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Sets, Relations and Functions
Scanned with CamScant §1.1. Introduction :
Often we deal with several classes of objects and wish to refer these objects that’
belong to all classes.
~~ The concept of sets, notation, terminology etc. have been used throughout the text.
§ 1.2. Set. Meaning : A set is a collection of well defined objects or things.
Remark. Every collection need not be a set unless it is well defined ie. it should be very clear
that the object belongs to the set or not. If it is not so, then there may arise contradiction.
Elements of a set :
“The objects are the elements or members of the set.
et is represented by the capital letters of Engli ha all habet ie, A,
For example, if A is a set of first foi ‘natural numbers hele
1€A,2€A,3€A,4EA but OEASEA, etc.
§ 1.3. Representation of a set : Asset is represented by two methods:
1 Tabular or Roster method : All theelements of the set are listed and enclosed in curly
brackets.
IL Set builder or Rule: meth id: The: ¢ elements ¢ of: of the set are specified by some property
ftlen as {x |x x satisfies the property PY
and it is read as as" "the s set ‘of all those elements 'x' “which satisfy the property P'".
For example, if Ais a set of first four natural numbers, then A is expressed by both the
Methods as : A={1,2,3,4}={x] x EN axs4}
Scanned with CamScant | a ee
in the set and the elements in some set 1,
wewriteas Ac B.
§ 1.4. Types of sets :
§ 1.4.1. Finite Set. Definition : .
Asset A is said to be finite if there isa one to one corresponilence between the elements
where neN, mis said to be the cardinality of the set.
or, simplya set having finite number of distinct: elements is called a finite set
§ 1.4.2. Infinite Set. Definition + ,
Asset is said to be countability infinite ifthere is a one to one correspondence between
the eleinents in the set and the elements in N.
x|x EN, x $4} isa finite set,
For example, the set A
ley the
whereas the set B = {x| x €N, x24} is an infinite set.
Order of the set : The number of elements ofa finite set Sis called the order of a finite
set and is written as O(S). ~~
— For the above set A, 0 (A,
1.4.3, Empty Set. Definition: *
A set having no element is called as an empty set or void.
It is denoted by the symbol or { }. Thus O (4) = 0
fy set) is Unique.
set of natural numbers between 4 and 5 is .
{x|xeN,4x Ax EB andxeB=xeA
Remark, The e1
For example,
Forexample, © A={l2},B={x[x?-30+2=0)
and C={x|xeN,x<3}, then A=B
But A#B because 3€C whereas 3¢C.
§ 1.5. Subset. Definition : A set is called a subset of the set B, if Wx € A=>x €B
Itis expressed symbolicallyas A'c B ‘
Therefore ACBexeA>xeB
If Aisa subset of B, then we also say that B is a Super set of A
or A is contained in B ot B contains A. a
For any set, it can be easily seen that :
@AcA @ooAa
§ 1.5.1. Proper subset. Definition :
IA c B but AB , thenAissaid tobe a Proper subset of B. Symbolically,
— ee
Forexampleif A=(1,2,3}, B=(2,3,14}, C=(2,3,4}
thenAcB butAcC because le A=>1¢C.
Here A isa proper subset of B,
Canned WITN Lam>cant Properties: (i) A=Be2ACBABCA
(ii) ACBABCC>ACC_
ee ee ae
§ 1.6, Power Set. Definition :
The family of all the subsets of a
It is expressed by P(A) or denoted by 2
© Therefore symbolically, P (4) = {Y | ¥ c Ay
For example, If A = {a, b} , then
P (A) = {6 fa, }, fa}, {3}
IfA isa finite set of order n, then it can be easily seen that the number ofall the subsets
ofA
Sore
Hence the number of elements in the power se
Therefore O(A)=n=>O(P(A)) =
yar".
of the set
§ 1.7. Universal Set. Definition :
Any set which is super set of all the sets under consideration is known as the
Universal set.
———~~" Notation : It is denoted by U.
§ 1.8. Fundamental Operations on Sets:
There are three main operations on sets defined as :
[[SNo. Operations _| Symbol | Definition
L Union u AUB={x|xeAvxeB}
2. Intersection a ANB={x|xeAnxeB}
3, Difference | = A-B={x|xeAnxeB} —
Venn Diagram : In Venn diagrams the universal set Uis represented by points within a ;
rectangle and its subsets are represented by points in circles within the rectangle.
For example, if A = {1, 2, 3}, B= {2,3, 4}, then
AUB=(1,2,3,4}, 4.0 B= 2,3} and A- B= {1}
§ 1.8.1. Representation by Venn Diagram : (Shaded portion shows the set)
\B OA
AUB ANB
Bia 11 fay (b) © :
SCaNNEA WITH LAMICANI Identit
@
AU
Anu ={xxeA and xe U}={x:xe A}=A
AUB = BUA, ANB = BOA
—_——
Proof.
(3) Commutativity:
“Proof, xe AUB xE.A or xe B
e@ xe€Bor x€A @& xe BUA
= AUB=BUA
() _-Associativity: (AU B)UC = du(BUC)
(ANB)NC = AN(BNC)
xe (AUB)UC @ xe AUB or xeC
(xed or xe B) or xeC
es (xe A) or xe BUC
e xe AU(BUC)
(AUB)UC =AU(BUC)
(©) -Distributivity: 49 (BUC) = AN B)UUNC)
7 AU (BNC) = (AUB)N(AUC)
Proof.
Proof. Let xe AN(BUC) = xe A and xe BUC
= xeA and [xe B or xeC]
= [xeA and xe B] or [xe 4 and xeC]
= xe(ANB) or (ANC)
= xe (Ans)u(anc)
AN(BUC)¢(ANB)U(ANC)
Againlet ye (ANB)U(ANC) => ye ANB or ye ANC
= [yeA and ye B]or[ye4 and
= yeA and (ye B or yeC)
= yeA and (ye BUC)
= ye AN(BUC)
Al)
yeC]
2
; (ANB)U(ANC)¢ AN(BUC)
Sofrom(1)and(2)_ AN(BUC)=(ANB)U(AUC)
Inclusion : AG AUB,BCAUB
An BCA,ANBEB A
Canned WITN LAMSCONT § 1.10. Complementary Set. Definition :
If Visa universal set for the set A, then the di
complement set ofA, eae
Tt is denoted by A ° or C/A).
Therefore A°=U-A or, A°= {x|xe A}
U. A iscalled' the
or example, if U ={x| xe N, x $10}
and A={1,3,5,7,9}
then AS = {2,4,6,8,10} U~
§ 1.11. Properties of Complement and Difference Operations : Z
() A-A=9,4-$=4,9- A= Q) A-B#B-A unless A=B
@) (A-B)-C#A-(B-C) @® (A424
© AVA SU LT © Anat=6
§ 1.11.1, Demorgan's laws: .
@ (AUB) =A°OB (b) (ANB) =4°UB
Proof. (a) Let re (AUB) @ xe AUB
@ x¢A and x¢B
= xeA® and xe BY
@ xe ASN BS
(AUBY ¢ 4° Be +)
Again let ye A? Bo => ye AY and ye Be
© yéeAd and yeB
AUB
@ ye(AUBy
A BSc (AUBY -.Q)
Sofrom (1)and(2), (AUB) = 4° NB°
(b) Proceed similarly .
§ 1.12, Symmetric Difference of two sets. Definition :
The symmetric difference of two sets A and Bi is the set containing exactly all
the elements that are in A or in B but not in bo a ~
(4u B)-(40 8)
It is expressed as AA B_
Examples: 1. AA A=0%~
2.AAg=4A ©
3. {a,b} A {a,c} = {b,c}
/
Canned WITN LAMICONT § 1.13. Multi Sets. Definition :
A collection of objets that are not necessarily distin i called a Mula
aaut Set.
Examples: 1. {a,a,a,6,,c} 2. {a,a,a,a,}
3. {a,b,c} aL,
~ Multiplicity of an clement:
The number of times the element appears in the multiset is called the Multiplicity of |
— he of
that element. ~ rennin
/” Examples: In the multiset {a, a, a,c, d, d}, the multiplicity of the clement
1. ais3, 2. bis0, 3. cis 1, 4, dis2.
EK1, Provethat: A-(BN.C)=(A-B)U(A-C)
Proof. Letx bean arbitrary element of A — (BMC). Then
xe A=(BNC) exe A.and x¢ (BNC)
«xe A and (x¢B and xe C)
e(xeA and x@B) or (re A and reC)
@ xe(A-B) or xe(A-C)
e xe (4-B)U(A-C)
Hence A-(BNC)=(A-B)U(A-C).
Ex. 2. [fA and B are any two sets, then prove that:
\/ (a) AN (B-A)=® (6) (A-B)NB=0
Sol. (a) Let xe AN(B-A) ex xe A and xe (B-A)
exe A and (xe B and x¢ A)
(xe 4 and x¢ 4) and xe By
exe® and xeB-
ered
Hence AM(B-A)=0,
bh) xe(A-B)NB « xe(A-B) and'x=b
J «(xe A and xg B) and xeB
© xeA‘and (xéB and xe B)
ered and xe@
oxeod
Hence (A-B)NB=0,
Ex. 3. IfA and Bare any two sets, then provethat:. AUB =(A-B)UB.
Sol Let = xe AUB @ xe A or eB
@reB or red
Canned WITH Lam>can (xe Bor xe A) and (xe Bor x¢ B)
[since xe B or x¢ B isalwaysa true statement]
exe B or x(xeA and x¢ B)
@ xeB or xe(A-B)
xe (A-B) or xe B
e@ xe(d4-B)UB
Hence AUB=(A-B)UB.
Ex. 4, fA and B are any two sets, then prove that :
Lt A-B= ANB ® a-B= BNA’ h
Sol.(@) Let xe A-Besxed and xB of ne
“ex xed and xe Be
. © xe ANB
Hence == 4- B= AN B°
() Let xe A-B exe A and x¢B
eve d® and xe BS
«xe Bo and xe A°
4
xe Boao
Hence = =A-B=B°-A®..
Ex. 5. [fA and B are any two sets, then prove that :
@ A-B=A@ANB=0 ().A-B=0SACB
Sol. (a) Suppose A —B=A. Then to show that 4() B = @ , let
xe ANB xed and xe B
exe (4-B) and xeB [since A= A ~ B]
(xe 4 and x¢B) and xeB
«xed and (xe B and x¢ B)
xed and xe®
oexe®d
Thus 4-B=A>ANB=0 0
Conversly (<=): Suppose 4) B = . Thatto show that A—B = A, let
xed =9xEA and (xe B or x¢ B)
=» (xe A and xe B) or (xe A and xe B)
=» xe (ANB) or xe(4-B)
=> xe® or xe(A-B) “since AN B=]
= xeA-B [since xe ]
Thus ANB=®=>4A-B=4 fii)
From (i) and (ii), it is concluded that A- B= A ANB=@
SCaNNEA WITN LAMICONT erro
(+) 4-B=0> ANB =
= A and B® are disjoint
SAce |. oo)
Since A and B° are disjoint, therefore for an arbitrary chosen
:A=xe B or xe B.
Conversly (<=) : Assume that 4 c B . Then to show that 4—- B = @, let
A-B={x:xe A and xe B}
c{x:xeB and xé B}
Thus ACB=A-B=®
Hence from (i) and (ii), itis concluded that A~ B= @ ACB
Ex.6, [fA and Bare any two sets, then prove that
AUB=ANB @ A=B-
Sol. (=>) : Suppose AU B = AB. Then to show that A = B, let
xeA @ xed or xeB
xe AUB [since AU B= ANB]
@ re ANB
exeA and xeB
@xeB
This AUB=ANB=>A=B @
Conversly (€=), : Suppose that A = B. Then to show that 4 B = ANB, let
xe AUB @XEA or xEB [since =B]
ee xeA or xed
xed
@ xeAand xe B [since A = B]
exed and xeB
exe ANB : wlll)
Thus A=B=AUB=ANB
Hence from (i) and (ii), we get
; AUB= ANBesA=B
Ex.7. Provethat A-(A-B)= ANB.
Sol. Let xe A~(A-B) o> xe A and x¢(A-B) [since A-B= ANB)
@xeA and x¢ (478°)
e xed and (xe A and xe B°)
ered and (xe 4 and eB) CH
e(red and ve A)and(xed and xe B)
exe ® and xe (ANB) [since x¢ 0]
canned witn LamScant PO—OOS
@ xe ANB
Hence A-(A-B)=ANB
Ex.8Provethat A@ B or (A-B)U(B-A) =(AUB)-(ANB).
Sol. Let
xe (A-B)U(B-A) & xe (A-B) or xe (B-A)
e (xe Aand xd B)or (xe Band x¢ A)
@ [(xe 4 and xe B) or xe B]
and [(xe A and x@ B)or xe 4]
e [xe Bor (xe Aand xe B)]
and [xe A or (xe A and xe B)]
e [(¥e Bor xe A) and (ve Bor xe B)]
and [(x@ 4 or xe A) and (xe Aorxe B)]
e xe (AUB) and x¢ (ANB)
[xe (AUB)-(4NB)]
Hence (4-B)U(B-4)=(4UB)-(4NB).
_B&9, Provethat (A-C)N(B-C)=(ANB)-C.
‘Sol Let xe (A-C)M\(B-C) @ re (A-C) and xe (BC)
eo (xe Aand x¢C) and (xe Band x¢ C)
es(xeA and xe B) and x¢C
@ xe ANB and xeC
@ xe (ANB)-C
Hence (A-C)N(B-C)=(ANB)-c.
Ex. 1 ve that AN(B-C)=(ANB)-(ANC).
ol. Let xe AN(B-C) @ xed and xe (B-C)
@xeA and (xe B and x¢C)
e(xeA and xeB) and x¢C
exe (ANB) and xeC =
e re (ANB) and xe (ANC)S™
[since x¢ C3 x€ (ANC)]
xe (ANB)-(ANC)
* Hence (A4MB)-(ANC)=AN(B-C).
canned WITN Lam>cant ee ee ae ee ee ae
§ 1.14. Ordered Pair. Definition :
Inthe se of two elements {a,b} ifthe elements are assigned fixed postions or
in the same definité order, t @ set of these two éleiitents is called an ordered pair.
the above set, if the elements a and b are assigned to be the fi first and, nd second position
respectively, then the ordered pair a , b is written as (4, b).
If the order of the elements is changed, thte ordered pair also changes.
_-For example, If in the two dimensional co-ordinate geometry, P is the position of the
point (2,3 )in the plane, then (3 , 2) is some other point Q as shown in the fig.
Again (4,5,)=(a2,b2) a= ay Aby =b2
x Fig. 1.2
§ 1.15. Product Set. Definition :
The product (or C
pairs (a,b) where ae A,beB.
This product set is writtenas 4 xB.
Thus Ax B={(a,b|aeAnbeB}
Similarly, Bx A= {(b,a):b ¢ Bade 4}
Remarks: 7. 4x B# Bx A>
. 2. AxB=o@A=6 or Bah
3. O(A x B) = 0(A).0(B) =O(Bx A) a
Ex. If A ={1,3,5}, B= {2,4}, then
(a) A*B={(1,2),(1,4), 3,2), B,4), 6,2), 6,4) }
(b) BX A= {(2,1),(4,1),(2,3),(4,3),(2,5),(4,5)}
(©) BxB=B={(2,2),(2,4),(4,2),4,4)} ete.
roduct) of two sets A and B is the set of all ordered
Geometrical representation :
The ordered pairs of the product sets in the plane are shown below :
A B AxB B A BxA
1—? >? 4) 1—- @)
4 a4) <3 = @3)
<6 5 @5)
3 2)
4 — G4) 1 @)
<< — 4,3)
2 62 5 a5
s—<— a 4,5)
Fig. 13 Fig dd 4
CONNER WITH LAMSCANI Example. LetA, B, Cand D be the sets, then prove that
(a) JPA ¢ B,then (AxC) ¢(BxC),
Proof. Let (a, c) be an arbitrary clement of A x C, Then
(ac)e AXC => aed and ceC
=aeB and ceC [since ACC]
= (a,c)e BxC
Thus AxC ¢BxC. e
(0) I, A ¢ By then Ax A =(AXB)N(BXA)
¢ — Proof. Let (x, y) bean arbitrary clement of the setA x4. Then
© (xe Aand ye B )and(xe ye A) [Since Ac B]
eo (xy)eAxB and (x,y) BxA
> (x,y) €(AxB)N(BxA)
Hence Ax A =(AxB)N(Bx A). e
(© If Ac BandC cD,then (AxC)c(BxD).
Proof. Let (a, ¢) be an arbitrary element of A x C. Then
(ac)e AXxC aed and ceC
= aeB and ceD [since C ¢ D and Ac B]
= (a,c)e BxD
Thus AxC ¢oBxD e
(@ Ax(BNC)=(AxB)N(AxC). [Raj., 15]
~~ Proof, Let (x, ») be an arbitrary element of Ax (B/C). Then
(xy)e Ax(BNC) @ xed and ye (BNC)
exeA and (ye B and yeC)
ee (xed and ye B) and (reA and yeC)
eo (ny)e (AxB) and (x,y)€ (AxC)
@ (xy)e (AxB)M(AXC)
Thus Ax(BNC)=(AxA)N(AXC). *
Ax(BUC)=(AxB)U(AXC). [Raj.,14]
Proof, Let (x,y) be an arbitrary element of 4x (BUC). Then
(xy) Ax(BUC) @ xe Aand ye (BUC)
e@ xed and (ye Bor yeC)
© (xe Aand ye B) or (xe A and yeC)
Canned WITN LAMICONT ee
@ (xy) AXB or (x,y)e AxC
e (xy)e (Ax B)U(AXxC)
Hence Ax(BUC)=(AxB)U(AxC). e
() (AxB)N(SxT)=(ANS)x(BNT) [Raj., 11]
Proof. Let (x, y) bean arbitrary element of (Ax B)(SxT). Then
(x,y) € (Ax B)M(SXT) o (x y)e Ax Band (x,y)eSxT
@ (xe Aand ye B)and(xe § and ye’)
@ (xe Aand xe S)and(ye Band ye T)
@ xe (ANS) and ye (BNT)
(x y)e (ANS)x(BNT)
Hence (AxB)N(SxT)=(ANS)x(BNT). e
Ax(B-C) =(AxB)-(AxC)
Proof. Let (x, y) be any arbitrary element of A x(B—C). Then
(xy)e Ax(B-C) exe A and ye (B-C)
& xe Aand(ye Band ye C)
(xe Aand ye B)and(xe 4 and ye C)
e (x,y) © (AxB) and (x, y)e (AxC)
> (xy) € (AX B)-(AxC)
Hence Ax(B-C)=(AxB)-(AxC). °
§ 1.16, Relation : There are many type of relations between two or more objects.
For example, (i) New Delhi is the capital of India, \
(ii) 5 divides 10.
(iii) Ramis the brother of Shyam etc."
Observing above, we notice that there is a rule /Iaw between two objects as an ordered
pair, The rules are that of-
7 @eapital i) division (ii) brother 1
A Thus clearly, fi relation from a set Ato set B is defined by some rule of association (R)
or connection between the elements of Aand B.
If for @€A,b EB the ordered pair (a,b) € Ax B forywhich the rule R is rue, then we
say that a has the given relation R with b,
~ “Ife denote the relation by R, then we write it as
i ee (a,b)eR_
If this ruleis not true for the ordered pair (¢, d)i.e, cisnot related to @ bytherelation
RP, then it is expresed as eRd or (¢,d)eR
Clearly, if isa relation from A to B, then the set ofall the ordered pairs so obtained
under the relation R will obviously be a subset of A xB,
~ >CaNNEed WITN LAMICONT Conversely, every subset of A x B surely establishes a relation from A to B.
On this basis, the following definition can be given as below. .
<1 Binary Relation, Definition
__--... Let A and B be any two non empty sets, then a binary relation\
7 subset ofA xB.
| se
§ 1.18, Representation of a Relation : 3
Let R bea relation "is /ess than" inthe set A={1,2,3}, ~-
then R= {(x, y)ixBisa
sets :
A relation can be represented by the diagram given
below:
Let 4 ={1,2,3}andarelationRinAas “~
R= { (1,2), (4,3), (2,3) Fu
« (q)Cartesian Method : Like co-ordinate geometry
of two dimensions, the elements of A and B are marked on
the Horizontal and Vertical axes and ordered pairs of A x B
as shown in the adjoining diagram.
(b ) Arrow diagram :
In this method, those elements of A are joined to the elements of A by the arrow which
satisfy the given relation. 4
Fig. 1.6
\ Directed Graph : When isa relation from a! finite set to.
itself, First we write down the elements of the set and then we draw an
“arrow from each element x to each element y whenever x is related to y
Example: R= { (1,2), (1,3), (2/3), (3,2), (2,2) } Fig. 17
Note: Here 2R2, therefore arrow from 2 to 2.
canned WITN Lam>can +-§1.19. Universal Relation :
Arelation Rin a set A is said to be universal relation if R =A x A
(§1.20:Void Relation:
A relation R ina set A is said to be a void relation if R is a mull set, i.e,
§ 1,21: Identity Relation:
~~ Arelation R ina setA is said to be identity relation, if every element of A is
nelotad to inpeifonty
This is expressed by J, «
Thus Tq = {(x, x): x € A}.
§ 1.22, Inverse of a relation :
ion from A fo B. A relation from B to A which consists of those
ordered pairs which when reversed.
~~~ ‘The inverse relation of 2 is expressed by » -1" «
ie. Ro = {(b, a): (a,b) e R}
Inother words, bR'a > aRb.
Example1. Let R= {(x, y):"x is the husband of y"}i”
then R= {(y, x):"yis the wife of x"}
Example2.If = R={(x, y):xx} otc.
Clearly, (@ (rz
(i) Domain of R“ = Range of R
(iii) Rangeof R= DomainofR
yer of distinct Relations from asetA toa set B:
number of clements in the sets 4 and B are m and n respectively, then the
7 § 1.23, Num!
e If
number of elements in their product set A x B = mn
Hence the total number of distinct relations fromA to B = 2"
Inparticutar, if B=A
i.e,total number of relations that can be defined in the set = 2"*" = 2",
But the total number of nonempty subsets
Hence total number of relations in any set of order= 9")
canned with Lamscant
