is rarely an immediate source of municipal water supplies.
Roofs are mostly obvious choices as catchments for rainwater
harvesting and tanks located near or close to homes increase the 4
convenience of this system.
SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY The hydrologic Cycle
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SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY
Roof water harvesting system (RWHS):
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SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY
1. Surface Water Sources - Rain:
Advantages of Rain water collection system:
The quality of rainwater is high,
Local materials and craftsmanship can be used in rain water
system construction,
No energy costs are needed to run the system,
Ease of maintenance by the owner or user,
Convenience and acceptability of water, and
Valuable time is saved in collecting water.
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SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY
1. Surface Water Sources - Rain:
Disadvantages of Rain water collection system:
The high initial capital cost may prevent a family from buying
the system
The water available is limited by rainfall amount, duration and
roof area. For long dry seasons, the required storage volume
may be too high
Mineral free water has a flat taste which people may prefer
the taste of mineral rich water.
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SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY
1. Surface Water Sources – River Water:
A stream or river is a body of running water on the surface of the
earth, from higher to lower ground.
Rivers are the only surface sources of water from which maximum
quantity of water can be easily taken.
Mostly cities, which are situated near rivers, discharge their used
water or sewage in the rivers,
Streams generally exhibit marked seasonal variation in flow and
they are susceptible to contamination.
Physical and bacteriological qualities are highly variable. 9
SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY
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SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY
1. Surface Water Sources – Lakes/Reservoirs:
In mountainous regions natural basins are formed with impervious
beds. Water from springs and streams generally flows towards these
‘basins’ and ‘Lakes’ are formed.
The quantity of water in the lakes depends on its basin capacity,
catchments area, annual rainfall, porosity of the ground, etc.
Lakes, whenever they are abundant or large, play a major role in
local water balances.
Large lakes are immense heat reservoirs, helping to cool the
surrounding area in summer and to warm it in winter.
It is a standing water and hence the quality is very low: (turbidity, 11
bacteria and pollutants)
SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY
1. Surface Water Sources – Sea Water:
The second largest water body on earth.
Sea water on average contains about 3.5% salts.
In most of the harbours situated on the coastal areas (bank of
sea), water is required to be brought from very long distances,
which increase the cost of water enormously.
When there is no other source of water, sea water can be used
after desalinized [process of removing extra sodium chloride
from the water]
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SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY
2. Ground Water Sources:
Ground water is commonly understood to mean water occupying all
the voids within a geologic stratum.
Ground water is an important source of water supply throughout the
world with continuously increasing use in irrigation, industries,
municipalities, and rural schemes.
Cooling and air-conditioning have made heavy demands on ground
water because of its characteristic uniformity in temperature.
Ground water occurs in many types of geologic formation; of those
aquifers are of most importance.
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SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY
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SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY
2. Ground Water Sources:
The quality of ground water is just as important as its quantity.
The quality required of ground water supply depends on its purpose;
thus, needs for drinking water, industrial water, and irrigation water
varies widely.
The uniformity of ground water temperature is advantageous for
water supply and industrial purposes.
Mostly groundwater contains salt in solution.
Ordinarily, higher concentrations of dissolved constituents are found
in ground water than in surface water because of the greater 15
exposure to soluble materials in geologic strata.
SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY
2. Ground Water Sources:
Advantages of ground water:
It is likely to be free of pathogenic bacteria;
Generally, it may be used without further treatment;
In many instances it can be found in the close vicinity of rural
communities;
It is often most practical and economical to obtain and
distribute;
The water-bearing stratum from which it is drawn usually
provides a natural storage
Disadvantages of ground water are:
Ground water is often high in mineral content;
It usually requires pumping. 16
SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY
2. Ground Water Sources - Springs:
Spring water is a groundwater that outcrops from ground due
to impervious base that prevents percolation.
Springwater is usually fed from sand or gravel water bearing
ground formation (aquifer).
Best places to look for springs are the slopes of hilly sides
and river valley sand areas with green vegetation in dry
season.
If properly protected and well managed, spring water proves
to be good for small community water supplies.
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SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY
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SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY
Gravity Spring:
GW flows over an impervious stratum onto the ground
surface
The yield varies with position of the water table
May dry up during or immediately after a dry season
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SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY
Artesian springs:
High quality water due to confinement
High discharge due to high pressure in the confinement
Yields is likely uniform and nearly constant over the seasons
of the year
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SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY
Choice of Water Sources:
The nature of the water source commonly determines the
planning, design and operation of the collection, purification,
transmission, and distribution works.
It is therefore essential that careful consideration and
extensive engineering evaluations, including a water resource
development investigation, be conducted as part of source
selection.
Factors such as quantity, quality, reliability, safety of source,
water rights, and environmental impacts, along with capital
and operation costs of the project, enter into the decision-
making. 21
SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY
Particularly, the following considerations should be included:
Surface water sources
Safe water yield during the drought years to meet the projected
demands
Urbanization and land development in the watershed
Proposed impoundments on tributaries
Water quality
Assessment of reliability in terms of possible disruptions due to
natural and manmade hazards
Requirements for construction of water supply system
components
Economics of the project
Environmental impacts of the project
Water rights 22
SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY
Ground water sources:
Aquifer characteristics
Safe aquifer yield
Permissible drawdown
Water quality
Sources of contamination
Saltwater intrusion
Type and extent of recharge area
Rate of recharge
Water rights
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SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY
Well Development
Enhances water flow and ensures long-term efficiency
Well construction depends on
The flow rate,
Depth to groundwater,
Geologic condition,
Casing material, and
Economic factors
There type is Shallow and deep well construction
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SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY
Shallow wells: are less than 30 m deep.
It’s
constructed by digging, boring, driving, or jetting
methods.
Dug wells: excavated by hand tools and are vertical
wells.
Diameter and depth of the well are >0.5m and <15
respectively
Lining and casing done by concrete or brick
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SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY
Deep wells: constructed by percussion (cable tool)
drilling or rotary drilling methods.
Percussion drilling: regular lifting and dropping of a
string of tools, with a sharp bit on the lower end to break
rock by impact.
For consolidated rock materials to depths of 600 m.
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SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY
(Drilling) Rotary method: consists
of drilling with a hollow, rotating bit,
with drilling mud or water used to
increase efficiency.
No casing is required with drilling
mud because the mud forms a clay
lining on the wall of the well.
Drilling mud consists of a
suspension of water, bentonite clay,
and various organic additives.
A rapid method for drilling in
unconsolidated formations
Air rotary methods use compressed
air in place of drilling mud and are
convenient for consolidated
formations.
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Drilling depths can exceed 150 m
SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY
Service Reservoir
are such as reservoirs, towers,
and tanks to provide storage for
treated water before it is
distributed.
The water distribution system
should have storage so that it is
capable for basic domestic
purposes, commercial and
industrial uses, and to
accommodate the flows
necessary for emergencies such
as fire fighting 28
SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY
Function of service reservoir
To balance the fluctuating demand from the distribution
system, permitting the source to give a steady or
differently phased output.
To give a suitable pressure for the distribution system
and reduce pressure fluctuations therein.
To provide a supply during a failure or shutdown of
treatment plant, pumps or trunk main leading to the
reservoir.
To provide a reserve of water to meet fire and other
emergency demands.
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SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY
Classification of Service Resrvoir
Service reservoirs are classified based on various factors, such as their
function, location, and construction type. Here’s a detailed classification:
Based on Function
a. Balancing (Operating ) Reservoirs: Store excess water during low demand
and release it during peak demand to maintain a steady supply.
b. Break Pressure Reservoirs (Equalizing Storage): Reduce excessive
pressure in long pipelines, preventing pipe bursts.
c. Emergency or Fire storage: Store water for use during emergencies, such as
fire outbreaks or supply interruptions.
d. Dead Storage: Storage in tanks or reservoirs that cannot be drawn out or
used beneficially because of piping elevations or low pressures is known as
dead storage. Dead storage is typically most significant in tall standpipe-type
tanks where water in the bottom of the tank cannot be used because of low
system pressure. 30
SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY
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SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY
Based on Location
a. Surface Reservoirs: Constructed at or near ground
level, often in natural depressions or as artificially
constructed storage tanks.
b. Underground Reservoirs: Built below the ground to
store water, reducing evaporation and maintaining
water temperature.
c. Elevated Reservoirs (Overhead Tanks): Raised
structures that provide gravity-fed distribution to the
water supply system.
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SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY
Based on Construction Material
a. Masonry or Brick Reservoirs: Traditional reservoirs
made from bricks or stones, commonly used in older
systems.
b. Reinforced Concrete Reservoirs: Modern reservoirs
made from RCC (Reinforced Cement Concrete) for
durability and strength.
c. Steel Reservoirs: Large metal tanks, often used for
industrial or temporary storage.
d. Plastic or Fiberglass Reservoirs: Lightweight and
corrosion-resistant tanks used for smaller-scale water
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storage.
SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY
Storage Tank Shape and Volume
Water towers can be made of concrete or steel and can take various
forms. The most suitable form for concrete towers is a cylinder with
a curved shaped bottom or with a flat bottom.
Steel tanks may have a spherical or dome shaped bottom. The shape
chosen is usually a compromise between function, construction and
maintenance costs, and aesthetics.
The lowest water level in the tank is determined according to the
pressure requirements in the pipeline. The pressure in the pipelines
may vary depending on the type of community and pressure needs
of different areas in a city. Typically, minimum acceptable water
system pressures are 35 to 40 pounds per square inch (psi) and
maximum pressures are 100 to 120 psi.
To keep pumping costs low, water depth in the tank is generally kept
small. Due to structural considerations, the depth is kept equal to the
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diameter.
SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY
Locating Service Reservoirs
A service reservoir stores the water and supplies it at the
required pressure to the farthest point in the area. In view
of the cost of pipelines and uniform pressure distribution,
the reservoir should be located near the center of the
service area.
In flat areas, it is relatively easy to build the water tower
at the center. In hilly areas, however, it may be more
advantageous to select the highest point for the
construction of an elevated tank, which may lie at one
end of the area instead of the center.
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SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY
When the service reservoir lies between the area and the
source, all the water must pass through the elevated tank
before flowing through the area.
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SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY
When water is supplied from an impounded high-level
reservoir, the service reservoir may function as a
pressure-reducing device. (See figure B) This reduces the
possibility of damage to the pipes due to high hydrostatic
pressure.
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SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY
When the area lies between
the source and the service
reservoir, then most of the
requirements are met by
direct pumping and the
excess water flows to the
service reservoir. (See
figures C and D.) In this
system there may be larger
fluctuations in the supply
pressure.
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SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY
Design Procedure for a Service Reservoir Volume Calculation
A service reservoir is designed to ensure a continuous and reliable
water supply by balancing fluctuations in demand, providing
emergency storage, and maintaining adequate pressure in the
distribution system.
1. Determine Water Demand
=Projected Population×Per Capita Demand
2. Determine Storage Requirements
The total storage volume of a service reservoir consists of the
following components:
Balancing Storage (Operational Storage): 30–50% of the daily
demand is considered.
Fire-Fighting Storage: According to standards
Emergency Storage: 20–30% of the balancing storage 39
Dead Storage: 5–10% of total storage.
SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY
Example:
A town has a population of 50,000 people, and the daily
per capita water demand is 180 liters per day per person.
The peak hourly demand is 1.5 times the average hourly
demand. The required service storage is to be designed
considering:
§ Balancing Storage (40% of daily demand
fluctuations)
§ Firefighting Storage (as per standards: 1.5 L/s per
1000 people for 3 hours)
§ Emergency Storage (25% of balancing storage)
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SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY
Calculate Daily Water Demand:
Total daily water demand=Population×Per capita demand
50,000 x 180 = 9,000,000L = 9000m3
Then Balancing Storage,
Balancing storage is typically 40% of daily demand fluctuations.
Balancing storage = 40% x 9,000m3 = 3600m3
Calculate Firefighting Storage
Fire demand is given by:
Fire Demand = (1.5/1000 x Population)×Duration (s)
= (1.5/1000 x 50,000) x (3 x 3600sec)
=(75 L/s)×10,800
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=810,000 L=810m3
SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY
Calculate Emergency Storage:
Emergency storage is usually 25% of balancing storage.
Emergency Storage=0.25×3,600= 900 m3
Total Service Storage Volume
=Balancing Storage+Firefighting Storage+Emergency Storage
=3,600+810+900=5,310 m3
The total service storage volume required for the reservoir is
5,310 m³.
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